RESPIRATORY SYTEM
Anatomy and Physiology (MC 1)
Bachelor of Science in Nursing
By Group 3
Melendres, Tom Anthony
Moe, Marthina Marie
Mondigo, Jehlyn
Montejo, Hart Angel
Nara, James Vladimir
Noel, Samantha Cael
Olor, Joey Arche
Paclipan, Srianne Myka
Pegarido, Marian Margarette
Pepito, Matt Leneus
Perong, Gabrielle Anne
Pilario, Joseph Yeo
Pontillas, Zoedymae
To
Mr. Zandro Sy Guillo, RN, MAN
December 16, 2023
OBJECTIVES:
✓ Name the organs forming the respiratory passageway from the nasal cavity to the alveoli
of the lungs (or identify them on a diagram or model), and describe the function of each.
✓ Describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system.
Introduction
● The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and their smaller branches, and the lungs, which contain the alveoli
(al-ve'o-li), or terminal air sacs. Because gas exchange with the blood happens only
in the alveoli, the other respiratory system structures are really just conducting
passageways that carry air through the lungs.
● The passageways from the nose to the larynx are called the upper respiratory tract,
and those from the trachea to the alveoli are the lower respiratory tract. These
conducting passageways also purify, humidify, and warm incoming air. Thus, the air
finally reaching the lungs has fewer irritants (such as dust or bacteria) than the air
outside, and it is warm and damp.
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory system
I. Nose
- the nose is a vital organ in the respiratory system responsible for
various functions.
- whether ‘’buttons” or ‘hooked’ in shape is the only externally part of
the respiratory system.
- Main route of air entry.
Air enters the nose by passing through the Nostrils or Nares, with its interior consisting
of the nasal cavity and being divided by a midline nasal septum.
● External Nose
- is the portion of the nose visible on the face consist of bone & hyaline
cartilage covered by muscle & skin and lined by mucous membrane
● Nasal Cavity
- It is a deep hollow cavity, stretching from over the hard palate at the
back to between the eye sockets.
● Olfactory receptors
- Are located in the mucosa and responsible for the sense of smell. This
is also a slitlike superior part of the nasal cavity just beneath the
ethmoid bone.
● Respiratory Mucosa
- this mucosa rests in a rich net-work of thin-walled veins that warms
the air as it flows past. This lines the balance of the nasal cavity and
secretes mucus containing lysozymes and defensins to help destroy
bacteria.
● The ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated cells posteriorly
towards the throat.
- this cilia becomes extremely sluggish in extremely cold temperature
which allows mucus to accumulate into the cavity and dribble outward
the nostrils thus giving the reason of why you have a ‘’runny” nose.
● Palate
- forms the roof of the mouth and separates the oral cavity from the
nasal cavity (Supported by bone “Hard Palate” & Unsupported by
bone “Soft Palate”)
● Superior, medial, and inferior conchae
- Protrude medially from the lateral walls
- Increase mucosal area Enhance air turbulence and help filter air
Sensitive mucosa triggers sneezing when stimulated by irritating particles.
● Paranasal Sinuses
- bones that surround the nasal cavity. Sinuses lighten the skull and
help to warm and moisten the air
Respiratory Function of the Nose
● A. Air Filtration
- Nose hairs trap dust, particles, and microorganisms.
● B. Humidification
- Moistens inhaled air to prevent drying of respiratory surfaces.
● C. Warming
- Helps bring inhaled air to body temperature.
● D. Olfaction
- Houses olfactory receptors for the sense of smell.
II. Pharynx
● The Pharynx role extends beyond being a mere passage. The pharynx is
instrumental in speech and sound production. Changes in its shape and size
modulate the sound produced by the vocal cords, contributing to the
complexity of human speech.
-The pharynx is divided into three main regions: the nasopharynx,
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx and each section has its unique structures
and functions.
● The nasopharynx, located behind the nasal cavity, houses the adenoids and
the openings of the auditory tubes. The adenoids are a collection of lymphoid
tissue that play a crucial role in our immune system, while the auditory tubes
help equalise pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere.
● The oropharynx, extending from the soft palate to the epiglottis, this region
contains the palatine and lingual tonsils. The palatine and lingual tonsils are
essential components of our immune defence, trapping pathogens that enter
through the mouth and nose.
● The laryngopharynx, the lowermost part of the pharynx, connects to both the
epiglottis and the oesophagus. This section acts as a shared pathway for
both air and food, directing food toward the oesophagus during swallowing
and ensuring that air enters the trachea.
III. Larynx
● The larynx, or voice box, routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a
role for speech. It is formed by eight rigid hyaline cartilages, with the largest being the
shield-shaped thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple) and the more inferior ring-shaped
cricoid cartilage.
● The epiglottis, sometimes referred to as the “guardian of the airway”, a flaplike
elastic cartilage that forms a lid over the larynx when swallowing, closing off the
respiratory passageway and directing food into the esophagus.
● The epiglottis also triggers a cough reflex if a substance other than air enters the
larynx.
● The mucous membrane of the larynx is thrown into a pair of folds called the vocal
folds, or true vocal cords, which vibrate with expelled air for speech. The slitlike
passageway between the vocal folds is called the glottis.
IV. Trachea
● The trachea is a tube-like structure in the neck and upper chest. It stretches from
the larynx, or voice box, to the bronchi and transports air to and from the lungs
when a person breathes.
● Soft tissue makes up most of the trachea, and cartilage provides extra support.
The trachea also helps regulate the temperature of the air coming in and out of the
lungs.
● If any object, liquid, or irritant (like smoke) gets into the trachea, the muscles can
contract violently, causing coughing to bring up the substance and get it out of the
windpipe.
● On cold days, the trachea helps warm and provide humidity to the air before it
reaches the lungs.On hot days, the trachea helps cool the air through evaporation.
● The Primary Function of the trachea is to transport air to and from the lungs.
Without a trachea, a person would not be able to breathe.In addition to transporting
air, the trachea helps defend against disease. The mucus in the trachea helps
capture microorganisms such as viruses and harmful bacteria before they enter the
lungs.
V. Main Bronchi
● Bronchi are the main airways into the lungs.
● The bronchi then branch out again and become smaller and smaller passageways
until they end in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
● Alveoli perform the important work of adding oxygen back into your blood and
removing carbon dioxide.
● Bronchi branch out throughout both lungs. The right lung, which has one additional
lobe, has more bronchi than the left lung.
● The main bronchi branch out and become narrower the closer they get to the lung
tissue.
● The Primary Function of bronchi is to distribute the air throughout the lungs until
reaching the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs.
VI. Lungs
• The lungs are fairly large organs. They occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the
most Central area, the Mediastinum.
• The narrow superior portion of each lung, the Apex is just deep to the clavicle
• The left lung has two lobes and the right lung has three
• Pulmonary pleura - and the walls of the thoracic cavity lined by the parietal pleura
• Pleural space - is more of a potential space than an actual one.
THE BRONCHIAL TREE
● The main bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches finally ending in tha
smallest of the contacting passageway
The respiratory zone structure and the respiratory membrane
● The terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory zone structure even smaller conduits
that eventually terminate in alveoli or known as air sacs
● The respiratory zone - which include the respiratory bronchioles alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs and alveolar oil is the one site of gas exchange
● The respiratory membrane - has gas flowing past on one side and blood flowing
past on the other . Gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion through the respiratory
membrane
● The total gas exchange surface provided by the alveolar walls of a healthy man is
estimated
to be 50 to 70 square meters.
● The final line of defense for the respiratory system is in the alveoli . remarkably
efficient alveolar macrophages wander in and out of the alveoli picking up the
bacteria carbon particles and other debris
VII. Respiratory Physiology
● Respiration
- a process that accomplishes to deliver oxygen and dispose of carbon
dioxide. It collectively involves four distinct events, namely:
● Pulmonary Ventilation
- also known as breathing. It is where the air must move into and out of the
lungs so that the gases in the alveoli of the lungs are continuously refreshed.
● External Respiration
- a gas exchange between the pulmonary blood and alveoli. It is where
oxygen is loaded into the blood from the alveoli and carbon dioxide is unloaded
from the blood and into the alveoli.
● Respiratory Gas Transport
- it is where oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from
the lungs and tissue cells of the body through the bloodstream.
● Internal Respiration
- is a gas exchange that occurs between the blood and cells inside the
body at systemic capillaries. It is where oxygen is unloaded from the blood and
carbon dioxide is loaded into the blood.
The first two processes are the special responsibility of the respiratory system but all four
processes are necessary for gas exchange to occur.
● Cellular Respiration
-which refers to the use of oxygen to produce ATP and carbon dioxide, is
the cornerstone of all energy-producing chemical reactions and occurs in nearly all
cells. It is also not the same as respiration.
VIII. Mechanics of Breathing
A gas, like a liquid, always conforms to the shape of its container. However, unlike a
liquid, a gas fills its container.
The two phases of breathing—inspiration, when air is flowing into the lungs, and
expiration, when air is leaving the lungs.
● Inspiration
○ When the inspiratory muscles, the diaphragm and external intercostals,
contract, the size of the thoracic cavity increases. As the dome-shaped
diaphragm contracts inferiorly, the superior-inferior dimension (height) of the
thoracic cavity increases.
○ Contraction of the external intercostals lifts the rib cage and thrusts the
sternum forward, which increases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions
of the thorax.
○ As intrapulmonary volume (the volume within the lungs) increases, the
gases within the lungs spread out to fill the larger space.
The resulting decrease in gas pressure in the lungs produces a partial vacuum (pressure less than
atmospheric pressure outside the body), which causes air to flow into the lungs. Air continues to move
into the lungs until the intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure
● Expiration
○ a passive process that depends more on the natural elasticity of the lungs
than on muscle contraction.
○ As the inspiratory muscles relax and resume their initial resting length, the rib
cage descends, the diaphragm relaxes superiorly, and the lungs recoil. Thus,
both the thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease
if the respiratory passageways are narrowed by spasms of the bronchioles (as in asthma) or
clogged with mucus or fluid (as in chronic bronchitis or pneumonia), expiration becomes an active
process. In such cases of forced expiration, the internal intercostal muscles are activated to help
depress the rib cage, and the abdominal muscles contract and help to force air from the lungs by
squeezing the abdominal organs upward against the diaphragm.
VIII. Respiratory Volume and Capacities
● Many factors affect respiratory capacity, for example example , a person’s size, sex,
age and physical condition.
● Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml of air (about a pint) into and out
of the lungs with each breath
● Tidal volume (TV)
- referred also as the respiratory volume. As a rule, a person is capable of
inhaling much more air than is taken in during a tidal breath, approximately around 500 ml of
air
● Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
- the amount of air that can be taken in forcibly above the tidal volume, which
is around 3,100 ml.
● Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
- the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal expiration,
approximately around 1200 ml.
● Even after strenuous expiration about 1200 ml of air still remains in the lungs and can
not be voluntarily expelled.
● Residual volume
- amount of air that still remains in the lungs. Residual volume is important
because it allows gas exchange to go on continuously even between breaths and helps to
keep the alveoli open. Approximately around 1200 ml.
● Vital Capacity (VC)
- the sum of the tidal volume plus the inspiratory and the expiratory reserve
volumes.
- VC = IRV + VT+ ERV
- TC= IRV + VT + ERV + RESIDUAL VOLUME
● Dead Space Volume
- some of the air that enters the respiratory tract remains in the conducting
zone passageways and never reaches the alveoli to participate in gas exchange, for about
150 ml of air.
● Nonrespiratory Air Movements
- many situations other than breathing move air into or out of the lungs
and may modify the normal respiratory rhythm. Coughs and sneezes clear the air passages
of debris or collected mucus. A result of reflex activity, but some may be produced
voluntarily.
IX. Non respiratory Air Movements
● Results of reflex activities that do not involve gas exchanges.
Examples:
● Cough
● Sneeze
● Crying
● Laughing
● Hiccups
● Yawn
X. Respiratory Sounds
● Results from the movement of air through the respiratory system
Two types of respiratory sounds
● Bronchial sounds - sounds that are produced by air rushing through the
large respiratory passageways (trachea & bronchi)
● Vesicular Breathing sounds - occurs as air fills the alveoli
XI. External respiration, gas transport, and internal respiration
INTERNAL RESPIRATION
● Systemic capillary gas exchange
● Oxygen is unloaded into the blood, carbon dioxide is loaded into the blood.
● The carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which
quickly realeses bicarbonate ions. Carbonic ahydrase is a special enzyme that
speed up the reaction.
● Venous blood in the systematic circulation is much poorer in oxygen and richer in
carbon dioxide leaving the lungs.
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
● Pulmonary gas exchange
● Oxygen is loaded into the blood, carbon dioxide is unloaded into the blood.
● Venous blood in the systematic circulation is much richer in oxygen and poor in
carbon dioxide.
● Body cells remove oxygen in systemic circulation, and release carbon dioxide into
the blood.
GAS TRANSPORT PHYSIOLOGY
● Gas transport physiology plays a vital role in our body's ability to function properly. It
involves the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body via the
bloodstream. This process is essential for cells to obtain the necessary oxygen for
metabolism and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.
The process of gas transport primarily occurs in the lungs and bloodstream. Oxygen is
inhaled through the respiratory system and enters the bloodstream through tiny air sacs
called alveoli in the lungs. This oxygen then binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming
oxyhemoglobin. Through a process called diffusion, this oxyhemoglobin is transported in the
bloodstream to the body's tissues and organs where oxygen is released for cellular
respiration. At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste product, is transported back through
the bloodstream to the lungs, where it is exhaled.
XII. Control of Respiration
● Neural regulation : Setting the Basic Rhythm
- The activity of the respiratory muscles, the diaphragm and external intercoastals, is
regulated by nerve impulses transmitted from the brain by the phrenic nerves and
intercoastal nerves.
● The main brain areas involved in the control of respiration are the medulla oblongata
and the pons, collectively known as the respiratory center.
● 1. Medulla Oblongata: This lower part of the brainstem contains the primary
respiratory centers—the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral respiratory
group (VRG). The DRG is involved in the basic rhythm of breathing, while the VRG
contributes to forced breathing during activities like speaking or singing.
● 2. Pons: The pontine respiratory group (PRG) in the pons works in conjunction with
the medulla to regulate the rate and pattern of breathing. It mainly influences the
transition between inhalation and exhalation.
Non Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth
● Physical Factors
Although the medulla oblongata’s respiratory centers set the basic rhythm of breathing,
physical factors such as talking, coughing, and exercising can modify both the rate and
depth of breathing. Increased body temperature also causes an increase in the rate of
breathing.
● Volition (Conscious Control)
Volition refers to the power of using one's will or conscious choice to initiate or control an
action. In the context of breathing, volition or conscious control of respiration means the
intentional regulation of breathing patterns by an individual. This involves using one's
awareness and willpower to influence the depth, rate, or pattern of breathing.
● Emotional Factors
Emotional factors can significantly influence the rate and depth of breathing. The close
connection between the brain, emotions, and the respiratory system leads to distinct
respiratory responses based on emotional states.
● Chemical Factors:
Chemical factors play a crucial role in regulating the depth and rate of breathing. The
concentration of specific chemicals in the blood, particularly oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and hydrogen ions (pH), influences the respiratory control centers in the brain.
● Respiratory Patterns
● Apnea:
Apnea refers to the temporary cessation or absence of breathing. During apnea, there is a
pause in the respiratory cycle, and no airflow occurs. This interruption can be partial
(hypopnea) or complete, and it may be caused by various factors, including neurological
issues or respiratory disorders.
● Hyperventilation:
Hyperventilation is an abnormal increase in the rate and depth of breathing, leading to a
rapid removal of carbon dioxide from the body. This often results in respiratory alkalosis,
characterized by elevated blood pH. Hyperventilation can be triggered by emotional stress,
anxiety, fever, or certain medical conditions.
● Hypoventilation:
Hypoventilation refers to breathing at an abnormally slow and shallow rate, leading to
insufficient removal of carbon dioxide from the body. This can result in respiratory acidosis,
characterized by decreased blood pH. Hypoventilation may be caused by conditions such as
respiratory muscle weakness, lung diseases, or central nervous system disorders.
XIII. Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System
● In the fetus, the lungs are filled with fluid, and all respiratory exchanges are made by
the placenta. At birth, the fluid-filled pathway is drained, and the respiratory
passageways fill with air.
● The success of this change—that is, from nonfunctional to functional
respiration—depends on the presence of surfactant.
● Surfactant is a fatty molecule made by the cuboidal alveolar cells.
● The respiratory rate is highest in newborn infants
● about 40 to 80 respirations per minute (newborns)
● 30 per minute (infants)
● 25 per minute (5 years old)
● 12 to 18 minute (adults)
● The rate will often increase again during old age.
● As we age, the chest wall becomes more rigid and the lungs begin to lose their
elasticity, resulting in a slowly decreasing ability to ventilate the lungs.
● The blood oxygen level decreases,and sensitivity to the stimulating effects of
carbon dioxide decreases, particularly in a reclining or supine position. As a result,
many old people tend to become hypoxic.
● Additionally, many of the respiratory system’s protective mechanisms also
become less efficient with age.
SUMMARY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
● The respiratory system develops in stages before and after birth. It starts forming
in the fetus, branching out to create lungs and airways.
● From early branching to the formation of tiny air sacs (alveoli) for breathing, this
development continues even after birth.
● Maturation progresses through childhood, improving the capacity for efficient
breathing and oxygen exchange.
