RESEARCH METHODS

MODULE II NOTES

CONCEPTS, CONCEPTUALIZATION AND REALITY:

 We simply agreed to use the term "prejudice" as a convenient label for a group of related
behaviours and attitudes we've observed throughout life. In essence, we created it. Another
indication that prejudice isn't an inherent concept is that each of us forms our own mental
image of what the phenomena associated with it represent and what they have in common.
When I mention the word "prejudice," it triggers a specific mental image for you, just as it
does for me. It's as if our minds contain filing cabinets, each with sheets of paper labelled as
"prejudice." On your sheet, you'll find everything you've been taught and observed about
prejudice, and my sheet holds similar information but isn't identical to yours. These mental
images, or "sheets of paper," are called conceptions. I have my own conception of prejudice,
and so do you. Since we can't directly share these mental images, we use the terms written on
those mental sheets as a way to communicate about our ideas and the things we associate with
them. This process of agreeing on what terms mean is called conceptualization in social
research, and the outcome is called a concept.
 conceptualization The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are
made more specific and precise
 indicator An observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a variable we wish to
study. Thus, for example, attending religious services might be considered an indicator of
religiosity
 dimension A specifiable aspect of a concept. “Religiosity,” for example, might be specified in
terms of a belief dimension, a ritual dimension, a devotional dimension, a knowledge
dimension, and so forth.

OPERATIONALIZATION:
To understand the relationship between conceptualization and operationalization, it's important to
know that these two processes are closely related but focus on different aspects of research.
 Conceptualization involves taking an abstract idea or concept and refining it into a clear,
specific definition. For example, if we are studying "compassion," conceptualization helps us
define what compassion actually means in the context of the research—whether it's about
emotional empathy, actions to help others, or something else.
 Operationalization, on the other hand, takes that defined concept and develops the specific
procedures or steps needed to measure or observe it in the real world. This means deciding
how to gather data that will reflect the concept you’ve defined. For instance, if you’ve defined
compassion as "actions to help others," operationalization might involve observing how often
people engage in acts of kindness in specific situations or how they respond to others' needs.
 In social research, operationalization involves various choices, such as how to collect data,
which methods to use, and how to measure the concept in question. These choices are
interconnected, meaning one decision may influence others. However, operationalization is
not a rigid, step-by-step process—it requires flexibility and careful consideration of how to
best reflect the concept being studied in empirical observations.
TIME DIMENSION:
 research design has been framed as a process of deciding what to observe, who to observe,
and for what purpose. Now, attention shifts to the role of time in research. Researchers must
decide whether to observe at a single point in time or over an extended period. Time affects
both the design and execution of research, influencing aspects like causation and
generalizability. A study’s findings may accurately represent the present, but might not apply
to past or future situations. Researchers can address time in their designs by choosing between
two main approaches: cross-sectional studies, which observe data at one point in time, and
longitudinal studies, which observe data over an extended period.
CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES:
 A cross-sectional study involves observations of a sample, or cross section, of a population or
phenomenon that are made at one point in time. Exploratory and descriptive studies are often
cross-sectional. A single U.S. Census, for instance, is a study aimed at describing the U.S.
population at a given time. Many explanatory studies are also cross sectional. A researcher
conducting a large-scale national survey to examine the sources of racial and religious
prejudice would, in all likelihood, be dealing with a single time frame—taking a snapshot, so
to speak, of the sources of prejudice at a particular point in history.
 Explanatory cross-sectional studies have an inherent problem. Although their conclusions are
based on observations made at only one time, typically they aim at understanding causal
processes that occur over time. This problem is somewhat akin to that of determining the
speed of a moving object on the basis of a high-speed, still photograph that freezes the
movement of the object.

 The limitations of cross-sectional studies stem from their focus on a single point in time,
which means they cannot capture changes or developments that occur over a longer period.
This is problematic when trying to understand cause-and-effect relationships because cross-
sectional studies only provide a snapshot of a situation, making it difficult to establish how
one factor leads to another over time. For example, if a study finds a correlation between
people's knowledge and their concern for an issue, it cannot definitively determine if
increased knowledge causes concern or vice versa. Additionally, cross-sectional studies often
suffer from limited generalizability, as their findings only apply to the specific time in which
the data was collected, making them less relevant for understanding long-term trends. They
also miss the broader, long-term shifts that may be occurring, such as social or cultural
changes. To address these issues, researchers may use longitudinal studies, which track
changes over time and provide a clearer picture of causality and long-term trends.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES:

 In contrast to cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies are designed to observe the same
phenomenon over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes over time. These
studies can involve direct participation and observation, as seen in studies of groups like UFO
cults, where researchers follow the group from its formation to its decline. Longitudinal
studies can also rely on existing records, such as newspaper editorials or Supreme Court
decisions, analyzing changes over time even if the research is conducted at one point in time.
 Many field research projects are naturally longitudinal, particularly those involving in-depth
interviews or direct observation, like studies on the life experiences of wives of alcoholic
men, which examine the evolution of troubled relationships. An iconic example of
longitudinal research is "When Prophecy Fails" (1956), where researchers studied a flying
saucer cult to understand the group's behaviour after their predicted alien encounter failed to
 occur, showing that members became more committed to their beliefs. While longitudinal
studies are often the best approach to studying change, they can be more challenging,
especially in quantitative research like large-scale surveys. There are three special types of
longitudinal studies: trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies, each serving different
purposes in understanding changes over time.
 trend study A type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some population is
monitored over time. An example would be a series of Gallup Polls showing the electorate’s
preferences for political candidates over the course of a campaign, even though different
samples were interviewed at each point.
 cohort study A study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time,
although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations. For
example, a study of the occupational history of the class of 2000 in which questionnaires were
sent every five years would be a cohort study.
 panel study A type of longitudinal study, in which data are collected from the same set of
people (the sample or panel) at several points in time

UNIT OF ANALYSIS:
 In social research, the unit of analysis refers to the specific entity or phenomenon being
studied, and it can vary widely depending on the research focus. While individual people are
the most common units of analysis, researchers may also choose to study groups,
organizations, or even larger social phenomena. For example, if a study aims to understand
the behavior of different political groups, the unit of analysis could be individual members of
those groups, even if the research focuses on the group as a whole. Sometimes, the unit of
analysis is different from the unit of observation, especially in studies where researchers
observe individuals to study group dynamics or relationships. For instance, in a study of
couples' attitudes towards the death penalty, the unit of analysis is the couple, but the unit of
observation is the individual members of the couple. In some cases, a researcher may examine
multiple units of analysis simultaneously, like when studying both the characteristics of
college students and the institutions they attend.
 It is crucial in both research design and data analysis. To identify the unit of analysis, focus
on the variable being studied and ask "who or what is being measured?" For example, in the
statement "The average household income was $40,000," the variable is income, but it is
households that have the income. Therefore, the unit of analysis is the household. Similarly,
in the statement "Italian movies show more nudity than American movies," the variable is the
amount of nudity, but the unit of analysis is the movie itself.
 Another way to identify the unit of analysis is to think about the process used to reach the
research conclusion. For instance, consider the statement, "Twenty-four percent of families
have more than one adult earning at least $30,000 a year." While it’s adults who are earning
income, the study is focused on whether families have these adults. The families are being
analyzed based on the number of adults earning above a certain income. Thus, the unit of
analysis here is the family, not the individual adult. By thinking about what is being
measured or counted, you can clearly determine the unit of analysis for any study.
RESEARCH DESIGN: HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH PROJECT

 Although research design occurs at the beginning of a research project, it involves all the
steps of the subsequent project. This discussion, then, provides both guidance on how to start
a research project
STEPS FOR DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROJECT:
Designing a research project in the Indian context involves careful planning and execution. Below is a
breakdown of the process with relevant examples from India.
1. Getting Started
The first step in designing a research project is to identify your area of interest. In the Indian context,
the vast diversity in culture, social issues, politics, and economy offers a wide range of topics. For
example, if you are interested in studying educational inequality, you could start by focusing on how
caste, gender, and regional disparities affect access to education in rural India.
To get started, you should engage with secondary literature and conduct exploratory research. Read
reports from governmental bodies like the Ministry of Education, or non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) like Pratham Education Foundation, which might provide valuable insights into ongoing
debates on educational access in India. You could also explore relevant public forums and research
conferences to get a better understanding of current trends.
Example: A researcher might explore how government policies like the Right to Education (RTE) Act
impact school enrollment rates in rural areas of states like Bihar or Uttar Pradesh.
2. Defining the Purpose of Your Study
Once you have a research topic, it is crucial to define the purpose of your study. For instance, if you
are interested in public healthcare in India, you need to decide if your study will focus on a broad
issue like healthcare access or a more specific issue like the availability of vaccines in tribal areas.
If you are studying healthcare, the purpose might be to examine the effectiveness of the National
Health Mission (NHM) in rural regions of India. By narrowing your purpose, you ensure that your
study has a clear focus and scope, which will guide your methodology and data collection methods.
Example: You might set out to evaluate how successful the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana
(PMJAY) is in providing healthcare to low-income families in rural India, with the goal of offering
policy suggestions.
3. Conceptualization
In the Indian context, it is important to clearly define the concepts you are studying. For example, in a
study on gender inequality, you might define "gender inequality" not just as a statistical disparity, but
also in terms of cultural practices that influence women's roles in rural Indian communities, such as
dowry, access to land, or decision-making power in households.
If studying access to justice in India, you could define "justice" in terms of access to legal resources,
the speed of case resolution, and the fairness of verdicts, especially for marginalized groups like
Dalits or tribal communities.
Example: If studying access to education, you might define "access" not only as physical proximity
to schools but also include factors like infrastructure quality, availability of teachers, and cultural
attitudes toward girls' education in rural villages.
4. Choice of Research Method
The research method you choose should align with the goals and scope of your study. In India,
researchers often combine both qualitative and quantitative methods to get a holistic view of social
issues. For example, if studying urban migration in India, a combination of surveys (quantitative) to
measure migration trends and interviews (qualitative) with migrants can provide both broad data and
deeper insights into personal experiences.
In studies of health or education systems, surveys are common for collecting data from a large
sample, while case studies or ethnographic methods might be used to gain deeper understanding of
specific communities or institutions.
Example: For a study on the impact of government welfare schemes on rural populations, you might
use surveys to collect data on the number of beneficiaries and their perceived benefits, while
conducting interviews with local government officials to understand implementation challenges.
5. Operationalization
In this step, you need to decide how you will measure your variables. For example, if you are studying
political participation in Indian elections, operationalize political participation by considering voting
behavior, campaign involvement, and participation in political rallies.
If studying economic inequality, you could operationalize income disparity using standard metrics like
the Gini coefficient, or measure educational attainment using literacy rates and school enrollment
figures in different states.
Example: If you're researching rural unemployment in India, you could measure the variable
"unemployment" by tracking the number of individuals registered under the Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the average duration of their
unemployment.
6. Population and Sampling
In India, your study population might be very diverse, and sampling should reflect this diversity. For
example, if researching the quality of healthcare in urban vs. rural India, you would need to sample
both urban and rural populations to understand regional disparities.
For political studies, you could sample different regions of India to ensure that people from both
northern and southern states, with different socio-political contexts, are included. The choice of
sampling method depends on the research goals—whether it’s a random sample, stratified sampling,
or purposive sampling for specific subgroups (e.g., women, lower-caste populations, or migrants).
Example: If you are studying the impact of caste on job opportunities in India, you would need to
ensure that your sample includes people from different castes (e.g., Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes, OBCs, and General Category) to understand the disparities in employment opportunities.
7. Data Collection (Observations)
In India, data collection can take several forms depending on your methodology. If using surveys, you
might distribute questionnaires through online platforms, or conduct face-to-face interviews,
especially in rural areas where access to the internet might be limited. For qualitative studies, in-depth
interviews or focus group discussions are popular methods to gather rich, detailed data.
If you're studying access to government services, field visits to remote areas or local government
offices in states like Rajasthan or Madhya Pradesh might be necessary to observe how services are
delivered on the ground.
Example: For a study on education in tribal areas of Odisha, you might visit schools, interview
teachers and students, and observe the school environment to collect firsthand data.
8. Data Processing
Once you have collected your data, the next step is to organize and clean it. In the Indian context, data
processing often involves ensuring the accuracy of the collected data, especially when surveys are
conducted in rural areas where respondents may provide incomplete or inconsistent answers.
Example: In a survey about rural water access, responses from remote villages might be incomplete,
so you would need to clean the data by excluding invalid responses or following up with participants
for clarification.
9. Analysis
In analyzing your data, you should look for patterns and trends that emerge from both quantitative and
qualitative sources. For example, in a study on agricultural subsidies in India, you might analyze how
subsidy distribution varies between states, looking at data on crop yields, farmer income, and subsidy
utilization.
If using qualitative data, you would look for themes or common threads that emerge in interview
responses, focusing on key issues like how government policies impact the lives of marginalized
groups.
Example: If studying air pollution in Delhi, you might analyze data from environmental monitoring
stations alongside interviews with residents to understand how pollution affects their health and daily
lives.
10. Application of Findings
Once your research is complete, the final step is to communicate your findings. In India, this might
involve presenting your research to policymakers, NGOs, or community groups who can use the
information to make informed decisions.
Example: If you study the impact of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) on sanitation
in rural India, your findings might inform government policy on resource allocation or guide NGOs
working in sanitation advocacy.
11. Review of the Research Design
After completing the research, it’s important to reflect on your methodology and results. Did your
sampling method adequately capture the diversity of the population? Were your operational
definitions clear and consistent throughout the study?
Example: If you conducted a study on digital literacy among rural women in India, you might find
that the survey was difficult to administer in areas with low internet access. In future research, you
might choose to use more face-to-face interviews or focus groups in such areas.
In conclusion, designing a research project in the Indian context requires considering the country’s
socio-political diversity, regional disparities, and cultural nuances. By thoughtfully planning each
stage of the research process, from conceptualization to data collection and analysis, you can ensure
your research is meaningful and relevant to Indian society.
DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Certainly! Below is a breakdown of a research proposal for studying the Marwari and Bengali
community divide in Salt Lake, Kolkata. Each section is tailored to this specific topic.
1. Problem or Objective
The core research question for this study is to understand the social, cultural, and economic divide
between the Marwari and Bengali communities in Salt Lake, Kolkata. This divide is often seen in
terms of social interactions, economic competition, and cultural practices. The objective is to
investigate how these two prominent communities coexist, their relationship dynamics, and whether
this divide contributes to social exclusion or inclusion in the region.
Example: "Despite both Marwari and Bengali communities being integral to the socio-economic
fabric of Salt Lake, Kolkata, there exists a divide in terms of social interactions, cultural practices, and
economic activities. This research aims to explore the reasons for this divide and its implications on
social harmony and urban development."
2. Literature Review
The literature review will examine previous studies on community dynamics in Kolkata, with a focus
on ethnic, cultural, and economic divides. The divide between the Marwari and Bengali communities
is often discussed in terms of historical migration, economic roles (with the Marwaris being involved
in trade and business, and the Bengalis historically in intellectual and administrative roles), and
cultural practices. This review will look at:
 The history of Marwari migration to Kolkata.
 The cultural evolution of the Bengali identity in Kolkata.
 Studies on ethnic or cultural divides in Indian urban spaces, particularly in Kolkata.
Example: "Several studies highlight the historical presence of the Marwari community in Kolkata and
their significant role in the city’s trade and commerce. However, studies like those by Das (2005) and
Chakraborty (2010) point out that while Marwaris have economically prospered, they remain
culturally distinct from the Bengali community, whose identity is deeply linked to Kolkata’s literary
and cultural heritage."
The review will conclude with a gap in the literature regarding how these communities interact at the
grassroots level in urban spaces like Salt Lake.
3. Subjects for Study
The study will focus on members of the Marwari and Bengali communities living in Salt Lake,
Kolkata. The selection will include individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, and
professions to gain a well-rounded understanding of the community divide.
Example: "Participants will include Marwari and Bengali residents of Salt Lake, aged between 25-60,
including business owners, professionals, and local workers. The selection will be purposive, aiming
to include people who have lived in Salt Lake for at least 10 years, ensuring that their experiences
reflect long-term community dynamics."
Ethical concerns will include ensuring informed consent, particularly since the research may touch on
sensitive issues like identity and social division. Ensuring confidentiality and protecting the privacy of
participants is crucial.
4. Measurement
The study will measure various social, economic, and cultural factors that might contribute to the
community divide. These factors could include:
 Social interactions (frequency of interaction between members of both communities).
 Economic cooperation or competition (business partnerships, competition in the local
market).
 Cultural practices (festivals, languages, and social gatherings).
Example: "Social interaction will be measured through surveys asking participants about the
frequency and nature of interactions with members of the other community. Economic competition
will be gauged by examining business relationships, local market competition, and community-based
economic projects. Cultural practices will be observed through participation in festivals such as Durga
Puja (Bengali) and the Marwari New Year."
5. Data-Collection Methods
This study will use a mixed-methods approach:
 Surveys will collect quantitative data on the frequency of social interactions and economic
exchanges between the two communities.
 Interviews will be conducted with community leaders, local business owners, and long-term
residents to gain qualitative insights into the historical and cultural factors that influence the
community divide.
 Participant observation will be used during cultural festivals, community meetings, and
local markets to observe how interactions occur in natural settings.
Example: "Surveys will be distributed to 100 Marwari and 100 Bengali households in Salt Lake, and
in-depth interviews will be conducted with at least 20 community leaders from each group. Participant
observation will be conducted during Durga Puja and Marwari religious events in the area."
6. Analysis
The data collected will be analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods:
 Quantitative data (from surveys) will be analyzed using descriptive statistics to identify
patterns of social interaction and economic behavior.
 Qualitative data (from interviews and observations) will be analyzed through thematic
coding to identify common themes related to cultural identity, historical grievances, and
economic competition.
 The analysis will also compare the findings to broader social theories on ethnic division and
urban integration.
Example: "Quantitative data will be analyzed using SPSS to identify trends in social interactions,
while qualitative data will be coded to identify themes such as 'cultural preservation' and 'economic
rivalry.' The results will help explain the divide in terms of social, cultural, and economic factors."
7. Schedule
The research will be conducted over 6 months:
 Month 1-2: Literature review and finalizing research design.
  Month 3: Survey distribution and initial interviews.
 Month 4: Data collection through participant observation and completing interviews.
 Month 5: Data analysis and interpretation.
 Month 6: Report writing and submission.
Example: "In Month 1-2, the literature review will be completed, and the research design will be
finalized. Data collection will begin in Month 3 with the distribution of surveys and initial interviews
with community leaders. Fieldwork and participant observation will occur throughout Month 4."
8. Budget
The research will require funds for travel, survey printing, and compensating interviewees for their
time. The estimated budget is:
 Travel expenses for field visits in Salt Lake and nearby areas.
 Printing costs for surveys and interview guides.
 Compensation for research assistants and interviewees.
 Miscellaneous expenses (office supplies, transport).
Example:
 Travel expenses: ₹20,000
 Survey printing and distribution: ₹10,000
 Interviewee compensation: ₹15,000
 Miscellaneous: ₹5,000 Total: ₹50,000
9. Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are essential, especially when dealing with community-based research:
 Informed consent will be obtained from all participants.
 Confidentiality will be maintained, and all data will be anonymized.
 The study will avoid any potential harm to the communities being studied by ensuring that
findings are presented objectively and respectfully.
Example: "Informed consent will be obtained from all participants, and they will be given a clear
explanation of the research purpose. The confidentiality of survey and interview responses will be
maintained, and no individual will be identified in the research findings."
10. Conclusion
This research aims to shed light on the social, cultural, and economic dynamics between the Marwari
and Bengali communities in Salt Lake, Kolkata. By understanding the historical context, cultural
divides, and economic interactions, the study will offer valuable insights into the broader issue of
ethnic and community relations in urban India.
Example: "The study will provide insights into the ways in which ethnic divides in urban spaces like
Salt Lake shape the social and economic fabric of the city. Findings could inform local policies aimed
at fostering greater social integration and community cooperation."
This research proposal structure provides a detailed roadmap for investigating the Marwari and
Bengali community divide in Salt Lake, Kolkata, focusing on social, economic, and cultural aspects.