1

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS )
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

L ECTURE N OTES :

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (ACEC24)

D RAFTED BY :
D R .M. M ADHUSUDHAN R EDDY (IARE 10881)
Assistant Professor

D EPARTMENT O F C IVIL E NGINEERING

I NSTITUTE OF A ERONAUTICAL E NGINEERING
February 23, 2023
Contents

Contents 1

List of Figures 2

1 INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Methods of Investigation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Planning For Subsurface Exploration: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Requirements of good sampling process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 18

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 28

3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.1 Types of Earth Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 CONSOLIDATION 43
4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 54

5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1.1 Well Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1.2 Well Cassions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

1
List of Figures

1.1 Schematic of wash boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Field operation using rotary drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Inside cealrance of sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Area ratio of the sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Pressure meter test aparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Field pressure meter device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Electric Potential parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.9 Torque of the sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.10 Laboratory vane shear device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Types of slope failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2 Some types of slope failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Forces on a slice of soil in an infinite slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Slope failure in cu soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Factor of safety of slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Factor of safety of slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 Factor of safety of slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 Factor of safety of slope on Fellinius method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Dimensionless quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Effective normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 Effective normal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.1 Earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2 Earth pressure at rest condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Active earth pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 Passive earth pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Stress diagram of tension crack induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 Stress diagram field stress conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.9 Active and passive earth pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.10 General range of wall friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.11 Coloumbs passive earth pressure cofficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.12 Field exalpme of a retaining wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.13 Sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2
List of Figures 3

3.14 Anchored piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.15 An example of diaphragm walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.16 Factor of safety on sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.17 Net moment of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.18 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.19 Maximum allowable bearing capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.1 Type of foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.2 various bearing failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Terzaghi bearing capacity of a strip foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.7 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.8 earth pressure at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.9 Load versus settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.1 Schematic of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.2 Parts of well foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3 Plan and cross section of well foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4 Pneumatic cassion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.5 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.6 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.7 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.8 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.9 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.10 Components of well foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND INDEX

PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 1 List out the procedure of soil formation, soil structure, clay mineralogy Understand
and index proportion for classifying the soil types.

1.1 Introduction

Soil exploration is a part of site investigation. Site investigation, in general deals with determining
in general, the suitability of the site for the proposed construction.

1.1.1 Methods of Investigation:

Test pits
Permits visual inspection of subsurface conditions in natural state. Max. depth limited to 5-6 m.
Especially useful for gravelly soil where boreholes may be difficult. Sampling/testing done on
exposed surfaces.
Auger Borings

1
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 2

Simplest method of exploration and sampling. Power driven or hand operated. Max. depth 10 m.
Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in cohesive soil below GWT . Hollow stem augers used
for sampling or conducting Standard Penetration Tests.
Displacement borings
It is combined method of sampling and boring operation. Closed bottom sampler, slit cup, or
piston type is forced in to the ground up to the desired depth. Then the sampler is detached from
soil below it, by rotating the piston, and finally the piston is released or withdrawn. The sampler
is then again forced further down and sample is taken. After withdrawal of sampler and removal
of sample from sampler, the sampler is kept in closed condition and again used for another depth.

Features:
Simple and economic method if excessive caving does not occur. Therefore not suitable for loose
sand.

Major changes of soil character can be detected by means of penetration resistance. These are
25mm to 75mm holes.

It requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense soil, either to protect the sampler from
damage or to avoid objectionably heavy construction pit.

Wash Boring

It is a popular method due to the use of limited equipments. The advantage of this is the use
of inexpensive and easily portable handling and drilling equipments. Here first an open hole is
formed on the ground so that the soil sampling or rock drilling operation can be done below the
hole. The hole is advanced by chopping and twisting action of the light bit. Cutting is done by
forced water and water jet under pressure through the rods operated inside the hole.

In India the —Dheki|| operation is used, i.e., a pipe of 5cm diameter is held vertically and filled
with water using horizontal lever arrangement and by the process of suction and application of
pressure, soil slurry comes out of the tube and pipe goes down. This can be done upto a depth of
8m –10m (excluding the depth of hole already formed beforehand)

Just by noting the change of colour of soil coming out with the change of soil character can be
identified by any experienced person. It gives completely disturbed sample and is not suitable for
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 3

very soft soil, fine to medium grained cohesionless soil and in cemented soil.

F IGURE 1.1: Schematic of wash boring

1.1.2 Planning For Subsurface Exploration:

The planning of the site exploration program involves location and depth of borings, test pits or
other methods to be used, and methods of sampling and tests to be carried out. The purpose of
the exploration program is to determine, within practical limits, the stratification and engineering
properties of the soils underlying the site. The principal properties of interest will be the strength,
deformation, and hydraulic characteristics. The program should be planned so that the maximum
amount of information can be obtained at minimum cost. In the earlier stages of an investigation,
the information available is often inadequate to allow a firm and detailed plan to be made. The
investigation is therefore performed in the following phases:

[Link] finding and geological survey

[Link]
[Link] boring
[Link] drilling
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 4

[Link] finding and geological survey

Assemble all information on dimensions, column spacing, type and use of structure, basement
requirements, and any special architectural considerations of the proposed building. Foundation
regulations in the local building code should be consulted for any special requirements. For bridges
the soil engineer should have access to type and span lengths as well as pier loadings.
This information will indicate any settlement limitations, and can be used to estimate foundation
loads.
[Link]
This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal information on the type and
behavior of adjacent sites and structures such as cracks, noticeable sags, and possibly sticking
doors and windows. The type of local existing structure may influence, to a considerable extent,
the exploration program and the best foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure. Since
nearby existing structures must be maintained, excavations or vibrations will have to be carefully
controlled. Erosion in existing cuts (or ditches) may also be observed. For highways, run off
patterns , as well as soil stratification to the depth of the erosion cut , may be observed. Rock
outcrops may give an indication of the presence or the depth of bedrock.
[Link] boring
This method is fast and economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive instruments for
large to small holes. It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils and also can be used to
determine ground water table. Soil removed by this is disturbed but it is better than wash boring,
percussion or rotary drilling. It is not suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, as
then the flow into the hole can occur and also for fully saturated cohesionless soil.
Shell and Auger Boring Shell used for soil with sides of the hole cannot remain unsupported.
Boring is always started first with augering and the shell is used for advancing the bore hole.
Shell raised above the bottom of the hole and allows it to fall freely. The impact of the drop
cuts the soil and pushes the soil in to the tube. After filled, shell is withdrawn and emptied.
[Link]/Rotary drtilling
Heavy drill bit suspended from a drill rod or a cable and is driven by repeated blows. Water is
added to facilitate the breaking of stiff sol or rock. Not suitable for loose sand and is slow in
plastic clays.
Rotary Drilling Fast in rocks. Drill bit fixed to the lower end of a drill rod is rotated by power.
Bentonite slurry is forced under pressure through the drill rod and it comes up along the cutting
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 5

soil. Rock cores can be obtained by using suitable diamond drill bits and core barrels

F IGURE 1.2: Field operation using rotary drilling

Soil Sampling
Disturbed samples The structure of the soil is disturbed to the considerable degree by the action
of the boring tools or the excavation [Link] disturbances can be classified in following
basic types:

Change in the stress condition

Change in the water content and the void ratio
Disturbance of the soil structure
The causes of the disturbances are listed below:
Method of advancing the borehole Mechanism used to advance the sampler
Dimension and type of sampler Procedure followed in sampling and boring.

Undisturbed samples It retains as closely as practicable the true insitu structure and water content
of the soil. For undisturbed sample the stress changes can not be avoided. The following require-
ments are looked for:
No change due to disturbance of the soil structure
No change in void ratio and water content,
No change in constituents and chemical properties.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 6

1.1.3 Requirements of good sampling process

Inside clearance ratio The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to
laterally expand. The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of lateral expansion
to take place, but it should not be so large that it permits excessive deformations and causes distur-
bances of the sample. For good sampling process, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5
to 3 5 %. For sands silts and clays, the ratio should be 0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below
water table), it should be 1.5 %.

F IGURE 1.3: Inside cealrance of sampler

Area Ratio

F IGURE 1.4: Area ratio of the sampler

For stiff expansive type of clays, it should be 3.0 %. Recovery ratio

H is the depth of penetration of the sampling tube. It represents the disturbance of the soil sample.
For good sampling the recovery ratio should be 96 to 98 %. Wall friction can be reduced by suitable
inside clearance, smooth finish and oiling. The non-returned wall should have large orifice to allow
air and water to escape.

Depth of Exploration

Governed by the depth of the influence zone which depends on the type of structure, intensity of
loading, shape and disposition of the loaded area, the soil profile and the physical characteristics
of the soil. The depth upto which the stress increment due to superimposed loads can produce
significant settlement and shear stress is known as the Significant depth.

Empirical Relationship for Multi-storied Buildings

D= C(S)0 .7
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 7

where D = Depth of exploration C = Constant = 3 for Light steel buildings and Narrow concrete
buildings = 6 for Heavy Steel bldgs and Wide Concrete Concrete buildings. S = No. of storey’s

Spacing of Borings

The number and spacing of bore holes or trial pits will depend upon the extent of the site and
nature of structures coming on it. For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectre,
one bore hole or trial pit in each corner and one in the centre. For smaller buildings, one bore hole
or trial pit in the centre.

The in situ tests in the field have the advantage of testing the soils in their natural, undisturbed
condition. Laboratory tests, on the other hand, make use of small size samples obtained from
boreholes through samplers and therefore the reliability of these depends on the quality of the so
called undisturbed samples.

Further, obtaining undisturbed samples from non-cohesive, granular soils is not easy, if not impos-
sible. Therefore, it is common practice to rely more on laboratory tests where cohesive soils are
concerned.

Further, in such soils, the field tests being short duration tests, fail to yield meaningful consolida-
tion settlement data in any case. Where the subsoil strata are essentially non- cohesive in character,
the bias is most definitely towards field tests. The data from field tests is used in empirical, but
time-tested correlations to predict settlement of foundations.

The field tests commonly used in subsurface investigation are:

Penetrometer test
Pressure meter test
Vane shear test Plate load test
Geophysical methods

Penetrometer Tests
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 8

Standard penetration test (SPT)

Static cone penetration test (CPT)
Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DCPT and SCPT are carried
out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to penetration by
a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations between penetration resistance and soil properties
are available for use in foundation design.

This is the most extensively used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon sampler, which
consists of a driving shoe, a split-barrel of circular cross-section which is longitudinally split into
two parts and a coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard for carrying out the test.

Procedure

The borehole is advanced to the required depth and the bottom cleaned. The split-spoon sampler,
attached to standard drill rods of required length is lowered into the borehole and rested at the
bottom.
The split-spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450mm by blows of a drop hammer
(monkey) of 65 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of 750 mm. The number of blows
required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving the sampler.
The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together and recorded
as the N value at that particular depth of the borehole. The number of blows required to effect
the first 150mm of penetration, called the seating drive, is disregarded. The split-spoon sampler
is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split-barrel is disconnected from the
cutting shoe and the coupling.
The soil sample collected inside the split barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural
moisture content and transported to the laboratory for tests. Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted
within the split-barrel so that at the end of the SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed
with molten wax at both its ends before it is taken away to the laboratory. The SPT is carried out
at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 9

This can be increased to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence of boulders
or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the
N value can be recorded for the first 300 mm penetration.

The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if

50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration
100 blows are required for 300m penetration
10 successive blows produce no advance.
Precautions The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent condition.
The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free from wear
and tear. The drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free, frictionless and
vertical. The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change from this will seriously affect
the N value.
The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out. If this is not
done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the undisturbed soil. When a
casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured that the casing is driven just short of the level at
which the SPT is to be carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried out in a soil plug enclosed at
the bottom of the casing.

When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured that the water
level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above the ground water level. If the water level
in the borehole is lower than the ground water level, quick’ condition may develop in the soil and
very low N values may be recorded. In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is still extensively
used because the test is simple and relatively economical.

It is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for visual inspection in the field
and for natural moisture content and classification tests in the laboratory. SPT values obtained in
the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used in empirical correlations and design
charts. IS: 2131-1981 recommends that the field value of N be corrected for two effects, namely,
(a) effect of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy.

Correction for overburden pressure Several investigators have found that the penetration resis-
tance or the N value in a granular soil is influenced by the overburden pressure. Of two granular
soils possessing the same relative density but having different confining pressures, the one with a
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 10

higher confining pressure gives a higher N value.

Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to the overburden pressure) increases
with depth, the N values at shallow depths are underestimated and the N values at larger depths
are overestimated. To allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at different effective over-
burden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.
Static cone penetration test At field SCPT is widely used of recording variation in the in-situ
penetration resistance of soil in cases where in-situ density is disturbed by boring method and SPT
is unreliable below water table. The test is very useful for soft clays, soft silts, medium sands and
fine sands.
Procedure
By this test basically by pushing the standard cone at the rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec in to the soil
and noting the friction, the strength is determined. After installing the equipment as per IS-4968,
part III the sounding rod is pushed in to the soil and the driving is operated at the steady rate of
10 mm/sec approximately so as to advance the cone only by external loading to the depth which
a cone assembly available. For finding combine cone friction resistance, the shearing strength of
the soil qs , and tip resistance qc is noted in gauge and added to get the total strength.
Limitations This test is unsuitable for gravelly soil and soil for having SPT N value greater than
50. Also in dense sand anchorage becomes to cumbersome and expensive and for such cases
Dynamic SPT can be used. This test is also unsuitable for field operation since erroneous value
obtained due to presence of brick bats, loose stones etc.
Geophysical exploration General Overview Geophysical exploration may be used with advan-
tage to locate boundaries between different elements of the subsoil as these procedures are based
on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic, electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the dif-
ferent elements of the subsoil may be different. Differences in the gravitational, magnetic and
radioactive properties of deposits near the surface of the earth are seldom large enough to permit
the use of these properties in exploration for civil engineering projects.
However, the resistivity method based on the electrical properties and the seismic refraction method
based on the elastic properties of the deposits has been used widely in large civil engineering
projects.

Dynamic Cone penetration Test The dynamic cone penetration is performed in the same way as
SPT except that there is no bore hole for DCPT. This test is performed in two ways.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 11

Without bentonite Slurry

In this test, a 50 mm diameter 600 cone fitted to driving rod is driven into the soil by a 65 kg
hammer falling freely from a height of 750 mm. Blow count of every 100 mm penetration is
recorded. The number of blows required for 300 mm penetration is termed as the dynamic cone
resistance Ncd. Ncd = 1.5 N for depths < 3 m Ncd = 1.75 N for depths from 3 to 6 m Ncd = 2.0
N for depths > 6 m
With bentonite Slurry
A DCPT with bentonite slurry is conducted to eliminate the surface frictional resistance on the
drill rods. In this test a 62.5 mm diameter 600 cone is driven into the ground with an arrangement
for the mud to flow through the cone.
The number of blows required for 300 mm penetration of 62.5 mm diameter cone is denoted as
Ncbr. The use of bentonite slurry may not be necessary when investigation is up to a depth of 6
m only. CBRI, Roorkee has given the following relations between Ncbr and N. Without bentinite
slurry
Ncbr = 1.5 N for depths up to 4 m Ncbr = 1.75 N for depths from 4 to 9 m Ncbr = 2.0 N for depths
> 9 m With bentonite slurry Ncbr = N
Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT) This test consists of pushing a cone into the ground at a
steady rate of 20 mm/s either manually or using some power mechanism. The cone used in this
test has a base area of 1000 mm2 and an apex angle of 600O . The cone is screwed to the sounding
rod which passes through hollow casing tube of 36 mm external diameter. The resistance, the soil
offers, to 100 mm penetration of the cone is termed as static cone penetration resistance qc.
Firstly, the penetration resistance of cone alone is recorded. Next, the sleeve around the drill rod is
pushed down to the level of the cone and both the cone as well as sleeve are then pushed together
into the soil to a depth of 100 mm and the combined resistance is recorded. If Qc = Total force
required to push the cone alone to a distance of 100 mm in the ground Qt = Total force required to
push the cone and the friction jacket to a distance of 100 mm in the ground Ac = Base area ofcone
At = Surface area of friction jacket fc = Local side friction Then
qc = Qc/Ac

Pressure meter test

The borehole pressure meter test is an in situ test where a carefully prepared borehole that is suf-
ficiently—but not over about 10 percent—oversized is used. The pressure meter probe consisting
of three parts (top, cell, and bottom) as shown in figure above is then inserted and expanded to and
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 12

then into the soil. The top and bottom guard cells are expanded to reduce end- condition effects
on the middle (the cell) part, which is used to obtain the volume versus cell pressure relationship
used in data reduction.

F IGURE 1.5: Pressure meter test aparatus

F IGURE 1.6: Field pressure meter device

Different methods of geophysical explorations

Electrical resistivity method Electrical resistivity method is based on the difference in the elec-
trical conductivity or the electrical resistivity of different soils. Resistivity is defined as resistance
in ohms between the opposite phases of a unit cube of a material.
ρ = RA/L
ρ is resistivity in ohm-cm, R is resistance in ohms,
A is the cross sectional area (cm 2), L is length of the conductor (cm).

Procedure
In this method, the electrodes are driven approximately 20cms in to the ground and a dc or a very
low frequency ac current of known magnitude is passed between the outer (current) electrodes,
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 13

thereby producing within the soil an electrical field and the boundary conditions.
The electrical potential at point C is Vc and at point D is V d which is measured by means of the
inner (potential) electrodes respectively.

F IGURE 1.7: Electric Potential

F IGURE 1.8: Electric Potential parameter

where, ρis resistivity, I is current, r1,r2,r3,r4 are the distances between the various electrodes as
shown in figures

Thus, the apparent resistivity of the soil to a depth approximately equal to the spacing of the
electrode can be computed. The resistivity unit is often so designed that the apparent resistivity
can be read directly on the potentiometer.

In resistivity mapping or transverse profiling the electrodes are moved from place to place without
changing their spacing, and the apparent resistivity and any anomalies within a depth equal to the
spacing of the electrodes can thereby be determined for a number ofpoints.
Approximately equal to the spacing of the electrode can be computed. The resistivity unit is often
so designed that the apparent resistivity can be read directly on the potentiometer.

Seismic refraction method General This method is based on the fact that seismic waves have
different velocities in different types of soils (or rock) and besides the wave refract when they
cross boundaries between different types of soils. In this method, an artificial impulse are produced
either by detonation of explosive or mechanical blow with a heavy hammer at ground surface or
at the shallow depth within a hole. These shocks generate three types of waves. Longitudinal or
compressive wave or primary (p) wave, Transverse or shear waves or secondary wave, Surface
waves. It is primarily the velocity of longitudinal or the compression waves which is utilized in
this method. The equation for the velocity of the p-waves and s-waves is given as,
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 14

Where, E is the dynamic modulus of the soil, is the Poisson’s ratio, is density and, G is the dy-
namic shear modulus. These waves are classified as direct, reflected and refracted waves. The
direct wave travel in approximately straight line from the source of impulse. The reflected and
refracted wave undergoes a change in direction when they encounter a boundary separating media
of different seismic velocities (Refer fig. 1.19). This method is more suited to the shallow explo-
rations for civil engineering purpose. The time required for the impulse to travel from the shot
point to various points on the ground surface is determined by means of geophones which trans-
form the vibrations into electrical currents and transmit them to a recording unit or oscillograph,
equipped with a timing mechanism.

Field Vane Shear Testing

The vane shear test VST is a substantially used method to estimate the in situ undrained shear
strength of very soft, sensitive, fine-grained soil deposits. The FVST is closely related to the
laboratory consolidated-undrained shear strength test. Vane blades are on the order of 1.5 to 2.5
mm thick, the shaft body is from about 12.7 to 22 mm in diameter, and the tip is sharpened using a
45O cut 90O . The dimensions are selected to minimize soil disturbance from its insertion but there
is always a small amount (on the order of 15 to 25 percent) of strength loss. The torque is usually
applied through a suitable gearing device so that a rate of about 6O of rotation per minute can be
achieved. This test has been standardized by ASTM as D 2573, which allows either a rectangular
or a tapered vane and specifies the ratio of h/d = 2. The generalized test torque for a rectangular
shaped vane can be written as

F IGURE 1.9: Torque of the sample

where d, h = diameter and height of vane blades and in the ratio h/d = 2 a = constant for type
of cylinder end shear assumed by user Su,vv = shear in vertical plane from the perimeter of the
vertical vane edges Su,vh = shear in horizontal plane from the horizontal (or tapered) vane edges.
For a tapered vane this is a combination of the vertical and horizontal shear strengths.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 15

F IGURE 1.10: Laboratory vane shear device

Preparation of Boring Logs

• Name and address of the drilling company
• Driller’s name
• Job description and number
• Number, type, and location of boring
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 16

• Date of boring
• Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual observation of the soil brought out by
auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube sample.
• Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud losses, and so on
• Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
• Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected.
• In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the actual length of coring,
length of core recovery, and RQD.

Geotechnical Design Reports

At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or rock specimens collected from the
field are subjected to visual observation and appropriate laboratory testing. After the compilation
of all of the required information, a soil exploration report is prepared for the use of the design
office and for reference during future construction work. Although the details and sequence of in-
formation in the report may vary to some degree is depending on the structure under consideration
and the person compiling the report.

Subsoil Exploration Report

• A description of the scope of the investigation.
• A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been conducted.
• A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage conditions, the
nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any other features unique to the site.
• A description of the geological setting of the site.
• Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of borings, types of borings
involved, and so on.
• A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil specimens and from
related laboratory tests, standard penetration resistance and cone penetration resistance, and soon.
• A description of the water-table conditions.
• Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation recommended, the
allowable hearing pressure, and any special construction procedure that may he needed; alternative
foundation design procedures should also be discussed in this portion of the report. • Conclusions
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS 17

and limitations of the investigations.

The following graphical presentations should he attached to the report:

1. A site location map.

2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the proposed structures and those
nearby. 3. Boring logs.

4. Laboratory test results.

5. Other special graphical presentations.

Chapter 2

PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE
STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH
SOILS

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 2 Demonstrate the concepts of permeability and seepage flow net for Understand
estimating seepage losses from earthen dams.

2.1 Introduction

The term slope as used in here refers to any natural or manmade earth mass, whose surface forms an
angle with the horizontal. Hills and mountains, river banks, etc. are common examples of natural
slopes. Examples of manmade slopes include fills, such as embankments, earth dams, levees;
or cuts, such as highway and railway cuts, canal banks, foundations excavations and trenches.
Natural forces (wind, rain, earthquake, etc.) change the natural topography often creating unstable
slopes. Failure of natural slopes (landslides) and manmade slopes have resulted in much death
and destruction. In assessing the stability of slopes, geotechnical engineers have to pay particular
attention to geology, drainage, groundwater, and the shear strength of the soils. The most common
18
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 19

slope stability analysis methods are based on simplifying assumptions and the design of a stable
slope relies heavily on experience and careful site investigation. In this chapter, we will examine
the stability of earth slopes in two dimensional space using limit equilibrium methods.

Understand the causes and types of slope failure.

Estimate the stability of slopes using limit equilibrium methods.

Sample Practical Situation A reservoir is required to store water for domestic use. Several sites
were investigated and the top choice is a site consisting of clay soils (clay is preferred because of
its low permeability – it is practically impervious). The soils would be excavated, forming sloping
sides. You are required to determine the maximum safe slope of the reservoir.

Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface is the surface of sliding.

Sliding mass is the mass of soil within the slip plane and the ground surface.

Slope angle (or simply slope) is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope
angle is usually referred to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 (horizontal: vertical).

Some Types of Slope Failure

Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification, groundwater, seepage, and the slope
geometry. A few types of slope failure are shown in Figure. Failure of a slope along a weak zone
of soil is called a translational slide. Translational slides are common in coarse-grained soils. A
common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a rotational slide. Three types of
rotational slides often occur. One type, called a base slide, occurs by an arc enclosing the whole
slope. A soft soil layer resting on a stiff layer of soil is prone to base failure. The second type of
rotational failure is the toe slide, whereby the failure surface passes through the toe of the slope.
The third type of rotational failure is the slope slide, where by the failure surface passes through
the slope. A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force a soil to behave like a
viscous fluid and flow down even shallow slopes, spreading out in several directions.

Some Causes of Slope Failure: Slope failures are caused in general by natural forces, human
mismanagement and activities. Some of the most common causes of slope failures are erosion,
rainfall, earthquake, geological features, external loading, construction activities (ex. excavation
and fill), and reservoir rapid drawdown.
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 20

F IGURE 2.1: Types of slope failure

Two-Dimensional Slope Stability Analysis

Slope stability can be analyzed using one or more of the following: the limit equilibrium method,
limit analysis, finite difference method, and finite element method. Limit equilibrium is the most
widely used method for stability analysis. In the following sections, we will learn some of the
commonly used slope stability analysis methods that are based on the limit equilibrium. Stability
Analysis of Infinite Slopes

Infinite slopes have dimensions that extend over great distances

In practice, the infinite slope mechanism is applied to the case when a soft material of very long
length with constant slope may slide on a hard material (e.g. rock) having the same slope. Let’s
consider a clean, homogeneous soil of infinite slope α s as shown in Fig. To use limit equilibrium
method, we must first speculate on a failure of slip mechanism. We will assume the slip would
occur on a plane parallel to the slope. If we consider a slice of soil between the surface of the soil
and the slip plane, we can draw a free body diagram of the slice as shown
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 21

F IGURE 2.2: Some types of slope failure

The forces acting on the slice per unit thickness are the weight W = γbz , the shear forces X j
and X j+1 on the sides, the normal forces Ej and Ej+1 on the sides, the normal force N on the
slip plane and the mobilized shear resistance of the soil, T , on the slip plane. We will assume
that forces that provoke failure are positive. If seepage is present, a seepage force Js = iγ wbz
develops, where i is the hydraulic gradient. For a uniform slope of infinite extent, X j = X j+1 and
E j = E j+1 . To continue with the limit equilibrium method, we must now use the equilibrium
equations to solve the problem. But before that we will define the factor of safety (FS) of a slope in
the following subsection. The general objective of infinite slope stability analysis is to determine
either the critical slope or critical height, or alternatively, the factor of safety of theslope. Factor of
Safety: The factor of safety of a slope is defined as the ratio of the available shear strength, f , to
the minimum shear strength required to maintain stability (which is equal to the mobilized shear
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 22

F IGURE 2.3: Forces on a slice of soil in an infinite slope

stress on the failure surface) , that is:

The shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.

Stability of Infinite Slopes in φ u = 0, cu soil.

Stability of Infinite Slopes in c’,φ ’ soil – with no seepage

Rotational Slope Failure: The infinite slope failure mechanism is reasonable for infinitely long
and homogeneous slopes made of coarse-grained soils, where the failure plane is assumed to be
parallel to the ground surface. But in many practical problems slopes have been observed to fail
through a rotational mechanism of finite extent. Rotational failure mechanism involves the failure
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 23

of a soil mass on a circular or non-circular failure surface. In the following sections, we will
continue to use the limit equilibrium method assuming a circular slip surface.

Stability of Slopes in cu, φ u =0 soil – circular failure surface.

The simplest circular analysis is based on the assumption that a rigid, cylindrical block will fail
by rotation about its center and that the shear strength along the failure surface is defined by the
undrained strength cu. Figure shows a slope of height H and angle α s. The trial circular failure
surface is defined by its center C, radius R and central angle θ .

F IGURE 2.4: Slope failure in cu soil

The weight of the sliding block acts at a distance d from the center. Taking moments of the forces
about the center of the circular arc, we have:

F IGURE 2.5: Factor of safety of slope

Where L is the length of the circular arc, W is the weight of the sliding mass and d is the horizontal
distance between the circle center, C, and the centroid of the sliding mass. If cu varies along the
failure surface then:

F IGURE 2.6: Factor of safety of slope

The centroid of the sliding mass is obtained using a mathematical procedure based on the geometry
or the sub-division of the sliding mass into narrow vertical slices.
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 24

Stability of Slopes in c’,φ ’ soil Method of Slices The stability of a slope in a c’, φ soil is usu-
ally analyzed by discretizing the mass of the failure slope into smaller slices and treating each
individual slice as a unique sliding block. This technique is called the method of slices.

F IGURE 2.7: Factor of safety of slope

In the method of slices, the soil mass above a trial failure circle is divided into a series of vertical
slices of width b. For each slice, its base is assumed to be a straight line defined by its angle of
inclination θ with the horizontal whilst its height h is measured along the centerline of the slice.

a) Method of slices in c’, φ ’ soil, b) Forces acting on a slice.

The forces acting on a slice

Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 25

where n is the total number of slices. Replacing τf by the Mohr Coulomb shear strength, we
obtain:

The term c’l may be replaced by c’b/cosθ . For uniform c’, the algebraic summation of c’l is
replaced by c’L, where L is the length of the circular arc. The values of N’ must be determined
from the force equilibrium equations. However, this problem is statically indeterminate – because
we have six unknown variables for each slice but only three equilibrium equations. Therefore
some simplifying assumptions have to be made. In this chapter two common methods that apply
different simplifying methods will be discussed. These methods are called the Fellenius method
and Bishop simplified method.

Fellenius or Ordinary or Swedish Method

The ordinary or Swedish method of slices was introduced by Fellenius (1936). This method and
from statics, the forces normal to each slice are given by:

F IGURE 2.8: Factor of safety of slope on Fellinius method

In the case of the steady state seepage the height of water above the midpoint of the base is obtained
by constructing the flow net. Alternatively, an average value of ru may be assumed for the slope.
By doing so it is assumed that the height of water above the base of each slice is a constant fraction
of the height of each slice. If the height of the water and the average height of the slice are equal,
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 26

F IGURE 2.9: Dimensionless quantity

the maximum value of ru becomes γw/γ’ which for most soils, is approximately 0.5. Note that
the effective normal force N’ acting on the base is equal to N’= W cos θ ul or ’ (cosθ secθ ) N
= W − ru. If the term (cosθ secθ ) − ru is negative, N’ is set to zero because effective stress
cannot be less than zero (i.e. soil has no tension strength). The whole procedure explained above
must be repeated for a number of trial circles until the minimum factor of safety corresponding to
the critical circle is determined. The accuracy of the predictions depends on the number of slices,
position of the critical surface, and the magnitude of ru. There are several techniques that are used
to reduce the number of trial slip surfaces. One simple technique is to draw a grid and selectively
use the nodal points as centers of rotation.

F IGURE 2.10: Effective normal force

Bishop Simplified Method

This method assumes that for each slice X1=X2 but E1̸= E2. These assumptions are considered
to make this method more accurate than the Swedish method. An increase of 5% to 20% in the
factor of safety over the Swedish method is usually obtained. Referring to, and writing the force
equilibrium in vertical direction (in order to eliminate E1 and E2), the following equation for N’
can be found:

In addition to the force in the vertical direction, Bishop Simplified method also satisfies the overall
moment equilibrium about the center of the circle as expressed in Eqn.. Putting l = b / cosθ and
ub = ruW , and substituting we obtain:

Above equation is non-linear in FS (that is FS appears on both sides of the equations) and is
solved by iteration. An initial value of FS is guessed (slightly greater than FS obtained by Fel-
lenius’ method) and substituted to above Eqn. to compute a new value for FS. This procedure is
Chapter 2. PERMEABILITY, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 27

F IGURE 2.11: Effective normal stress

repeated until the difference between the assumed and computed values is negligible. Convergence
is normally rapid and only a few iterations are required. The procedure is repeated for number of
trial circles to locate the critical failure surface with the lowest factor of safety.
Chapter 3

STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS

AND COMPACTION

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 3 Summarize stress distribution in soils at different loading conditions Understand
based on various theories for estimating intensity of pressure on soil.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A retaining wall is a structure that is used to support a vertical or near vertical slopes of soil. The
resulting horizontal stress from the soil on the wall is called lateral earth pressure. To determine
the magnitude of the lateral earth pressure, a geotechnical engineer must know the basic soil pa-
rameters that is, unit weight γ, angle of friction φ , and cohesion c for the soil retained behind the
wall. In the evaluation of the magnitude of this lateral earth pressure, it is assumed that the soil
behind the wall (called backfill soil) is on the verge of failure and obeys some failure criterion, for
example, the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion.

28
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 29

3.1.1 Types of Earth Pressure

At rest earth pressure coefficient (kθ ) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal ef-
fective stresses when an earth retaining structure is at rest (or is not allowed to move at all).

Active earth pressure coefficient (ka) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal effec-
tive stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away from the retained soil.

Passive earth pressure coefficient (kp) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal
effective stresses when an earth retaining structure is forced to move against a soil mass.

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest Consider a vertical wall of height H, as shown in Fig, retaining a
soil having a unit weight of γ. At any depth z below the ground surface the vertical effective stress
is:

If the wall is not allowed to move at all either way from the soil mass or to the soil mass (or in
other words if there is no lateral expansion or compression in the backfill soil), the lateral pressure
is called at rest earth pressure. In this case, the lateral earth pressure ’ σ x at a depth z.

where kθ is coefficient of at rest earth pressure. You must remember that k0 applies only to
effective stresses not to total stresses. The magnitude of kθ depends on the type of the soil, its
degree of compaction, plasticity characteristics, and degree of disturbance.

F IGURE 3.1: Earth pressure at rest

For truly normally consolidated soil that exhibits zero cohesion, a value for kθ may be calculated
from the following generally accepted empirical equation: k θ = 1−sinφ .
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 30

Active and Passive Lateral Earth Pressures

The lateral earth pressure condition described involves walls that do not yield at all. In this section,
we will discuss other conditions that involve movement of the wall and consequently failure of the
backfill soil. Failure of the backfill soil occurs by two mechanisms depending on the direction
of wall displacement. If the displacement of the wall is away from the backfill soil the resulting
failure is called active and the lateral pressure exerted on the wall by the backfill soil is called
active lateral earth pressure or simply active earth pressure. A passive failure occurs if the wall
is displaced towards the backfill soil until the limiting displacement is achieved. In this case, the
wall exerts a pressure on the backfill soil, and the passive resistance provided by the backfill soil
against the wall displacement is called passive earth pressure.

Rankine Active and Passive Earth Pressures

Consider a vertical frictionless (smooth) wall retaining a soil mass in both front and back of the
wall as shown in Fig. If the wall remains rigid and no movement occurs, then the vertical and
horizontal (lateral) effective stresses at rest on element A, at the back of the wall, and B, at the
front of the wall are given by Eqns. Mohr’s circle for the at rest state is shown by circle. Let us
now assume a rotation about the bottom of the wall sufficient to produce slip planes in the soil
mass behind and in front of the wall. The soil mass at the back of the wall is assisting in producing
failure, thus passive state, respectively (Named after the first developer of this theory Rankine,
1857). Each of these Rankine states is associated with a family of failure planes. For the Rankine
active state, the failure planes are oriented at:

The stress states of soil elements A and B are called the Rankine active state and the Rankine
passive state, respectively (Named after the first developer of this theory Rankine, 1857). Each of
these Rankine states is associated with a family of failure planes. For the Rankine active state, the
failure planes are oriented at:

F IGURE 3.2: Earth pressure at rest condition

For the Rankine passive state, the failure planes are oriented at:

Rankine active lateral effective stress is:

Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 31

F IGURE 3.3: earth pressure at rest

F IGURE 3.4: Active earth pressure

For the passive state, the lateral effective stress ’ σ p becomes the major principal stress ’ σ 1 and
the vertical effective stress ’ σ z becomes the minor principal stress ’ σ 3

Rankine passive lateral effective stress is:

F IGURE 3.5: Passive earth pressure

Kpis called the passive earth pressure coefficient. we can easily get the following relation for the
active and passive earth pressure coefficients:

F IGURE 3.6: earth pressure at rest

Pressure distribution in c-φ ’ soil: a) c-φ ’ soil, b) active, c) passive state. Figure shows the active
and passive lateral stress distribution for a smooth wall retaining a c-φ ’ soil. In the active state
case, the soil at depth z = 0 is subjected to a tensile stress. Soils do not have tensile strength, as
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 32

F IGURE 3.7: Stress diagram of tension crack induced

a result tension cracks will occur down to a depth z0, where the tensile stress becomes zero. At
depth z0 (known as depth of tension crack), the stress is zero,thus,

Lateral Earth Pressure due to Surcharge

Surfaces stresses (due to surcharge) also impose lateral pressure on retaining walls as illustrated in
Fig. A uniform surface stress, qs, will transmit a uniform active lateral earth pressure of kaqs and
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 33

a uniform passive lateral earth pressure of kpqs. The active and passive lateral stresses due to the
soil (i.e. c’, φ ’ soil), and the uniform surfaces stresses arethen:

The corresponding active and passive lateral forces are also given by:

F IGURE 3.8: Stress diagram field stress conditions

Summary of Rankine Lateral Earth Pressure Theory

The lateral earth pressures on retaining walls are related directly to the vertical effective stress
through two coefficients ka andkp. Substantially more movement is required to mobilize the full
passive earth pressure than the full active earthpressure.

A family of slip planes occurs in the Rankine active and passive states. In the active state, the
slip planes are oriented at (450 + φ 2/’ to the horizontal, and while for the passive case they are
oriented at (450 - φ 2/’ ) to thehorizontal. The lateral earth pressure coefficients, developed so
far are only valid for a smooth, vertical wall supporting a soil mass with a horizontal surface; and
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 34

F IGURE 3.9: Active and passive earth pressure

must be applied to effective stressesonly

Summary of Rankine Lateral Earth Pressure Theory

The lateral earth pressures on retaining walls are related directly to the vertical effective stress
through two coefficients ka and kp. Substantially more movement is required to mobilize the full
passive earth pressure than the full active earthpressure.

A family of slip planes occurs in the Rankine active and passive states. In the active state, the
slip planes are oriented at (450 + φ 2/’ to the horizontal, and while for the passive case they are
oriented at (450 - φ 2/’ ) to thehorizontal.
The lateral earth pressure coefficients, developed so far are only valid for a smooth, vertical wall
supporting a soil mass with a horizontal surface; and must be applied to effective stressesonly
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 35

Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

As described in the previous sections, the Rankine earth pressure theory: Assumes the retaining
wall is frictionless (or smooth), and considers stress states and uses such tools as the Mohr’s circle
of stress. Coulomb (1776) proposed a theory to determine the lateral earth pressure on a retaining
wall by assuming a granular backfill (c = 0) and a plane sliding surface. He did this in order to
simplify somewhat the mathematically complex problem introduced when cohesion and non plane
sliding surfaces are considered. He, however, account for the effects of friction (usually expressed
by angle δ ) between the backfill and the wall. Besides, he considered the more general case of the
sloped face of a retaining wall, and in this respect, Coulomb’s theory is a more general approach
than the Rankine theory described earlier.

Coulomb assumed a wedge shape collapse mechanism which is bounded by the face of the re-
taining wall, a horizontal or inclined ground surface and a linear failure plane. The wedge slides
downwards on the failure plane in the active state or upwards in the passivestate.

Based on Coulomb’s theory, a condition of limit equilibrium exists through which a wedge of a
soil mass behind a retaining wall will slip along a plane inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal. A
retaining wall with slopping back, wall friction, and sloping soil surface for use with Coulomb’s
method for active state. Based on the equilibrium of the forces acting on the wedge, Coulomb
proposed the following equation to determine the active lateralforce.

Note that the line of action of the active force Pa will act at a distance H/3 above the base of the
wall and will be inclined at angle δ to the normal drawn to the back of the wall. In the actual
design of retaining walls, the value of the wall friction angle, δ , is assumed to be between φ /2
’ and ’ 2/3φ . Retaining walls are generally constructed of masonry or mass concrete. Table 3.1
shows the general range of the values of δ for various backfillmaterials.
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 36

F IGURE 3.10: General range of wall friction

Coulomb’s passive earth pressure is determined similarly, except that passive pressure inclination
at the wall and direction of the forces acting on the wedge Coulomb’s passive earth pressure is
given by:

F IGURE 3.11: Coloumbs passive earth pressure cofficient

Retaining Wall
Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth or water or other materials such as coal, ore,
etc; where conditions do not permit the mass to assume its natural slope. The retaining material
is usually termed as backfill. The main function of retaining walls is to stabilize hillsides and
control erosion. When roadway construction is necessary over rugged terrain with steep slopes,
retaining walls can help to reduce the grades of roads and the land alongside the road. Some road
projects lack available land beside the travel way, requiring construction right along the toe of a
slope. In these cases extensive grading may not be possible and retaining walls become necessary
to allow for safe construction and acceptable slope conditions for adjacent land uses. Where soils
are unstable, slopes are quite steep, or heavy runoff is present, retaining walls help to stem erosion.
Excessive runoff can undermine roadways and structures, and controlling sediment runoff is a ma-
jor environmental and water quality consideration in road and bridge projects. In these situations,
building retaining walls, rather than grading excessively, reduces vegetation removal and reduces
erosion caused by runoff. In turn, the vegetation serves to stabilize the soil and filter out sediments
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 37

and pollutants before they enter the water source, thus improving waterquality.

In this section you will learn the following Gravity walls Semi Gravity Retaining Wall Flexible
walls Special type of retaining walls

Different Types of Retaining Structures On the basis of attaining stability, the retaining structures
are classified into following: 1. Gravity walls :

Gravity walls are stabilized by their mass

They are constructed of dense, heavy materials such as concrete and stone masonry and are usually
reinforced. Some gravity walls do use mortar, relying solely on their weight to stay in place, as in
the case of dry stone walls. They are economical for only smallheights.

F IGURE 3.12: Field exalpme of a retaining wall

Semi Gravity Retaining Wall

These walls generally are trapezoidal in section. This type of wall is constructed in concrete and
derives its stability from its weight. A small amount of reinforcement is provided for reducing the
mass of the concrete. This can be classified intotwo:

This is a reinforced concrete wall which utilises cantilever action to retain the backfill. This type
is suitable for retaining backfill to moderate heights (4m-7m). In cross section most cantilevered
walls look like. To ensure stability, they are built on solid foundations with the base tied to the
vertical portion of the wall with reinforcement rods. The base is then backfilled to counteract
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 38

forward pressure on the vertical portion of the wall. The cantilevered base is reinforced and is
designed to prevent uplifting at the heel of the base, making the wall strong and [Link]
building codes, frost penetration levels and soil qualities determine the foundation and structural
requirements of taller cantilevered walls. Reinforced concrete cantilevered walls sometimes have
a batter. They can be faced with stone, brick, or simulated veneers. Their front faces can also be
surfaced with a variety of textures. Reinforced Concrete Cantilevered Walls are built using forms.
When the use of forms is not desired, Reinforced Concrete Block Cantilevered Walls are an-
other option. Where foundation soils are poor, Earth Tieback Retaining Walls are another choice.
These walls are counterbalanced not only by a large base but also by a series of horizontal bars
or strips extending out perpendicularly from the vertical surface into the slope. The bars or strips,
sometimescalled—deadmen||aremadeofwood,metal,orsyntheticmaterialssuchasgeotextiles. Once
an earth tieback retaining wall is backfilled, the weight and friction of the fill against the hori-
zontal members anchors thestructure.

Counterfort retaining wall

When the height of the cantilever retaining wall is more than about 7m, it is economical to provide
vertical bracing system known as counter forts. In this case, both base slab and face of wall span
horizontally between the counterforts.

Flexible walls: there are two classes of flexible walls.

A. Sheet pile walls and [Link] wall A. Sheet PileWalls

Sheet piles are generally made of steel or timber.

The use of timber piles is generally limited to temporary sdtructuresin which the depth of driving
does not exceed 3m. for permanent structures and for depth of driving greater than 3m, steel piles
are most suitable. Moreover, steel iles are relatively water tight and can be extracted if required
and reused. However, the cost of sheet steel piles is generally more than that of timber piles. Rein-
forced cement concrete piles are generally used when these are to be jetted into fine sand or driven
in very soft soils, such as peat. For tougher soils, the concrete pilesgenerally break off. Based on
its structural form and loading system, sheet pile walls can be classified into 2 types:(i)Cantilever
Sheet Piles and(ii)Anchored SheetPiles.
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 39

F IGURE 3.13: Sheet pile wall

Cantilever sheet pile wall Cantilever sheet piles are further divide into two types: Free cantilever
sheet pile

It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top. There is no back fill above
the dredge level. The free cantilever sheet pile derives its stability entirely from the lateral passive
resistance of the soil below the dredge level into which it isdriven.

Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall withBackfill

A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at a higher level on one side. The stability is entirely from
the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet pile is driven, like that of a free
cantilever sheet pile.
Anchored sheet pile walls
Anchored sheet pile walls are held above the driven depth by anchors provided ata suitable level.
The anchors provided for the stability of the sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance
of the soil into which the sheet piles are driven. The anchored sheet piles are also of two types.

F IGURE 3.14: Anchored piles

Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 40

Free earth support piles An anchored pile is said to have free earth support when the depth of
embedment is small and the pile rotates at its bottom tip. Thus there is a point of contra flexure in
thepile.

Fixed earth support piles An anchored sheet pile has fixed earth support when the depth of
embedment is large. The bottom tip of the pile is fixed against rotations. There is a change in the
curvature of the pile, and hence, an inflection pointoccurs.

Diaphragm Walls

F IGURE 3.15: An example of diaphragm walls

foundation walls. They can be installed in close proximity to existing structures, with minimal loss
of support to existing foundations. In addition, construction dewatering is not required, so there
is no associated subsidence. Diaphragm walls have also been used as deep groundwater barriers
through and under dams.

Diaphragm walls are constructed by the slurry trench technique which was developed in Europe,
and has been used in the United States since the 1940’s. The technique involves excavating a nar-
row trench that is kept full of an engineered fluid or slurry. The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure
against the trench walls and acts as shoring to prevent collapse. Slurry trench excavations can
be performed in all types of soil, even below the ground water table. Cast inplace; diaphragm
walls are usually excavated under bentonite slurry. The construction sequence usually begins with
the excavation of discontinuous primary panels. Some pipes are placed vertically in each end of
the primary panels, to form joints for adjacent secondary panels. Panels are usually 8 to 20 feet
long, with widths varying from 2 to 5 feet. Once the excavation of a panel is complete, a steel
reinforcement cage is placed in the center of the panel. Concrete is then poured in one continuous
Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 41

operation, through one or several tremie pipes that extend to the bottom of the trench. The tremie
pipes are extracted as the concrete raises in the trench, however the discharge of the tremie pipe
always remains embedded in the fresh concrete. The slurry, which is displaced by the concrete,
is saved and reused for subsequent panel excavations. When the concrete sets, the end pipes are
withdrawn. Similarly, secondary panels are constructed between the primary panels, and the pro-
cess continues to create a continuous wall. The finished walls may cantilever or require anchors or
props for lateralsupport.
First decide which theory we want to apply for calculating the active earth pressure. Normally we
calculate earth pressure using Rankine’s theory or Coulomb’s Earth pressure theory.

For using Rankine’s theory, a vertical line AB is drawn through the heel point ( Fig 6.12-b )
. It is assumed that the Rankine active condition exist along the vertical line AB. While checking
the stability, the weightof the soil above the heel in the zone ABC should also be taken in to con-
sideration,Once the forces acting on the wall have been determined, the Stability is checked using
the procedure discussed in the proceeding section. For convenience, the section of the retaining
wall is divided in to rectangles and triangles for the computation of the Weight and the determina-
tion of the line of action of theWeight.

For a safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied.

No Sliding
Horizontal forces tend to slide the wall away from the fill. This tendency is resisted by friction at
the base.

F IGURE 3.16: Factor of safety on sliding

Chapter 3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS AND COMPACTION 42

No Overturning

The wall must be safe against overturning about toe.

No Bearing Capacity Failure and No Tension

First calculate the line of action of the Resultant force ( e) from centre of the base. (No Tension
will develop at the heel)

F IGURE 3.17: Net moment of resistance

The pressure at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. The
pressure at the base is assumed to be linear. The max. Pressure at the Toe and min at the Heel is
given by:

F IGURE 3.18: earth pressure at rest

F IGURE 3.19: Maximum allowable bearing capacity

Chapter 4

CONSOLIDATION

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 4 Relate the effect of compaction and consolidation pressures for esti- Apply
mating the total settlement, time rate of settlement.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A foundation is a integral part of the structure which transfer the load of the superstructure to
the soil. A foundation is that member which provides support for the structure and it’s loads. It
includes the soil and rock of earth’s crust and any special part of structure that serves to transmit
the load into the rock orsoil. The different types of the foundations are given in fig. 4.1

Different types of footings

Ultimate Bearing capacity

(qu)Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can support against shear failure is called
ultimate bearingcapacity.
Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu):
Maximum net intensity of loading that thesoilcan support at the level offoundation.
qnu= qu - γ Df

43
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 44

F IGURE 4.1: Type of foundations

Net Safe Bearing capacity (qns):

Maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without the risk of shearfailure.
qns = qnu / FOS

Gross Safe Bearing capacity:

Maximum gross intensity of loading that the soilcan safely support without the risk of shearfailure
qgs= qns +γ D

Safe Bearing Pressure:

Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil without settlement exceeding
the permissiblelimit.
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 45

Allowable Bearing Pressure: Maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil
with no possibility of Minimum of capacity and shear failure or settlement exceeding the permis-
siblelimit.

Bearing Failure Modes

F IGURE 4.2: various bearing failure modes

Relative density of the soil and size of the foundation are among the major factors that affect the
mode of bearing failure likely to occur. The modes of bearing failure are generally separated into
three categories: The general shear failure is usually associated with soils of low compressibility
such as dense sand and stiff cohesive soils. In this case, if load is gradually applied to the foun-
dation, settlement will increase. At a certain point – when the applied load per unit area equals to
the ultimate load qu – a sudden failure in the soil supporting the foundation will take place. The
failure surface in the soil will extend to the ground surface and full shear resistance of the soil is
developed along the failure surface. Bulging of the soil near the footing is usually apparent. For
the local shear failure, which is common in sands and clays of medium compaction, the failure
surface will gradually extend outward from the foundation but will not reach the ground surface
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 46

as shown by the solid segment.

The shear resistance is fully developed over only part of the failure surface (solid segment of the
line). There is a certain degree of bulging of the soil. In the case of punching shear failure, a
condition common in loose and very compressible soils, considerable vertical settlement may take
place with the failure surfaces restricted to vertical planes immediately adjacent to the sides of
the foundation; the ground surface may be dragged down. After the first yield has occurred the
load-settlement curve will be steep slightly, but remain fairly flat.
TERZAGHI BEARING CAPACITY
Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for evaluating the safe bearing
capacity of shallow foundation with rough base. He extended the theory of Prandtl.

F IGURE 4.3: Terzaghi bearing capacity of a strip foundation

Assumptions

1. Soil is semiinfinite, homogeneous andIsotropic. 2. The shear strength of soil is represented by

Mohr CoulombsCriteria. 3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially
a two dimensional plane strainproblem. 4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle
equal to φ to thehorizontal. 5. Failurezoneisnotextendedabove,[Link]
6. Above the base of footing is neglected. 7. Method of superposition isvalid. 8. Passive pres-
sure force has three components (Ppc produced by cohesion, Ppq produced by surcharge and Ppγ
produced by weight of shearzone). 9. Effect of water table isneglected. 10. Footing carries con-
centric and verticalloads. 11. Footing and ground arehorizontal. 12. Limit equilibrium is reached
simultaneously at all points. Complete shear failure is mobilized at all points at the sametime. 13.
The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shearfailure
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 47

Limitations 1. The theory is applicable to shallowfoundations 2. As the soil compresses, increases

which is not considered. Hence fully plastic zone may not develop at theassumed. 3. All points
need not experience limit equilibrium condition at differentloads. 4. Method of superposition is
not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is near failure zone.

Terzhagi (1943) improved the Prandtl equation to include the roughness of the footing and the
weight of the failure zone. The failure mechanism in a c’, φ ’ soil for Terzhagi’s bearing capacity
solution is shown in Fig. Terzhagi’s ultimate bearing capacity equations are given as follows:

The ultimate load per unit area of the foundation (that is, the ultimate bearing capacity(qu) for a
soil with cohesion, friction, and weight can now be given as

Meyerhof’s Bearing Capacity equation

Meyerhof (1951) developed a bearing capacity equation by extending Terzhagi’s failure mech-
anism and taking into account the effectsoffooting shape, load inclination and footing depth by
adding the corresponding factors of s, d, and i. For a rectangular footing of L by B (L ¿ B) and
inclinedload

F IGURE 4.4: earth pressure at rest

The bearing capacity factors:

Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 48

The bearing capacity factors are graphically presented in Fig. 2.4. The shape, inclination and
depth factors are according to:

For the eccentric load, the length and width of the footing rectangle are modified to: L’ = L – 2eL
and B’ = B – 2eB whereeL and eB represent the eccentricity along the appropriate directions.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT):

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is used to determine the allowable bearing capacity of co-
hesionless coarse-grained soils such as sands. The test procedure for SPT has been introduced in
Chapter 1. The N values obtained from SPT are usually corrected for various effects such as over-
burden pressure and energy transfer. The following are two of the most commonly used methods
in practice for correcting the Nvalues.
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 49

wherec N is a correction factor for overburden pressure, and ’ σ z0 is the effective overburden
pressure in kPa. A further correction factor is imposed on N values if the groundwater level is
within a depth B below the base of the footing. The groundwater correction factor is:

F IGURE 4.5: earth pressure at rest

where z is the depth to the groundwater table, and D and B are the footing depth and width. If
the depth of the groundwater table is beyond B from the footing base cW = 1. The corrected N
valueis:

F IGURE 4.6: earth pressure at rest

Meyerhof (1956, 1974) proposed the following equations to determine the allowable bearing ca-
pacity qa from SPT values.

F IGURE 4.7: earth pressure at rest

where Se is the elastic settlement of the layer in mm and kd = 1 + 0.33D /B ≤ 1.33. In practice,
each value of N is a soil layer up to a depth B below the footing base is corrected and an average
value of Ncor is used in Eqn. (2.37). Bowles (1996) modified Meyerhof’s equations by 50%
increase in the allowable bearing capacity. Bowles’s equations are:

Bearing Capacity from Plate load Test :It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity
and settlement characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level. The test involves preparing
a test pit up to the desired foundation level. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 50

to 750 mm in size, 25 mm thick acts as model footing. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy
(0.002 mm) are placed on plate on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection. Loading
is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller loads gravity loading
is acceptable where sand bags apply the load. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is
anchored to the ground. A hydraulic jack applies the reaction load. At every applied load, the
plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are recorded after the settlement reduces to least
count of gauge (0.002 mm) and average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded. Load Vs
settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the horizontal scale and settlement
is plotted on the vertical scale. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the
ultimate bearing capacity ofsoil.

Allowable Bearing Capacity

The allowable bearing capacity shall be taken as either of the following, whichever is less: Net
ultimate bearing capacity divided by suitable factor of safety, that is, net safe bearing capacity. The
net soil pressure that can be imposed on the base without the settlement exceeding the permissible
values as given in IS:1904-1978 to be determined for each structure and type of soil, that is, safe
bearingpressure
DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR PILES
The detailed design methodology of piles is described in the following sections.

REQUIREMENTFORDEEPFOUNDATIONS
Generallyforstructureswithload¿10 we go for deep foundations. Deep foundations are used in the
followingcases:

Huge vertical load with respect to soilcapacity. Very weak soil or problematicsoil. Huge lateral
loads eg. Tower,chimneys. Scour depth criteria. For fills having very largedepth. Uplift situations
(expansivezones) Urban areas for future large and huge construction near the existingbuilding.

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

Based on material
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 51

Timberpiles
Steelpiles
Concretepiles
Composite piles (steel +concrete)
Driven piles
Boredpiles.
Large displacement piles (occurs for drivenpiles)
Small displacement piles (occurs for boredpiles)

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR CHOOSING PILES

Loose cohesion less soil develops much greater shaft bearing capacities if driven large displace-
ment piles areused.
Displacement effect enhanced by taperedshafts.
Potential increased of shaft capacities is undesirable if negative friction is to be feared.
(Negative friction is also called drag downforce) High displacement piles are undesirable in stiff
cohesive soils, otherwise excessive heaving takesplace.
Encountered with high artesian pressures on cased piles should be excluded. (Mainly for bridges
and underwaterconstruction)
Driven piles are undesirable due to noise, damage caused by vibration, ground heaving. Heavy
structures with large reactions require high capacity piles and small diameter cast-in-situ piles
areinadequate.

Piles in clays

Pile load test

Pile load test is the most reliable of all the approaches to determine the allowable load on the pile.
Pile load test are very useful for cohesion less soil. However, incaseof cohesive soils, the data
from the pile load test should be used with caution on account of disturbance due to pile driving,
development of pore pressure and the in adequate time allowed of consolidationsettlement.
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 52

F IGURE 4.8: earth pressure at rest

Three types of pile tests are generally carriedout.

Vertical load test
Lateral loadtest
Pull outtest

IS: 2911 Part IV (1979) details the procedure for carrying out the load tests and assessing the al-
lowable load. According to the code, the test shall be carried out by applying a series of vertical
downward loads on a RCC cap over the pile. The load shall preferably be applied by means of
a remote controlled hydraulic jack taking reaction against a loaded plot form. The test shall be
applied in increments of about 20% of the assumed safe load. Settlement shallberecorded with at
least three dial gauges of sensitivity 0.02 mm. each stage of loading shall be maintained till the
rate of movement of pile top is not more than 0.1 mm per hours which ever is later.

The loading shall be continued up to twice the safe load or the load at which the total settlement
of the pile top/ cap equals the appropriate value as indicated in the criterion statedbelow:
2/3 the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of12mm.
Fifty percent of the final load at which the total settlement equals 10% of piles diameter in case of
uniform diameter piles and 7.5% of bulb diameter in case of under reamed piles. The allowable
load on a group of piles shall be the lesser of the following:
Final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 25mm, unless a total settlement different
from 25mm is specified in a given case on the basis of the nature and type ofstructure.
Chapter 3. CONSOLIDATION 53

Two-thirds the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 40mm. Load- Settlement
plot from pile load test

F IGURE 4.9: Load versus settlement

Dynamic formulae
These are based on the laws governing the impact of elastic bodies. The input energy of the ham-
mer blow is equated to the work done in overcoming the resistance of the ground to the penetration
of the pile. Allowance is made for the losses of energy due to elastic contractions of the pile, pile
cap, and subsoil and also the losses due to the inertia of the pile.
Chapter 5

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 5 Recognize different stages of consolidation for predicting stress his- Understand
tory on clays.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.1.1 Well Foundation

Well foundation is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete or masonry which open both at the
top and bottom, and is used for building for building and bridge foundations. Well foundations are
being used in India from very early days. Taj Mahal was built on such foundations.

5.1.2 Well Cassions

It’s a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder. It is sunk into the ground to some desired depth and
then filled with concrete thus forming a foundation. Most often used in the construction of bridge
piers and other structures that require foundation beneath rivers and other bodies of water.

54
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 55

F IGURE 5.1: Schematic of well foundation

Types of Caisson

There are three types of caisson as follows:

• Open Caisson.
• Box Caisson.
• Pneumatic Caisson.

Depending upon their shape, open caissons can be further classified as

(i) Single wall open caisson
(ii) Cylindrical open caisson
(iii) Open caisson with dredging wells.

Single wall open caisson: This is a box type structure having no top or bottom(during construc-
tion) and mainly consists of vertical walls.

Cylindrical open caisson (well): This may be defined as a cylindrical shell made up of timber,
masonry, steel or reinforced concrete shod with a cutting edge and which is sunk by excavating
the soil within the shell.

Open caisson with dredging wells

This type of caisson has the distinction of being employed for the deepest foundation for, bridge
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 56

F IGURE 5.2: Parts of well foundations

piers, abutments and other similar structures. The caisson in this case is rectangular or square in
plan and is further sub-divided into smaller sections from inside forming open walls. The outside
walls as well as the inside divider walls are normally made up of reinforced concrete.

Box caisson
This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at bottom. The caisson is cast
and cured on land and when required, it is launched in water and towed to the site for sinking. The
caisson is sunk by filling sand, gravel, or concrete in the empty space inside. The place where the
caisson base is to rest must be leveled and as such box caissons are used in places where the strata
of sufficient bearing capacity are available near the ground. In normal practice, the soft natural
bottom soil of the river bed is dredged out to some depth and the trench thus formed is filled with
sand to have a leveled base. The function of the sand layer is to uniformly distribute the superim-
posed loads over the soil below and thus avoid tilting of the caisson.

Pneumatic caisson
This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the bottom. The water is
excluded from the caisson chamber by means of compressed air.

Types of well shapes:

• Circular well
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 57

F IGURE 5.3: Plan and cross section of well foundations

F IGURE 5.4: Pneumatic cassion

• Rectangular well
• Double Rectangular well
• Double Octagonal well
• Double – D well
• Twin circular well

Circular wells
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 58

Most common shape of well foundations preferably used everywhere are circular wells. It is fea-
tured with very high structural strength and is convenient in sinking; additionally the chances of
tilting are exclusively minimum. These circular well foundations are perfectly suitable for piers
of the single-line railway bridges and the double-lane road bridges. But for excessively lengthier
piers it turns out to be uneconomical. Thus, the maximum diameter of circular well is principally
limited to 9m.

Double-D wells
These wells are usually employed on the piers and abutments of the bridges that are excessively
long to be accommodated on a circular well of 9m diameter. These wells can be sunk easily. But
considerable bending moments are introduced in the steining because of difference in pressure be-
tween outside and inside of the well. Additionally the square corners at the partition well provide
maximum resistance to sinking.

Double-octagonal wells
These wells are considered to be better than Double-D wells in numerous aspects. Most preferably
the square corners are eliminated such that bending stresses are reduced considerably. Addition-
ally these wells provide higher resistance against sinking than double-D wells because of increased
area.

Twin- circular wells

Two circular identical wells are sunk very close to one another such that they are held with a com-
mon well-cap. These wells are sunk simultaneously, adjacently. These wells are preferable where
the length of pier cannot be accommodated on a double-D or double- octagonal well. These wells
are found advantages where the depth of sinking is smaller and the soil strata bearing capacity is
greater.
Rectangular wells
Rectangular wells are principally employed on bridge foundations with depths up to [Link]
case of larger foundations double-rectangular wells can be used. The loading stresses at the stein-
ing are very high in rectangular wells.
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 59

Components of Well Foundation

The various components of well foundations are

F IGURE 5.5: Components of well foundation

Steining: Walls of the wells are known as steining. Made of brick masonry, stone masonry, plain
or reinforced concrete. The design of steining reinforcement rely on skin friction and unit weight
of well. The thickness of steining is designed in such a manner that all platforms of well are sunk
under its own weight.

Curb: The curb of a well transfers all the superimposed loads to the soil through the cutting edge
while sinking. The material used for curbs may be timber or RCC. The forces acting on well curb
are shown in fig. The total horizontal force on the well curb on both sides is
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 60

F IGURE 5.6: Components of well foundation

Sand Filling
The bottom plug concrete is cured and after curing, the well is filled with sand in saturated condi-
tion. Sand filling provides
1. Stability to the bottom of the well.
2. Eliminate base the tensile forces at the

Top Plug
The top plug is provided after the filling is completed. Top plug helps in transferring the load of
the pier and superstructure to the steining. The thickness of the top plug is generally kept greater
than 50% of the smaller dimension of the dredge hole. If sand filling is used, the top plug is simply
constructed using PCC of [Link] otherwise it is reinforced with steel bars and lean concrete of [Link]
is used.
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 61

F IGURE 5.7: Components of well foundation

Well Cap: Well cap is constructed as a slab resisting on the well it is used to transfer the load of
pier to the well As the shape of the well pier and cap are different the well cap forms an interim
layer to accommodate the pier. The well cap is so designed that the base of the pier is provided
with a minimum all round offset. The centre of the well cap is made to coincide with that of the
pier and not with that of the well. Such positioning nullifies the effect of the minor shifts which
might have occurred during well sinking.

Forces acting on well foundation

Dead loads
It includes weight of superstructure (pier/abutment) + self weight of well.
Live loads
Load caused due to tractive effect of vehicles on bridges and road, load due to human beings,
furniture floors and other materials. For road bridges, the live loads may be specified via standard
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 62

F IGURE 5.8: Components of well foundation

specifications and code of practice for road bridges.

Impact loads
The impact loads is the result of live load and shall be considered only during the design of a pier
cap and the bridge seat on the abutment. However, for other components of the well this effect
shall be neglected.

Wind loads
The wind loads shall be seen only on the exposed area in elevation and hence acts laterally on the
bridge. According to IS Code: 875 provision the wind on super structures, sub structure, live load
situated above the water level is calculated.

Water pressure
The water pressure due to water current is acted on the portions of substructure that lies between
the water level and the maximum scour level. In case of piers lying parallel to the direction of
water, the intensity of water shall be determined by,
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 63

P = KV2

P = intensity of pressure (KN/m2 ),

K = constant (that depend upon the shape of well) Maximum value i.e. = 0.788 for square ended
piers
Minimum value i.e. = 0.237 for piers having cut and ease/clam water V = Velocity of current/water
flow (m/s)
An assumption is made that V2 is maximum at free surface of water and zero at the deepest scour
level. The velocity at surface is assumed to be 2 times the average velocity.

Surface velocity =squareroot of 2 * average velocity

Longitudinal forces: Longitudinal forces results from tractive and braking forces. The longitu-
dinal forces depend on the type of vehicles and bearing. These forces get transferred/transmitted
into the substructure via fixed bearings and friction in movable bearings.

Earth pressure: The Rainkines’s theory and Coulombs theory is utilized to calculate the earth
pressure.

Seismic forces: seismic forces are vital when the wells are constructed in seismic zones. The
seismic forces act on every members of the superstructure.

seismic forces =αw

w= weight of component and α =seismic coefficient which depends upon the type of seismic zone
and its value shall extracted from code. Usually taken between 0.01-0.08.

Procedure for Sinking of Well foundations Laying of Curbs

In dry ground excavate up to 15 cm in river bed and place the cutting edge at the required position.
If the curb is to be laid under water and depth of water is greater than 5 m, prepare Sand Island
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 64

and lay the curb. If depth of water exceeds 5 m built curb in dry ground and float it to the site.

F IGURE 5.9: Components of well foundation

Construction of Well Steining: The steining should be built in short height of 1.5 m initially and
3 m after a 6 m grip length is achieved. The verticality should be maintained. The aim of the well
sinking is to sink the well vertically and at the correct position.

Precautions – The following precautions should be taken during well sinking.

• Outer surface should be regular and smooth.
• Radius of the curb should be 2 to 4 cm larger than the radius of the steining.
• Cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.

Sinking Operation
• Excavate material under the inside of well curb mechanically or manually
• Allow the well to remain vertical.
• Up to a depth of 1 m, excavation underwater can be made manually. When the depth of water
exceeds 1 m excavate by Jhams or grabs.
• When well goes on sinking skin friction increases and weight of well decreased due to buoyancy.
• When the well does not sink, sunk by applying kentledge. If this operation is not sufficient jet
outside the well or grease the outside. A typical loading on steining by kentledge.
• Go on adding sections of steining (2 to 5 m in length) up to the required founding strata.
Chapter 5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 65

F IGURE 5.10: Components of well foundation

Tilt and Shift: The well should be sunk vertical and at the right position through all kinds of soils
IS 3955 – 1967 suggests that tilt should be restricted to 1 in 60.

Shift: IS 3955 – 1967 suggests that shift be limited to 1% of depth sunk