Teacher's self-efficacy

Teachers’ self-efficacy has increasingly become significant in school psychology

studies due to its effects on teaching effectiveness, instructional methods, and students’

academic performance (Klassen et al., 2009; Klassen and Tze, 2014). Numerous studies

indicate that teachers who possess strong self-efficacy report greater job satisfaction reduced

job-related stress, and encounter fewer challenges when managing students' misbehaviors.

Teacher (or instructional) self-efficacy pertains to individuals' beliefs regarding their ability

to facilitate student learning. Self-efficacy should impact teachers' actions, efforts, and

determination. Educators with low self-efficacy tend to shy away from planning experiences

they think are beyond their skills, do not continue to assist students facing challenges, exert

minimal effort in sourcing materials, and avoid reintroducing content in ways that might be

more comprehensible to students (Ashton and Webb, 1986). In contrast, teachers with high

self-efficacy are more inclined to create demanding activities, support student achievement,

and persevere with learners who experience difficulties. These teacher practices promote

student learning and reinforce teachers' self-efficacy in aiding students' educational progress.

Ashton and Webb (1986) discovered that educators who possess greater self-efficacy tend to

cultivate a more favorable classroom atmosphere (such as reduced student anxiety and less

teacher criticism), encourage students' input, and address the learning needs of every student.

A strong sense of self-efficacy in teachers correlates positively with their tendency to use

praise, provide individual support to students, and track students' learning progress, in

addition to being linked to improved student outcomes.

Collective teacher self-efficacy refers to the shared belief among teachers that their combined

abilities can positively impact student learning methods (Henson, 2002). This collective self-

efficacy is developed when teachers engage in collaborative efforts to reach shared objectives

(performance accomplishments), learn from each other while having mentors as inspirational
figures (vicarious experiences), receive motivation and assistance from school administrators

(various forms of social persuasion), and join forces to handle challenges and reduce stress

(physiological indicators). Teachers remain motivated to work together to enhance student

learning as collective self-efficacy increases. Additionally, collective self-efficacy positively

correlates with teachers' job satisfaction (Caprara et al., 2003). More effective teachers are

more willing to take risks, which raises classroom standards and, in turn, improves student

performance. Looking at the bigger picture, it has been found that teacher self-efficacy is also

connected to various factors such as job satisfaction (Moe, Pazzaglia, & Ronconi, 2010),

perfectionism (Comerchero, 2008), and emotional intelligence (Moafian & Ghanizadeh,

2009; Rastegar & Memarpour, 2009). On the other hand, some researchers have suggested

that teacher efficacy is inversely related to teacher burnout (Brouwers, Evers, & Tomic, 2000;

Comerchero, 2008). By summarizing the relevant studies, it is clear that there are ongoing

issues concerning teachers' self-efficacy that require further exploration. According to Wyatt

(2018), among the research on Teacher Self-Efficacy (TSE) that gathered qualitative data, 24

studies utilized mixed methods, most of which did not thoroughly investigate the difficulties

in capturing language TSE beliefs, as they relied on qualitative research methods primarily to

gather background or contextual data. Additionally, both local and international researchers

primarily focused on examining the correlation between teachers’ self-efficacy and various

factors such as professional development, burnout, and personality types (Alibakhshi, 2011).

Despite the abundance of research on EFL teachers’ self-efficacy, it remains unclear how this

self-efficacy influences teachers’ roles and what implications TSE holds for EFL educators.

The primary aim of this study is to investigate which traits, variables, or constructs may be

influenced by teachers’ self-efficacy. The TSE concept is rooted in Rotter’s theory of locus of

control (Zee & Koomen, Citation2016). Rotter proposed that people vary in their beliefs

regarding whether outcomes are primarily influenced by chance or destiny (external locus) or
by their actions (internal locus). Bandura expanded upon this idea, suggesting that a person's

locus of control is also influenced by their abilities. Given that personal abilities are specific

to different domains, the self-efficacy concept has been adapted to focus on the teaching field

(Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy), where it is believed to reflect teachers’ beliefs about

instructional methods, classroom management, and student engagement. In the mid-1990s,

initial research on the sources of self-efficacy was primarily conducted using quantitative

methods (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Bandura (1997) states that teachers assess their self-

efficacy based on their interpretations of previous teaching experiences (mastery

experiences); the successes or failures of their peers, who act as role models (vicarious

experiences); the encouragement provided within their work environment from colleagues,

educational specialists, and school leaders (verbal persuasion); and the emotional and

physical sensations felt during teaching (affective and physiological factors).

It is crucial to note that the sources of self-efficacy information are not solely tied to a

personal evaluation of one’s capabilities. In reflecting on the outcomes of their work, teachers

gather information that informs their assessments. The types of information generated are

utilized to evaluate their self-efficacy levels (Pajares & Olaz, 2008).

While research supports the predictive significance of self-efficacy in teaching performance,

there are limited studies examining the fundamental sources of these self-beliefs among

teachers (Klassen, Tze, et al., 2010). The existing literature on sources of teacher self-efficacy

exhibits notable gaps that warrant attention, including a lack of sufficient studies, the

necessity for more reliable and valid assessment instruments (Usher & Pajares, 2008), and the

demand for qualitative research approaches (Klassen, Tze, et al., 2010). Enhancements in

these areas could lead to better insights not only into the influential sources but also into how

they are perceived and interpreted by teachers when judging their teaching abilities (Iaochite

& Azzi, 2012; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Furthermore, Henson (2002) has urged for
additional research to explore the validity and potential effects of the information sources on

teacher self-efficacy, observing that such studies are nearly non-existent.

Conceptualization of Teachers’ Self-Efficacy

Teachers' beliefs about their efficacy have consistently been recognized as an

essential cognitive asset, significantly influencing their performance and overall well-being

within the classroom (Klassen & Tze, 2014; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001;

Woolfolk Hoy et al., 2009). When educators view themselves as highly effective, they are

more inclined to implement differentiated teaching strategies, engage in emotionally

supportive actions that boost students' confidence, and take proactive steps to address student

conflicts. Educators who possess a strong sense of general, classroom-level self-efficacy are

more likely to experience higher job satisfaction and exhibit fewer symptoms of burnout

compared to their less confident counterparts (Brouwers, Evers, & Tomic, 2001). Following

the research conducted by Tschannen-Moran and their colleagues (Tschannen-Moran &

Woolfolk Hoy, 2001; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998), the well-established three-factor model

of Teacher Self-Efficacy (TSE) focusing on instructional strategies, classroom management,

and student engagement has become predominant in the field. The TSE domains related to

instructional strategies and student engagement primarily emphasize elements of instructional

delivery. The domain concerning instructional strategies aims to gauge teachers’ perceived

competence in employing various instructional techniques that facilitate and improve student

learning. The self-efficacy related to student engagement helps assess how capable teachers

feel in stimulating students' interest in their academic work. Beyond the instructional

dimensions of teaching and learning, TSE regarding classroom management involves

teachers’ evaluations of their skills in organizing students’ time, behavior, and focus (cf.

Emmer & Stough, 2001). While there are moderate to strong connections between the three

TSE domains, there is evidence indicating that each construct measures distinct facets of
teachers’ self-efficacy (e.g., Heneman, Kimball, & Milanowski, 2006). Despite a broad

agreement on the highly context-dependent nature of teacher self-efficacy (TSE), the majority

of research has been conducted at the classroom level, concentrating on teachers' general

perceptions of their capabilities regarding the classes they are currently instructing.

Consequently, these studies might be prone to the ecological fallacy (Piantadosi, Byar, &

Green, 1988), assuming that teachers’ perceptions of efficacy apply equally to individual

students. It can be presumed that each student brings unique behaviors and traits into the

classroom that may variably influence teachers’ beliefs in their self-efficacy across various

teaching and learning domains. In general, cooperative and diligent students are likely to

enhance teachers’ self-efficacy, while instances of disruptive behavior may significantly

weaken teachers’ beliefs in their capability to engage specific students. Social-cognitive

theorists generally argue that a person's beliefs about their efficacy are primarily influenced

by specific events and experiences related to different areas of functioning (Bandura, 1997).

For educators, these experiences typically arise from genuine educational interactions with

their students. Indeed, limited existing research (Bandura, 1997; Tschannen-Moran &

Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998) suggests that positive experiences in

teaching, engaging, and managing students can significantly enhance a healthy sense of

teaching self-efficacy (TSE). Conversely, negative interactions with individual students,

especially those exhibiting challenging behaviors, have been shown to trigger negative

emotions that can cause teachers to doubt their abilities and become overwhelmed by daily

stress (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Spilt & Koomen, 2009; Spilt et al., 2011; Tsouloupas et al.,

2010). Therefore, the classroom experiences of teachers, along with their feelings of self-

efficacy, can be profoundly affected by various social-emotional behaviors of students in the

classroom. In line with previous research on students’ social-emotional development (e.g.,

Roorda, Verschueren, Vancraeyveldt, Van Craeyevelt, & Colpin, 2014), it is viewed that
students’ externalizing, internalizing, and prosocial behaviors as influences on TSE

concerning individual students.

Externalizing behaviour:

Externalizing behavior has been identified in previous empirical studies as a

fundamental issue that teachers frequently encounter, encompassing aggression,

hyperactivity, and antisocial conduct (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000; Evers, Tomic, & Brouwers,

2004; Hastings & Bham, 2003; Kokkinos, Panayiotou, & Davazoglou, 2004, 2005; Kyriacou,

2001; Roehrig, Pressley, & Talotta, 2002). Such disruptive behaviors can create a ripple

effect throughout the classroom and have been noted to contribute to increased stress and

emotional exhaustion among teachers (Clunies-Ross et al., 2008; Kokkinos et al., 2004; Spilt

& Koomen, 2009; Tsouloupas et al., 2010). The patterns of externalizing behavior displayed

by individual students may influence teachers' initial interactions and their long-standing

beliefs regarding their ability to manage these behaviors effectively. For example, the

correlational findings of Lambert and colleagues (2009) indicate that excessively active and

easily distracted students may detrimentally affect U.S. teachers' perceptions of their teaching

competence, as well as their confidence in building positive relationships with challenging

students. It is important to note that inexperienced teachers often reflect negative personal

emotions, thoughts, and beliefs about efficacy in their observations of student behavior

(Emmer & Stough, 2001). A grounded theory approach used by Feuerborn and Chinn (2012)

to explore US teachers’ views on student needs found that novice teachers tend to exhibit

more emotionally charged responses to externalizing behaviors than their more experienced

peers, and they appear to be more affected by the disruptions these behaviors create in the

instructional process. Similar qualitative findings are evident in studies conducted in Europe

as well. Research by Kokkinos and colleagues (Kokkinos et al., 2004, 2005) indicated that

experienced teachers usually view disruptive student behavior as less daunting and more
manageable within the classroom. Based on this evidence, one might hypothesize that as

teachers gain more experience, they may be better equipped to mitigate the negative impact

of teacher-perceived externalizing behavior on their specific feelings of teacher self-efficacy

(TSE).

Internalizing behaviour

Internalizing behavior refers to symptoms such as shyness, verbal inhibition, anxiety,

or social withdrawal in students, which tend to lead to less problematic experiences or

negative thoughts for their teachers (Coplan, 2000; Gazelle & Ladd, 2003; Merrell, 1999).

These internalizing challenges can be more subtle compared to externalizing behaviors and

often represent more suitable classroom conduct and etiquette. Consequently, students who

internalize their struggles are more likely to be overlooked or not noticed by their instructors

when compared to those exhibiting externalizing behaviors (Coplan & Prakash, 2003) and

might have minimal, if any, impact on teachers' self-efficacy perceptions across various

teaching areas. However, there remains a possibility that behaviors characterized by

internalizing tendencies could still be disruptive to teachers and affect their self-assessment of

efficacy (e.g., Olson & Cooper, 2001; Westling, 2010). Significantly, the only empirical

research investigating U.S. teachers' self-efficacy about students' internalizing behavior

revealed that teachers with high self-efficacy may find students' internalizing behaviors more

bothersome than those who feel less confident in their teaching abilities (Liljequist & Renk,

2007). One possible explanation for this observation is that a strong sense of teacher self-

efficacy often corresponds with greater teaching experience.

Studies indicate that the self-efficacy of teachers correlates with their job satisfaction

(Klassen & Chiu, 2010) and their stress levels (e.g., Klassen & Chiu, 2011), yet the link

between self-efficacy and teaching effectiveness is not as clearly defined. A recent synthesis

of the literature on teacher self-efficacy (Klassen, Tze, Betts, & Gordon, 2011) found a
remarkable increase in the amount of research undertaken, but the findings were narrow in

focus and practical relevance: more than 99% of the studies concentrated on within-teacher

outcomes (e.g., self-reported measures of job satisfaction or engagement) rather than external

indicators of teaching effectiveness (e.g., student performance or evaluations of teaching

quality). Likewise, there has been limited research connecting modern personality theories

(e.g., the Big Five) with teaching effectiveness (Rimm-Kaufman and Hamre, 2010).

Exploring the extent of the relationship between teachers' psychological traits—such as self-

efficacy and personality—and their effectiveness could enhance our understanding of how to

achieve effective teaching and foster positive student results. Educators worldwide encounter

numerous new and ongoing challenges due to rising workloads, changing policies and

expectations, and broader societal shifts. Teachers' beliefs regarding their abilities to confront

these difficulties significantly impact student learning and their commitment to the profession

(Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). In recent years, teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE)—

the conviction teachers hold that they can positively affect student learning—has been

demonstrated to greatly affect both teachers and their students' daily experiences. While

substantial research indicates that TSE has a considerable impact on both teachers and

students, there is a lack of studies examining the validity of TSE among diverse groups of

teachers in varying contexts. Specifically, making international comparisons offers

researchers valuable insights into the universality and applicability of essential psychological

constructs, paving the way for future studies to incorporate these newly validated constructs

in a wider array of environments. Examining teacher motivation in various contexts is

valuable, as teaching practices and circumstances demonstrate significant differences both

within and between countries, and these variations in educational environments and methods

may impact teachers' perceptions of their duties and responsibilities (Ho & Hau, 2004). For

instance, the daily experiences of teachers in East Asian regions may contrast sharply with
those of teachers in North America, influenced by disparities in teacher training, onboarding,

professional growth opportunities, and expectations surrounding student conduct and

performance (Preus, 2007, Yeom and Ginsburg, 2007). In European countries such as

Cyprus, educators might function within a more centralized educational framework compared

to the majority of North American teachers, leading to distinct motivations for entering the

profession unlike those of American teachers (Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2004). While

teacher self-efficacy (TSE) may be a globally relevant aspect affecting teaching and learning,

there has been limited investigation into whether TSE manifests similarly in environments

offering diverse educational experiences.

Cognitive theories on Teacher’s self-efficacy:

In their comprehensive model of teacher self-efficacy, Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998)

emphasized the significance of cognitive processing in shaping teacher self-efficacy. Two

cognitive processes play a role in the development and emergence of teacher self-efficacy:

(1) analyzing the teaching task and its surrounding context, and (2) evaluating personal

teaching competence. The first process pertains to teachers’ examination of the task and its

conditions, including the elements that complicate teaching and consideration of these

challenges in light of the resources available. The second process relates to teachers’ self-

evaluation of their skills concerning their deficiencies related to the task. The interplay

between task analysis and the evaluation of one’s competence influences self-efficacy.

Teachers’ beliefs in their self-efficacy, in turn, positively impact their performance.

Nevertheless, teacher self-efficacy characteristically evolves cyclically—once a task is

completed, this positive performance is perceived as a new achievement experience that

shapes self-efficacy beliefs (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Teacher self-efficacy not only

influences performance but also appears to mediate the impact of social factors on adaptive

self-regulatory functioning (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997): High self-efficacy improves

regulatory function, suggesting that when confronted with academic challenges, teachers with

strong self-efficacy focus their efforts on problem-solving (Bandura, 1997). The effect of

self-efficacy on performance and behavior can be understood through cognitive processes as

well as those tied to goal-setting. Performance on tasks is affected by the type of personal

goals that individuals aim to achieve—strong self-efficacy beliefs empower teachers to

pursue ambitious task objectives, which, in conjunction with feedback on their progress,

result in high task performance (Cervone, Mor, Orom, Shadel, & Scott, 2004). Goals that are

specific, short-term, and perceived as challenging yet attainable are more effective at

enhancing self-efficacy than goals that are vague, long-term, or considered unachievable

(Schunk, 1995). Teachers who possess confidence in their teaching abilities tend to aim for

ambitious goals, and they are also more likely to adopt effective self-regulatory strategies

even when faced with challenges to achieve those goals. During the changes teachers

encountered due to COVID-19, an extensive study indicated that the educational environment

significantly influenced teachers' feelings of success (Kraft et al., 2020). Although the

researchers did not directly examine teacher self-efficacy, their study concentrated on the

factors that affected teachers' sense of achievement. Through pre/post surveys, the

researchers discovered that teachers faced challenges in balancing their teaching

responsibilities with personal lives, adapting to new technology, and dealing with disengaged

students. According to Kraft et al. (2020), teachers who had clear communication and

reasonable expectations from school and district leaders experienced less decline in their

sense of success. Furthermore, teachers who participated in professional development geared

toward virtual instruction and collaborated with colleagues felt a stronger sense of

accomplishment (Kraft et al., 2020).

To foster an atmosphere that enhances teacher self-efficacy, principals should offer teachers

strategies and constructive feedback (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993), create chances for growth

through professional development (Fackler & Malmberg, 2016), and promote collaboration

among teachers within the school (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Siciliano, 2016). Moreover,

school settings that extend support to teachers through coaching or mentoring typically

observe an increase in teacher self-efficacy (O’Connor & Korr, 1996; Ross & Bruce, 2007).

In addition to the involvement of building administrators and educators, Stipek (2012)

identified parental support as a crucial factor impacting a teacher's self-efficacy within the

school environment. With many educators now operating in hybrid and virtual formats,

parents have taken on a more significant role in the educational context. Recently, Pressley

(2021) noted that effective communication with parents is a key predictor of teacher burnout.

On an individual level, various previous studies have identified several factors influencing

teacher self-efficacy, such as teachers' perceptions of student involvement (Ross et al. 1996),

obtaining graduate degrees, the time of year (Anderson et al., 1988), professional

development experiences (Yoo, 2016), and prior teaching experiences (Hoy & Woolfolk,

1993; Wolters & Daugherty, 2007). In particular, the time of year can affect teachers' self-

efficacy, with educators generally experiencing higher levels of efficacy at the end of the

school year compared to the beginning, especially in elementary settings due to the mastery

experiences accumulated throughout the year (Anderson et al., 1988). Additionally, Hoy &

Woolfolk (1993) discovered that teachers with greater experience tended to exhibit higher

self-efficacy because they had accumulated more mastery experiences. Mastery experiences

often serve as a crucial factor in determining teacher self-efficacy, particularly when

evaluating novice teachers' self-efficacy, as Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) found

variations in instructional efficacy, although engagement efficacy showed no significant

differences. In an expanding collection of research, scholars have established a connection

between teachers' self-efficacy and their perspectives on inclusive education. The term

“attitude” can be widely understood as an individual's cognitive and emotional assessment of

an attitude object or specific action, whether it is positive or negative (Ajzen, 2012; Bohner &

Dickel, 2011; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). In 1980, Ajzen and Fishbein introduced the theory of

reasoned action, which enhances our understanding of a person's attitude and behavior.

Building on this, Ajzen (2012) developed his theory of planned behavior, which focuses on

three elements that forecast an individual's behavioral intention and subsequent actions: (a)

attitude toward the behavior; (b) subjective norm; and (c) perceived behavioral control. The

notion of perceived behavioral control is considered similar to Bandura’s (1997) concept of

self-efficacy, with these three components closely interconnected and affecting both

behavioral intention and actual behavior (Ajzen, 2012).

Teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education encompass their beliefs and emotions about

integrating children with diverse educational requirements into regular classrooms

(Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Forlin et al., 2011). Previous research has found that there is a

positive relationship between teachers' self-efficacy and their attitudes toward inclusive

education (e.g., Lifshitz et al., 2004; MacFarlane & Woolfson, 2013; Malinen et al., 2013;

Savolainen et al., 2012; Yada & Savolainen, 2017). Conversely, some authors have indicated

that the relationship between self-efficacy and attitudes is weak or not significant (Carew et

al., 2018; Chan, 2016; Lee et al., 2014), suggesting that self-efficacy and attitudes among

teachers represent distinct concepts (Saloviita, 2015). A teacher with high self-efficacy

fosters an environment where students feel inspired and focused on their goals. Teachers who

possess a stronger sense of self-efficacy achieve more effective teaching results, leading to

increased motivation in their students and, consequently, improved academic performance

(Caprara, et al. 2006). While everyone can set goals to pursue and achievements to attain, it is

well-known that without action, reaching these targets can be challenging. To effectively
tackle goals, tasks, and obstacles, researchers like Bandura have indicated that an individual's

self-efficacy is crucial. Those who believe in their capabilities are more likely to successfully

reach their objectives. A significant portion of effective teaching activities and practices

relies on teachers’ self-efficacy to stay current with the evolving child-centered approaches

(Rodriguez, et al. 2009). Cherry (2020) observes that teachers who possess a strong sense of

efficacy in their role can cultivate an interest in academic endeavors, demonstrate a greater

commitment to their interests and school-related activities, maintain composure in the face of

challenges and setbacks, and embrace difficult tasks as opportunities for success. In contrast,

teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy tend to shy away from challenging tasks and often

make excuses; they perceive difficult tasks as beyond their skill set, concentrate on negative

outcomes, internalize failures, and ultimately lose confidence in their abilities. Teacher

efficacy significantly impacts educational planning and the organization of various activities

(Alliner, 1994). Teachers with strong self-efficacy are generally more willing to learn new

concepts and are eager to experiment with innovative teaching methods so that their students

can benefit to the fullest (Guskey, 1988). Furthermore, the notion of "how teachers perceive

their ability to meet the demands of the teaching profession" can be interpreted through the

lens of teacher self-efficacy (Gibson and Dembo, 1984; Atıcı, 2002; Schunk, 2014). Teacher

self-efficacy is a crucial concept regarding the instructional process. Educators who possess a

high sense of self-efficacy demonstrate a stronger commitment to their responsibilities

(Glickman and Tamashiro, 1982; Coladarci, 1992) and have a positive influence on student

achievement. Moreover, teachers with elevated self-efficacy effectively manage their

classrooms and time, mitigate undesirable student behaviors, and implement innovative

teaching strategies (Woolfolk and Hoy, 1990). Additionally, these teachers are more likely to

invest time and effort into their students, treat them fairly, assume greater responsibility,

foster a supportive classroom atmosphere, and recognize students' needs. They assist students
facing learning challenges, explore new approaches, and offer guidance for their success,

thereby enhancing their academic performance and positively impacting student outcomes

(e.g., Gibson and Dembo, 1984; Midgley et al., 1989; Guskey and Passaro, 1994; Woolfolk-

Hoy and Burke-Spero, 2005; Caprara et al., 2006; Shidler, 2009; Elliott et al., 2010; Guo et

al., 2010; Tschannen-Moran and Johnson, 2011; Marzano, 2017). In contrast, educators with

low self-efficacy tend to focus more on non-academic topics, criticize students for failures,

exert less effort in sourcing materials, employ more traditional teacher-centered methods, and

shy away from tasks that they consider beyond their capabilities (Bandura, 1995; Schunk and

Pajares, 2009; Swackhamer et al., 2009).

In summary, the belief in self-efficacy is essential for a teacher, who is tasked with preparing

individuals to adapt to changing times while gaining necessary knowledge and skills and

staying updated with innovations (Koç, 2013). The professional competencies of teacher

candidates and educators are connected to their beliefs about receiving high-quality

education. Among these beliefs, self-efficacy stands out as the most significant (Kahyaoğlu,

2011). The teacher plays a key role in achieving the defined goals through instructional

activities in schools. Therefore, a teacher's self-efficacy belief needs to be robust to establish

a positive learning environment (Akkoyunlu et al., 2005; Yokuş, 2014), and this belief in

their efficacy has a considerable impact on their teaching practices as well as on learning

processes (e.g., Caprara et al., 2006; Elliott et al., 2010; Kahyaoğlu, 2011). The competencies

and skills of teachers are vital for providing high-quality teaching and overcoming challenges

encountered during instruction (Özdemir, 2008). There is a relationship between teachers’

general knowledge, content mastery, pedagogical knowledge, and skills, and their self-

efficacy (Yeşilyurt, 2013). In other words, possessing professional knowledge alone is

insufficient for a teacher to effectively execute their role; their belief in their ability to fulfill
their professional duties is equally crucial (Güneş et al., 2015). In this context, achieving

professional success may be challenging for teachers who do not perceive themselves as

professionally equipped, competent, and self-efficient (Aydın et al., 2014).

Improving teacher self-efficacy through training programs

Considering the current and possible educational advantages of the teacher efficacy

concept, efforts aimed at altering teacher efficacy would be beneficial for advancing efficacy

research beyond merely correlational studies (Henson, 2001b). Allowing teachers to examine

themselves critically, reflect on their beliefs, and receive feedback on their effectiveness will

help strengthen self-efficacy, which in turn will facilitate learning and retention. However,

research indicates that these opportunities should occur early in their careers, as a teacher's

efficacy beliefs tend to solidify over time, making them harder to reshape later.

Studies have documented shifts in teachers' efficacy beliefs at different points in their

professional journeys. A considerable amount of research indicates that efficacy beliefs are

highest among preservice teachers, with a significant decline often occurring during the

initial teaching year (Brousseau, Book, & Byers, 1988; Soodak & Podell, 1997). For instance,

Soodak and Podell (1997) observed in their cross-sectional study of preservice and practicing

elementary and secondary teachers that the personal efficacy beliefs of elementary teachers

experienced a noteworthy decrease from preservice experiences to their first teaching year.

Their research also revealed a consistent rise in efficacy beliefs for elementary teachers with

experience, although this increase never returned to preservice levels. Additionally, Soodak

and Podell (1997) found no evidence of fluctuation in efficacy beliefs among secondary

teachers. They reported that their sample of secondary educators exhibited significantly more

homogeneity in their efficacy beliefs compared to the elementary teachers sampled.

Chester and Beaudin (1996) explored the connection between changes in self-efficacy beliefs

and organizational factors within schools for newly employed teachers in urban settings,

revealing that the commonly observed decline in efficacy beliefs during the first year is not

universally applicable. Specifically, they discovered that this relationship is influenced by

certain organizational factors at the school level—such as opportunities for collaboration with

colleagues and administrators, supervisory focus on classroom performance, and access to

instructional resources.

Researchers studying the evolution of efficacy beliefs have noted that these beliefs are most

malleable during pre-service training (Housego, 1992; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993; Woolfolk

Hoy & Burke-Spero, 2005) and become increasingly resistant to change as educators gain

more experience (Anderson et al., 1988; Ohmart, 1992; Ross, 1994; Tschannen-Moran,

Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Less experienced teachers often report lower self-efficacy

regarding their ability to manage challenging classroom behaviors (Carter, Cushing, Sabers,

Stein & Berliner, 1988). Moreover, those who work in isolation, do not engage in decision-

making, and are not encouraged to collaborate with peers are more likely to exhibit low

general teaching efficacy, even with a high sense of personal teaching efficacy (Beady &

Hansell, 1981; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993).

Some studies emphasize the necessity of explicitly addressing efficacy beliefs in in-service

teacher training programs (Ohlhausen, Meyerson, & Sexton, 1992; Stein & Wang, 1988) to

positively influence classroom management. This aspect is particularly crucial for groups of

teachers who are the most resistant to changing their classroom management styles, as they

tend to be less motivated to pursue professional development and collaboration opportunities

with peers (Raver et al., 2008).

Henson (2001b) argues that “meaningfully affecting teachers’ efficacy beliefs is improbable

without long-term professional development that encourages educators to critically reflect on

their classrooms and actively engage in instructional enhancement.”

Personal Growth Initiative

From a lifespan viewpoint, personal growth is regarded as crucial for the effective

functioning of an individual and has been identified as a fundamental factor in sustaining and

improving well-being and positive psychological health throughout various life phases

(Verdoodt, K., Simons, M., de Hoog, N. 2024).The Personal Growth Initiative (PGI), as

described by Robitschek (1998), refers to an individual's capacity to pursue self-

improvement, involving both cognitive and behavioral aspects. The cognitive aspects include

self-efficacy, which encompasses the beliefs, attitudes, and values that facilitate personal

development. The behavioral aspect involves putting these thoughts into action and effecting

change across various areas of growth. Growth can take place without the individual's

conscious awareness, which often happens in biological growth processes, or can involve a

deliberate effort resulting from a significant life event. Intentional growth occurs when the

individual not only recognizes the changes but also actively engages in efforts to foster

growth. The notion of Personal Growth Initiative (PGI), linked to the latter, is characterized

by a conscious and proactive engagement in the processes of personal growth and is viewed

as a multifaceted construct that includes both cognitive and behavioral elements. The

cognitive aspect encompasses knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and values that support personal

growth. The application of the cognitive element, along with the decisions to actively
implement changes, constitutes the behavioral aspect. PGI can be understood as a collection

of skills that enable individuals to pursue self-improvement across various life areas.

Self-determination theory

Based on the self-determination theory, individuals typically have three fundamental

needs: autonomy, relationships, and competence (Deci and Ryan, 2000). The autonomy need

refers to an individual's desire to act according to their own will and sense of self-agency,

free from external control (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Robitschek (1998) described the

inclination to consciously and actively enhance and refine oneself as personal growth

initiative. This personal growth initiative reflects the autonomy need and is a vital component

of self-improvement. Research indicates that it has a significant positive correlation with

academic effort among college students (Chang and Yang, 2016), career exploration, and

professional identity (Robitschek and Cook, 1999). When comparing individuals with low

personal growth initiative to those with higher levels, the latter tend to have more defined

goals and develop specific life plans aligned with different life stages, increasing their

likelihood of achieving those goals (Xu et al., 2019). The change processes that individuals

intentionally engage in are referred to as personal growth initiatives (PGI). Personal growth

initiative can be described as the individual's proactive and purposeful engagement in their

own development journey (Robitschek, 1998). Changes that arise from PGI can manifest

across various areas of life, impacting emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects

(Robitschek, 2003). Therefore, the capability to recognize and implement personal changes

that facilitate positive development in response to shifts in life circumstances (such as

becoming a parent, receiving a job promotion, or getting married) defines personal growth

initiative (Robitschek, 1998). The personal growth initiative is one aspect of psychological

well-being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Psychological well-being includes optimal or positive

psychological functioning, which consists of dimensions such as self-acceptance, positive

relationships with others, autonomy, mastery of the environment, life purpose, and personal

growth (Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Villacieros, Serrano, Bermejo, Magaña, & Carabias, 2014).

Besides being a dimension of psychological well-being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), personal

growth initiative can also be understood as a personal asset, as it involves a collection of

skills that facilitate changes leading to positive development in individuals (Weigold &

Robitschek, 2011). Personal assets can be seen as the skills and favorable assessments

individuals have regarding their capacity to influence and manage their surroundings. These

assets are intrinsic and are recognized as independent dimensions, capable of development

and affected by environmental changes. Thus, personal growth initiative, as a personal asset,

denotes the individual skills that encourage the purposeful development of deliberate

personal changes, intentionally planned by those undertaking them (Weigold, Porfeli, &

Weigold, 2013; Weigold & Robitschek, 2011). Individuals with elevated levels of readiness

for change, planfulness, intentional behavior, and the ability to utilize resources in terms of

Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) may have a higher capacity to recognize or generate

opportunities that facilitate and enhance their personal development (Robitschek &

Kashubeck, 1999). Those who possess high PGI levels tend to adjust more effectively to

various circumstances, manage stressful situations more successfully, experience greater life

satisfaction, and pursue suitable solutions to the challenges they encounter (Loo, Tsai, Raylu,

& Oei, 2014; Robitschek et al., 2012; Weigold et al., 2013a). Elevated PGI scores are also

positively correlated with positive emotions and negatively correlated with anxiety,

depression, and negative emotions (Hardin et al., 2007; Robitschek & Kashubeck, 1999;

Robitschek & Keyes, 2009).

Conversely, a deficiency in PGI skills negatively affects people’s lives. Research indicates

that low PGI levels correlate with challenges in adjusting to new environments, leading to an
increase in stress and anxiety and a decrease in life satisfaction for those affected (Stevic &

Ward, 2008; Weigold & Robitschek, 2011; Yakunina, Weigold, & Weigold, 2013). Struggles

in recognizing opportunities for personal growth are also linked to the reliance on ineffective

coping mechanisms, such as a tendency to employ emotion-focused strategies rather than

problem-focused strategies (Weigold & Robitschek, 2011). PGI is associated with the Stages

of Change model and includes the Preparation stage identified by Prochaska and DiClemente

(1992). This stage reflects a readiness for change that integrates both attitude and behavior

(Prochaska & DiClemente, 1992). It can be characterized as a meta-cognitive construct that

pertains to the awareness and regulation of deliberate engagement in growth-promoting

thoughts and actions across different life domains (Robitschek, 1998). Actively and

meaningfully striving toward one’s goals is a fundamental element of PGI.

The PGI also encompasses behavioral aspects that involve pursuing growth opportunities,

optimizing them, and committing to a structured personal development plan. These

behavioral components include the effective use of resources and highlight the importance of

actively engaging in behavioral change as vital elements in personal development.

Readiness for change

Being ready for change means understanding the right time to start the transformation

process. This can be reflected in your capacity to identify signals that show you're prepared to

make adjustments in yourself.

For example, you may have the clarity to recognize when you are emotionally equipped and

inspired to start your journey of personal evolution. This readiness acts as a crucial initial

step, ensuring that the change process is in harmony with your mental and emotional state,

thereby enhancing the chances of successful and lasting progress.

Planning
Careful planning involves the methodical creation of a blueprint for change. This includes

establishing realistic and attainable goals to guide the transformation journey. Through

thorough planning, you set the foundation for your pathway and become able to identify

personal biases that could obstruct progress. This cognitive process assists in avoiding actions

that might derail your self-improvement objectives, allowing you to remain focused and

achieve results.

Effective planning requires adaptability. This means being able to modify your strategy and

utilize your resources effectively as you work through your plan. Many see planning as

essential for reaching goals, yet challenges may arise during implementation due to fears of

failure, fluctuating dedication, and excessive overthinking. Tackling these hurdles and

approaching planning with insight and flexibility is crucial for making genuine progress in

personal growth.

Resource utilization

The effective use of resources highlights how individuals leverage external supports. This

may involve looking for help or guidance when pursuing personal transformation.

Acknowledging the importance of seeking assistance or insights demonstrates an

understanding that growth is a collective journey enhanced by the experiences and viewpoints

of others.

Intentional behavior

Motivated actions relate to an individual's engaged participation in their change process. This

can show up as taking advantage of self-improvement opportunities as they present

themselves.

Adopting intentional behavior emphasizes a forward-thinking strategy for development,

where individuals proactively pursue opportunities for growth and take consistent action.
This approach embodies a mindset geared towards ongoing improvement and a readiness to

leave one’s comfort zone in the quest for meaningful change.

The Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) involves a proactive and deliberate commitment to

personal development and transformation (Robitschek, 1998). It represents a comprehensive

desire to enhance oneself by actively pursuing experiences that foster self-growth and reflects

a mindset aimed at change and progression across various aspects of life. This initiative

encompasses a developed skill set that includes cognitive, behavioral, attitudinal, and

motivational elements that individuals carry into every life situation (Robitschek and Ashton

et al., 2009). PGI can be viewed as a meta-cognitive concept, highlighting the awareness and

control over intentional engagement in behaviors and thoughts that promote growth in all

spheres of existence (Robitschek, 1998). It illustrates a commitment to actively and

purposefully taking part in the process of seeking personal growth. The components of PGI

include cognitive aspects, such as the motivation to initiate change, understanding of the

change process, and confidence regarding efficient change, along with behavioral aspects,

such as overarching goals related to personal transformation and strategies for achieving

those objectives. The level of Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) can be viewed as existing on a

spectrum ranging from low to high. A person's PGI level will affect how much that individual

pursues growth opportunities, takes advantage of available chances, and engages purposefully

in the process of personal transformation (Robitschek and Ashton et al., 2009). For instance,

a person with a high level of PGI is likely to critically analyze their past, present, and future

experiences to identify growth potential as well as to track their growth journey.

Behaviorally, such individuals are inclined to seek out experiences they consider vital for

their personal development. Conversely, a person with a low level of PGI does not regard

growth as a relevant factor when reflecting on their past, present, or future experiences and
thus typically does not actively pursue opportunities for intentional personal growth (Martin,

2009).

Personal Growth Initiative (PGI; Robitschek, 1998, 1999) is recognized as a well-defined

concept that has been assessed across various populations. Existing research on PGI

encompasses numerous areas, including its relationship with coping strategies, career

development, gender implications, physical health, well-being, family dynamics, and hope

(Hardin, Weigold, and Robitschek, 2007; Robitschek, 1998, 1999; Robitschek and Cook,

1999; Shorey, Little, and Snyder, 2007; Whittaker and Robitschek, 2001). Bartley and

Robitschek (2000) examined PGI as one of the various factors that influence career

exploration and found a significant correlation between environmental exploration and PGI

among female college students.

According to Robitschek (1998), the Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) can significantly

contribute to counseling and the therapeutic relationship by directing both the client’s and

counselor’s attention toward the strengths that already exist within the client or their life

circumstances. When clients seek counsel from therapists, psychologists, or counselors, these

professionals typically aim for two key objectives. The first objective is to help clients

navigate their challenges more effectively and to support them in utilizing their untapped

resources and opportunities. The second objective is to empower clients to aid themselves in

their daily lives (Egan, 2007). For clients to cultivate the essential skills necessary for daily

functioning, the counselor needs to assist them in developing or enhancing resources,

including their social support systems.

In research regarding psychological well-being, Compton (2001) proposed that individuals

pursuing psychological well-being tend to focus on their social surroundings and leverage

interpersonal relationships to elevate their sense of self-worth. Additionally, they also seek

greater independence and engage in personal growth processes to forge an authentic self.
Robitschek and Kashubeck (1999) suggested that individuals should be supported in their

personal growth development and should be taught the skills necessary to foster this growth.

Therefore, this study will examine the social support available to individuals and its

connection to their levels of PGI.

Research (Robitschek, 1998) indicated that interventions may boost PGI, leading to the

inference that an individual's PGI can be enhanced through the help of others. Subsequent

research (Levine et al., 2005) has corroborated this assertion, indicating that supportive

relationships with family and friends may facilitate personal growth. Levine et al. posited that

a secure environment allows individuals to reflect on their feelings and experiences, question

various aspects of their lives, and receive honest feedback. Additional studies (Robitschek &

Kashubeck, 1999; Robitschek & Whittaker, 2001) provided further evidence of PGI's

potential protective qualities, suggesting that effective family dynamics could elevate

personal growth orientation and potentially diminish psychological distress. Given the

therapeutic implications and protective aspects of PGI, it is crucial to investigate whether the

level of social support individuals possess affects their PGI levels. A critical component of

PGI is the intentional drive for growth (Robitschek, 1999), highlighting the importance of

recognizing specific personal traits that relate to PGI and can be addressed within a

therapeutic context, thereby enhancing PGI.

Ryff (as referenced in Robitschek & Kashubeck, 1999) argued that individuals with optimal

psychological functioning are open to new experiences and continuously evolve rather than

becoming stuck in a rigid state. A trait linked to openness to new experiences is curiosity.

Curiosity prompts proactive, intentional action in response to stimuli characterized by

novelty, complexity, uncertainty, and conflict. These traits can elicit two forms of responses

in individuals: diverse and specific curiosity. Berlyne (as cited in Kashdan, Rose, and
Fincham, 2004) characterized a person demonstrating diversive curiosity as one who actively

seeks a variety of new and challenging experiences.

Overall, research conducted by Kashdan et al. (2004) suggests that a curious individual tends

to have a positive awareness of themselves, their future, the world, and their experiences.

Curiosity may also foster openness to new experiences and instill a belief in one’s capability

to achieve certain goals and overcome challenges. Furthermore, being curious shows a

negative correlation with social anxiety, boredom, and indifference. According to Kashdan et

al. (2004), individuals with high curiosity are more likely to leverage personal and social

resources when faced with life stressors and are more attuned to available resources while

being open to exploring new ones. One of the fundamental aspects of curiosity is its intrinsic

motivational quality (Kashdan et al., 2004), which could serve as a beneficial tool in

therapeutic contexts. Therefore, this study aims to demonstrate a significant link between

Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) and curiosity, proposing that enhancing curiosity may also

elevate a person's PGI level. The therapeutic goal would be to boost an individual's PGI

through specific encouragement to utilize curiosity as a means to promote personal

development. DeCarvalho (as cited in Robitschek, 1998) suggested that individuals who

actively pursue self-change will be better equipped to handle challenges and self-

discrepancies, viewing them as opportunities for growth.

When someone realizes they are dissatisfied with certain aspects of themselves or their life, it

can trigger personal development. This reflects a gap between their actual self and their

aspirational self. Self-discrepancy involves four domains (Hardin, Bayer, Nixon &

Robitschek, 2003) of the self: the actual self encompasses the qualities one believes one

possesses; the ideal self includes the qualities one wishes to embody; the ought self pertains

to qualities one feels they should have; and the undesired self consists of attributes they do

not want to possess. Egan (2007) notes that those seeking change often feel confined within
their current selves, prompting them to seek counseling for guidance. Consequently,

investigating PGI and its connection to self-discrepancies is essential because transforming

from one’s current self to what Egan (2007) refers to as the 'possible self' requires intentional

change.

Previous studies (Hardin et al., 2003 & 2007) examining self-discrepancy and PGI considered

PGI as a moderating factor and self-discrepancy as a mediating factor. No evidence was

found supporting PGI as a moderating influence between self-discrepancy and affect.

However, it was discovered that self-discrepancy partially mediated the connection between

PGI and social anxiety, yet it did not mediate the relationship between PGI and affect (Hardin

et al., 2007). The findings suggested that individuals with high PGI levels experience reduced

social anxiety. Hardin et al. (2007) proposed that this may be because those engaged in

purposeful personal development experience greater alignment between their current and

possible selves. They also indicated that very little research has been done to explore the

factors affecting the development of self-discrepancy and whether issues like self-

discrepancy predict or lead to PGI. Thus, the goal of the present study is to examine if there

exists a direct relationship between self-discrepancy and PGI.

Empirical research has demonstrated that personal growth initiatives are linked to numerous

positive outcomes for individuals (Ayub & Iqbal, 2012; Shigemoto et al., 2017) as well as

organizations (Vaksalla & Hashimah, 2015). Regarding the individual aspect, some studies

indicate that personal growth initiatives positively influence individuals' sense of meaning in

life and overall life satisfaction. Discovering life's meaning is a lengthy journey that requires

personal growth for individuals to perceive a positive significance in life and attain life

satisfaction. In the organizational context, personal growth initiatives involve embracing

change and adapting to beneficial aspects of life (Meyers et al., 2015), which allows

individuals to persist in the learning process and, consequently, enhances their engagement
with the organization. Personal growth initiatives equip individuals within organizations to

attain career success in environments that demand continuous learning and adaptability

(Meyers et al., 2015) while also contributing positively to their mental and psychological

well-being (Robitschek & Keyes, 2009; Weigold et al., 2013). Conversely, organizations

benefit from personal growth initiatives as proactive employees are healthier, more vibrant,

and more productive when faced with high environmental pressures, which also aids

individuals in concentrating on their career development (London & Smither, n.d.). Teonata

& Yuliawati's research (2020) similarly revealed that personal growth initiatives impact

career commitment within the millennial demographic, which currently makes up a

significant portion of the workforce. A deficiency in personal growth initiative skills is linked

to adverse effects on individuals' lives. Research shows that individuals with low levels of

personal growth initiative struggle to adapt to new situations, leading to increased stress and

anxiety and diminished life satisfaction (Stevic & Ward, 2008; Weigold et al., 2013; Weigold

& Robitschek, 2011). Challenges in identifying opportunities for personal growth are also

associated with the reliance on ineffective coping mechanisms, such as preferring emotion-

focused strategies over problem-focused ones (Weigold & Robitschek, 2011). Therefore,

conducting a scoping review on personal growth initiatives within organizations is essential

to analyze studies that explore the factors influencing personal growth initiatives, their

outcomes, and the interventions that have been implemented concerning the development of

personal growth initiatives, particularly in an organizational setting. The unidimensional

Personal Growth Initiative Scale (Robitschek, 1998) was the initial tool used to

operationalize PGI. Recently, the Personal Growth Initiative Scale-II (PGIS-II) was

introduced to better clarify the various cognitive and behavioral components of the construct.

The cognitive components of PGI include Readiness for Change (recognizing the appropriate

time to begin the growth process in a specific area) and Planfulness (developing a strategy for
growth and revising it as necessary), while the behavioral components comprise Using

Resources (leveraging external support during the growth process) and Intentional Behavior

(actively pursuing one's growth plan; Robitschek et al., 2012; Robitschek & Thoen, 2015).

Extensive research on PGI has been conducted within college student populations, both in the

United States and globally, demonstrating it as a significant predictor of optimal functioning

(e.g., Cai & Lian, 2022; Taušová et al., 2019; Weigold et al., 2021). For instance, Weigold et

al. (2021) revealed that PGI positively predicted the satisfaction of basic needs in college,

along with psychological well-being and vocational commitment, for U.S. college students at

both public, predominantly White institutions and private, minority-majority colleges.

Additionally, Taušová et al. (2019) discovered that PGI directly and negatively predicted

mental health issues and indirectly reduced acculturative stress through host culture

orientation among international students in the Netherlands. Lastly, Cai and Lian (2022)

indicated that PGI positively forecasted a sense of purpose in Chinese college students, both

directly and indirectly through academic self-efficacy.

Most investigations into PGI, involving college students and other demographics, have either

utilized the original unidimensional PGI measure or the overall score from the PGIS-II (see

de Freitas et al., 2016; Weigold et al., 2020). Nevertheless, this emphasis on overall scores

restricts our comprehension of how the four dimensions of PGI may variably influence

optimal functioning, leading researchers to advocate for further studies in this domain

(Robitschek et al., 2012; Weigold et al., 2018).

Personal growth initiative is regarded as a key aspect of eudemonia (Robitschek and Keyes,

2009) and represents a self-directed journey where individuals are actively and intentionally

engaged in their self-improvement. This initiative indicates a person's ambition to develop by

recognizing necessary resources and devising a specific strategy to reach their growth
objectives (Robitschek, 1998). The role of personal growth initiative was selected as a

moderator between preventive behaviors and life satisfaction, as well as between fear of

COVID-19 and life satisfaction, for three primary reasons.

Firstly, personal growth initiative is particularly significant during the COVID-19 pandemic,

empowering university students to take control of their lives, make essential adjustments to

their daily routines, and implement the necessary steps to reach their educational and

professional aspirations (Robitschek, 1998). The adaptation to a new normal life, which

includes adhering to COVID-19 preventive measures, can be naturally motivated by their

desire to engage actively in their change, growth, and development (personal growth

initiative). Ensuring safety from the virus is likely crucial for students to benefit from their

efforts toward personal growth and success.

Secondly, personal growth initiative fosters mental well-being. Studies have shown that

personal growth initiative can predict Keyes's comprehensive model of mental health (which

includes psychological, social, and emotional well-being) in two groups of college students.

Furthermore, years of psychotherapy theories suggest that personal development enhances

mental health (Robitschek and Keyes, 2009). Theoretically, increased levels of personal

growth initiative contribute to enhanced well-being, as they embody the essence of

eudaimonic well-being, which includes feelings of happiness or contentment stemming from

actions directed towards fulfilling one’s potential (Ryff, 1989). Studies have shown that

personal growth initiative is associated with psychological well-being (Robitschek, 1998) and

its six dimensions, in addition to positive affect, life satisfaction, and happiness (Robitschek

and Keyes, 2009). Furthermore, personal growth goals driven by intrinsic motivation—as

indicated by the items in the Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS)—are reported to yield

higher levels of subjective well-being compared to those motivated by external factors (Deci
and Ryan, 1985; Robitschek and Keyes, 2009). Therefore, it is likely that elevated levels of

personal growth initiative lead to greater life satisfaction. The positive correlation between

PGI and teacher engagement can also be viewed from a motivational angle. Since PGI-driven

activities are self-started, purpose-oriented, and aimed at the future (Bindl et al., 2012; Grant

& Ashford, 2008), the motivational capacity of PGI is tightly linked to individuals’ favorable

functioning, improved relationships, and a stronger sense of autonomy (Robitschek & Keyes,

2009), all of which enhance their work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). In a

longitudinal two-wave study conducted over three years, Hakanen et al. (2008) found that

personal initiatives positively affected work engagement. Additionally, PGI can mitigate the

effects of depression, anxiety, and emotional distress (Weigold et al., 2018). PGI can help

individuals avoid psychological strain by allowing them to view stressors as possibilities for

personal growth (Danitz et al., 2018). With the conviction that they can enhance their abilities

by addressing mistakes and managing stress (Robitschek et al., 2012), individuals can sustain

high levels of work engagement in the face of challenges and difficulties (Srivastava &

Bajpai, 2020). The favorable effect of PGI on instructional quality has also been corroborated

by general studies on proactivity across different settings (refer to the review by Lichtenthaler

& Fischbach, 2019). By engaging in proactive behaviors, individuals can adjust ineffective

methods (Zhang & Parker, 2022) or improve situations (Tims et al., 2014), thereby enhancing

their job performance. In teacher education, those who actively pursue learning opportunities

(Huang, 2021; Kyndt et al., 2016) or seek teaching development (Josef et al., 2016;

Retelsdorf et al., 2014) have reported enhancements in their classroom instruction.

Furthermore, the favorable connection between PGI and the instructional quality of teachers

is supported by research on self-regulation. Individuals with high PGI levels are required to

oversee their personal growth by consistently reflecting on their daily experiences, assessing

their processes, and refining their approaches to ensure effective development (Robitschek &
Cook, 1999). For educators, this metacognitive awareness and self-regulation are essential for

their instructional performance (Huang, Lin et al., 2022; Kunter et al., 2013).

The concept of Personal Growth Initiative, introduced by Christine Robitschek, is defined as

“A person's overall inclination to actively enhance oneself across various aspects of life. This

skill set is something every individual carries into life experiences, leading them to seek out

growth opportunities and take intentional steps to personally develop and improve.” The

teaching profession offers vast opportunities for personal growth, not only for educators but

also for their students, as long as the teacher takes the initiative for both parties.

The primary goal of the teaching process and all interactions between teachers and students is

to support students in their personal development. In essence, a teacher should be someone

who possesses a strong awareness of cognitive and behavioral practices that can promote

personal growth for diverse personalities.

Furthermore, it appears no other profession is as dynamic and ever-changing as teaching.

Educators must continually update their skills, attitudes, and strategies while adjusting their

mindsets accordingly. To keep pace with the rapidly evolving socio-cultural requirements

brought about by globalization and the pervasive influence of technology and

commercialism, teachers need to be individuals committed to ongoing personal growth

without end. Robitschek and Cook (1999), who created the Personal Growth Initiative Scale

(PGIS), indicate that PGI focuses on the intentionality of growth, encompassing an

individual's readiness to pursue self-improvement and enhance their lives (Robitschek &

Cook, 1999). PGI drives individuals to persist in seeking challenges and growth that can lead

to the achievement of life goals and personal satisfaction (Robitschek, 1998). These factors

support the reasoning behind assessing Personal Growth Initiative among educators to ensure

both efficiency and effectiveness in their roles.

 Job Satisfaction

Merriam-Webster's dictionary describes satisfaction as "the feeling that arises when

one's desires are fulfilled." According to Collins' dictionary, "satisfaction is the joy

experienced when you accomplish something or receive something that you desired or

required."

There are several definitions of "job satisfaction." It is regarded as a multifaceted concept that

holds different meanings for various individuals. Victor Vroom characterized job satisfaction

as "emotional orientations exhibited by individuals toward the work roles they currently

hold" (Vroom, 1964). Locke described job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional

state that arises from evaluating one's job or job experiences" (Locke, 1976). Paul E. Spector

explains that job satisfaction is "essentially how individuals feel about their jobs and various

elements of their work. It reflects the degree to which individuals feel positively (satisfaction)
or negatively (dissatisfaction) about their jobs" (Spector, Job Satisfaction: Application,

Assessment, Causes, and Consequences, 1997). D. Statt describes job satisfaction as "the

extent to which an employee is pleased with the rewards they receive from their job,

especially regarding intrinsic motivation" (Statt, 2004). Job satisfaction is also defined as "the

attitudes and feelings individuals hold concerning their work. When they harbor positive and

favorable attitudes toward their job, it indicates job satisfaction. Conversely, negative and

unfavorable attitudes suggest job dissatisfaction" (Armstrong, 2006). Newstorm defines job

satisfaction as "a range of positive or negative emotions and feelings that employees associate

with their work" (Newstorm, 2017).

Hoppock described job satisfaction as a combination of psychological, physiological, and

environmental conditions that lead an individual to honestly express that they are pleased

with their job (Hoppock, 1935). From this perspective, while a variety of external factors

influences job satisfaction, it ultimately relates to the internal feelings of the employee. In

essence, job satisfaction represents a collection of elements contributing to a sense of

contentment. Vroom, in his definition of job satisfaction, emphasizes the significance of the

employee's role within the workplace. He defines job satisfaction as the emotional responses

individuals have toward their current work roles (Vroom, 1964).

Job satisfaction refers to a worker's feeling of accomplishment and success in their role. It is

often considered directly correlated with productivity as well as overall personal well-being.

Job satisfaction entails engaging in work that one enjoys, performing it effectively, and

receiving appropriate rewards for one's contributions. Additionally, job satisfaction

encompasses enthusiasm and contentment in one’s professional life. It serves as the crucial

element that leads to acknowledgment, financial rewards, career advancement, and the

attainment of other objectives that foster a sense of fulfillment (Kaliski, 2007).

Job satisfaction can also be described as the degree to which an employee feels content with

the benefits they derive from their job, especially in terms of intrinsic motivation (Statt,

2004). The phrase "job satisfaction" denotes the attitudes and emotions individuals have

regarding their work. Positive and affirmative attitudes toward one’s job signify job

satisfaction, while negative and unfavorable attitudes indicate job dissatisfaction (Armstrong,

2006).

Job satisfaction consists of the feelings and beliefs individuals hold about their current

employment. The level of job satisfaction can vary significantly, ranging from high

satisfaction to severe dissatisfaction. In addition to having a general attitude about their job,

individuals may also have specific feelings regarding various elements of their work, such as

the nature of their tasks, their colleagues, supervisors or subordinates, and their salary

(George et al., 2008).

Job satisfaction is a complex and diverse notion that may represent different meanings to

different individuals. It is typically associated with motivation, although the exact nature of

this connection remains ambiguous. Satisfaction differs from motivation; while job

satisfaction represents an internal attitude or state of mind, it might be linked to personal

achievements that are either quantitative or qualitative in nature (Mullins, 2005).

Job satisfaction denotes an individual's feelings of pleasure arising from their assessment of

their job (Locke, 1969). Although there is some discussion about the dimensional aspects of

job satisfaction, it is widely accepted that it can represent an overall sense of contentment

(Moè, Pazzaglia, & Ronconi, 2010). Research across different professions has shown that job

satisfaction significantly impacts various outcomes (Bowling, 2007; Faragher, Cass, &

Cooper, 2005). For educators, a high level of job satisfaction can enhance enthusiasm and

improve interpersonal communication with students (e.g., Weiqi, 2007). Conversely, a

deficiency in satisfaction can result in lower enthusiasm and poorer interactions (Macdonald,

1999).

There are several theoretical explanations for why job satisfaction is connected to teachers’

intentions to leave their positions. In this context, it is essential to consider the impact of

unmet expectations. When teachers do not receive what they believe is crucial for their work,

their dissatisfaction will grow (and vice versa; Pearson, 1995). This dissatisfaction can lead to

challenges in directing, motivating, and regulating their behaviors, pushing them towards less

autonomous forms of motivation (extrinsic and controlled; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007).

Consequently, teachers are likely to enjoy their teaching roles less. Just as burnout can cause

teachers to withdraw, a lack of satisfaction can lead to diminished motivation. In contrast,

satisfaction is likely to foster greater engagement, enthusiasm, pleasure, and ultimately

increase the probability of teachers remaining in their roles (Henne & Locke, 1985).

Numerous studies have investigated the connection between job satisfaction and the

likelihood of quitting in various work environments as well as in education (Billingsley et al.,

1995; Gersten et al., 2001). Job satisfaction is significant in predicting reduced turnover

intentions across many fields (e.g., Lee, 1988). However, similar to burnout research, there is

no comprehensive overview of studies exploring the link between job satisfaction and

teachers’ quitting intentions. This gap is crucial, as examining individual studies indicates

considerable variation in effect sizes across different research. For instance, the strength of

this relationship has been shown to vary widely, ranging from very small <.10; (Chughta,

2006) to substantial >0.50; (Høigaard, 2012). Without an aggregated summary of the effects,

it remains unclear to what extent job satisfaction may shield educators from leaving their

jobs.

Investigating the moderators in the job satisfaction–intentions to quit relationship could also

be beneficial for understanding the contexts in which job satisfaction is more (or less)
influential (or whether its effects are consistent across the board). Similar to burnout, several

potential moderators merit examination. Demographic variables such as age may play a role,

influencing a teacher's expectations regarding their responsibilities (e.g., Shaukat,

Vishnumolakala, & Al Bustami, 2019). The stage of education and the country may also be

relevant for the same reasons outlined concerning burnout. Additionally, it may be valuable

to consider whether the strength of this relationship has changed over time.

Significance of job satisfaction

This element of job performance and workplace attitude has been extensively

examined over the years. And why shouldn't it be? In a civilized community, shouldn't

individuals be treated with fairness and dignity? In a certain way, job satisfaction can be

viewed as a tangible indicator of how well employees are treated. The initiatives taken by

employers in this regard are known to bring advantages to them as well.

A study conducted with librarians revealed that "the job satisfaction of librarians, who play a

crucial role in the information society, will influence the quality of the services they provide.

Thus, understanding how both material and moral factors impact the job satisfaction of

librarians is of great significance” (Kaya, 1995). Research performed in the hospitality sector

found that "job satisfaction contributes to ensuring that employees interact with customers

with the highest level of respect." A negative correlation was noted between job satisfaction

and the likelihood of employees leaving their positions (Arnett, 2005), (Kim, Leong, & Lee,

2005), and (Qader, 2021) referencing Jung & Suh (2019). IBM, a top provider of global

hybrid cloud and AI solutions, as well as consulting services, carries out yearly surveys to

gauge employee attitudes towards their jobs.

Job satisfaction influences numerous facets of organizational life. Among these influences are

the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, loyalty, and absenteeism, which are

explored in this text.

The majority of research findings suggest that there is no strong connection between

satisfaction and productivity. For instance, a comprehensive meta-analysis of the research

literature reveals a mere 0.17 best-estimate correlation between job satisfaction and

productivity. Satisfied employees do not automatically emerge as the most productive. Many

potential moderating factors exist, with rewards appearing to be the most significant. When

individuals perceive their rewards as fair, they tend to feel satisfied, which is likely to lead to

increased performance efforts. Moreover, recent research indicates that satisfaction may not

necessarily improve individual performance, but it does foster enhancements at the

departmental and organizational levels. Ultimately, there remains significant discussion

regarding whether satisfaction drives performance or if performance fosters satisfaction

(Luthans, 1998). Teachers' job satisfaction has been defined as their emotional responses and

cognitive evaluations regarding their daily work (Ho & Au, 2006; Skaalvik & Skaalvik,

2010). A strong sense of self-efficacy can enhance job satisfaction. In particular, teachers

who believe in their ability to influence teaching and learning outcomes are more inclined to

form positive assessments about their jobs (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). The relationship between

teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction has been explored in research globally. For instance,

studies have indicated a positive correlation between teachers’ self-efficacy and job

satisfaction in both Western (e.g., Canada and the United States) and Eastern nations (e.g.,

Singapore and South Korea; Klassen et al., 2009; Lee & Shin, 2017). A longitudinal

investigation by Caprara et al. (2006) demonstrated that teachers' self-efficacy was a

predictor of their job satisfaction as well as their students' academic success. Replications

conducted over the following two academic years yielded similar findings. In research
involving 523 Canadian teachers, Wang et al. (2015) discovered that those who exhibited

high levels of self-efficacy in engaging students and managing classrooms reported greater

job satisfaction.

Employee loyalty is one of the critical aspects that human resource managers must prioritize.

Employee loyalty is typically assessed using the Loyalty Questionnaire and can result in

significant adverse effects if not maintained at a high level.

Typically, three categories of employee loyalty are recognized: affective loyalty, normative

loyalty, and continuity loyalty. Affective loyalty relates to situations where an employee feels

a deep emotional bond with the organization, normative loyalty emerges when the employee

feels obligated to the company, and continuity loyalty arises when an employee believes they

lack alternative job opportunities.

Characteristics of teachers

Research on job satisfaction and teacher retention typically considers personal traits of

teachers, like age and gender, as well as professional features such as years of experience,

degree levels and types, involvement in professional development, and motivational beliefs

like self-efficacy.

Personal traits

Sims (Citation2018) provided cross-country evidence that age among teachers was only

weakly linked to job satisfaction, while gender appeared to have no influence. Studies on

teacher turnover in the U.S. reveal that younger teachers tend to leave schools at higher rates

compared to their older counterparts, and women are more likely to exit the profession

(Borman & Dowling, Citation2008; Guarino, Santibanez, & Daley, Citation2006; Ingersoll,

Citation2001; Kukla-Acevedo, Citation2009). This phenomenon may largely stem from

younger female teachers departing for family-raising reasons; however, many of these

teachers are also likely to return to the profession later on (Allen, Citation2005).
Overall, research related to teacher gender and job satisfaction displays considerable

inconsistency, even within the same national contexts. For example, one investigation into

job satisfaction among English teachers found no meaningful gender differences (Crossman

& Harris, Citation2006), whereas another discovered that women reported higher satisfaction

with their teaching roles (Poppleton & Riseborough, Citation1990). Similarly, findings from

various studies in the U.S. and Canadian contexts regarding the relationship between job

satisfaction and teacher gender are far from unanimous, indicating that either women (Liu &

Ramsey, Citation2008; Ma & MacMillan, Citation1999) or men (Klassen & Chiu,

Citation2010; Mertler, Citation2002) exhibited greater job satisfaction. While such varied

outcomes might primarily arise from different definitions of job satisfaction and other study

design factors, the aforementioned studies agreed on attributing these gender differences to

variations in teacher perceptions regarding their working conditions.

Teacher Motivational Beliefs

Prior research has demonstrated that teacher motivational beliefs play a significant role in job

satisfaction and plans for retention. Specifically, studies have focused on self-efficacy, a key

concept in social cognitive theory (Bandura, Citation1986, Citation1997). Self-efficacy

beliefs, which are essential to human agency, influence how individuals perceive and respond

to challenges as well as how they cope with setbacks (Bandura, Citation1997). Investigations

into the factors influencing teacher job satisfaction have consistently highlighted the positive

effects of teacher self-efficacy beliefs in reducing stress within school environments globally,

including in Spain, Norway, and Canada (Betoret, Citation2009; Collie et al., Citation2012).

Higher levels of teacher self-efficacy have been associated with increased job satisfaction and

reduced intentions to leave the profession (Klassen & Chiu, Citation2010; Skaalvik &

Skaalvik, Citation2014). Furthermore, Klassen and Chiu (Citation2011) found that teacher

self-efficacy moderated the impact of stressful working conditions on teachers’ commitment

to their occupation. In a similar vein, Collie et al. (Citation2012) conducted research on the

relationships among teacher stress, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction among Canadian

teachers, concluding that stressful working conditions paired with a strong sense of self-

efficacy are perceived as manageable challenges, thereby not adversely affecting job

satisfaction.

Interaction between Teacher Characteristics in Relation to Job Satisfaction

Several studies have investigated how teacher personal characteristics interact with

professional qualifications. In the US, Krieg (Citation2006) discovered that high-quality

female teachers in the 4th grade were less prone to leaving the profession, whereas teacher

quality did not significantly impact male teachers' attrition. Ingersoll, Merrill, and May

(Citation2014) examined how teaching experience and qualifications interacted in a

nationally representative sample of novice teachers in the US, concluding that for beginning

teachers, the degree and certification were of minimal importance, while training in pedagogy

and teaching methods proved to be crucial for retention. Additionally, Klassen and Chiu

(Citation2011) suggested that self-efficacy might interact with teaching experience regarding

teacher turnover in Canada. They asserted that self-efficacy levels are low among

inexperienced teachers, peak during mid-career years, and subsequently decline as teachers

approach retirement. This interaction further supports the earlier suggestion of a curvilinear

relationship between experience and teacher turnover.

To summarize, when examining the relationships between teachers' professional

characteristics, turnover intentions, and job satisfaction, results regarding the impact of

teacher qualifications are somewhat inconsistent across most aspects, likely due to the diverse

measures of teacher quality in the international literature (Borman & Dowling, Citation2008).

Conversely, findings regarding the influence of teacher demographic characteristics,

particularly age, on job satisfaction and attrition risk show greater consistency. However, the
effects of gender on job satisfaction are mixed; one possible explanation for this may be the

interplay with other professional and personal factors, as well as specific aspects of the

working environment tied to particular grade levels, subject areas, and school characteristics.

Gender differences may also be examined within the context of institutionalized gender roles

in the teaching profession (Acker, Citation1995; Johnson & Repta, Citation2011; Weiner,

Citation2006). Moreover, besides the immediate context of grade level, subject matter, and

school type, these factors must also be positioned within the wider framework of the national

educational system. With respect to teacher motivational beliefs, especially teacher self-

efficacy, the findings have been quite definitive, owing in part to recent efforts to create a

clear and valid measurement of self-efficacy (Zee & Koomen, Citation2016).

Theories of job satisfaction

The theories of job satisfaction are closely related to the theories that explain human

motivation. Some of the most well-known and significant theories in this domain are

Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, the Job Characteristics

Model, and the dispositional approach. A description and discussion of these theories follow

below.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

While often referenced in the study of human motivation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

theory was among the initial frameworks to explore key factors influencing job satisfaction.

This theory posits that human needs are arranged in a five-tier hierarchy (see Figure 1) that

includes: physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

According to Maslow’s hierarchy, fundamental needs must be satisfied first (such as

physiological needs and safety) before individuals can address more intricate needs (like

belonging and esteem).

Table 1: Maslow’s hierarchy of need

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was created to shed light on human motivation overall.

Nevertheless, its core principles can be applied within a workplace context and have been

used to elucidate job satisfaction. Within a company, benefits like salary and healthcare assist

employees in fulfilling their essential physiological needs. Safety requirements can be

reflected in employees feeling secure both physically in their workplace and in terms of job

stability, alongside having appropriate organizational structures and policies. When these

needs are met, employees can concentrate on developing a sense of belonging at work. This

sense of belonging may arise from positive interactions with coworkers and supervisors, as

well as the feeling of being part of their team or organization. After these needs are fulfilled,

employees will strive to feel valued and recognized by their colleagues and the organization.

The final stage involves the employee's desire for self-actualization, which requires them to

grow and evolve into their fullest potential. While it may appear distinct, the advancement

from one level to the next all plays a role in the journey of self-actualization. Consequently,

organizations aiming to enhance employee job satisfaction should work towards fulfilling

employees' basic needs before addressing higher-level motivations. However, this perspective
is becoming increasingly less favored as it does not take into account the cognitive processes

of employees and generally lacks empirical evidence to support it. Moreover, others have

criticized the ultimate stage of self-actualization.

Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene

Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory posits that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are

distinct concepts that do not simply exist as opposites on the same spectrum. To achieve job

satisfaction, it is essential to fulfill ‘motivating’ factors like compensation and benefits,

recognition, and a sense of accomplishment. Conversely, ‘hygiene’ factors—such as working

conditions, organizational policies and structure, job security, relationships with coworkers,

and the quality of management—are linked to job dissatisfaction.

Table 2: Factors affecting motivation

Since both hygiene and motivational factors are seen as separate, it's possible for employees

to feel neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. According to this theory, when hygiene factors are

lacking, employees experience dissatisfaction; conversely, when these factors are adequate, it

indicates that employees are not dissatisfied (or indifferent), but it doesn’t imply they are

satisfied either. The level of an employee's satisfaction is influenced by motivational factors.

Furthermore, it is believed that when motivation factors are fulfilled, the employee is

regarded as satisfied. This distinction might help explain the complexity of an employee's

emotions, as they could experience feelings of both satisfaction and dissatisfaction

simultaneously, or feel neither.

Dispositional approach
This dispositional approach proposes that there is a strong connection between personality

and job satisfaction. It suggests that individuals possess a stable predisposition towards a

particular level of satisfaction, which remains relatively consistent over time. Evidence

supporting this approach can be categorized into indirect studies and direct studies. Judge and

colleagues have explored these areas in more depth.

The indirect evidence stems from research that does not directly assess personality. Findings

from the National Longitudinal Studies in the United States indicate that levels of job

satisfaction generally remain stable over periods of 2, 3, and 5 years. This stability persists

even when significant employment changes occur, such as switching employers or changing

occupations. Notably, a study involving twins raised apart found that genetic factors

explained 30% of job satisfaction levels later in life.

However, the indirect studies face several key criticisms, primarily that other unidentified

factors may be influencing job satisfaction levels. This emphasizes the significance of

research that directly evaluates the influence of personality. Most notably, there is empirical

evidence suggesting that constructs such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional stability, and

locus of control form a broad personality framework that affects an individual's self-

perception. A review of 169 correlations between these four affective constructs and job

satisfaction revealed that as self-reported levels of self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional

stability, and locus of control increased, so did job satisfaction. Similarly, studies examining

the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction showed

moderate associations with neuroticism, conscientiousness, and extraversion.

Theory of Needs - Achievement Theory (David McClelland, 1961)

McClelland and his colleagues suggested that certain individuals possess a strong motivation

to achieve. They aim for personal accomplishment rather than just the rewards that come with

success. They have a desire to improve processes or complete tasks more effectively than

previously achieved, which leads them to prefer challenging roles—these individuals are

considered high achievers. The theory focuses on the motives related to achievement and is

therefore referred to as "achievement theory"; however, the model encompasses three

interconnected needs or motives.

Table 3: Theory of needs according to McClelland

Vroom's Expectancy Theory (1964)

Vroom's Expectancy Theory, established in 1964, states that individuals are driven to

achieve goals if they believe in the value of those goals and can perceive a likelihood that

their actions will assist them in reaching those goals. This theory consists of three key

components: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence represents the intensity of an

individual’s preference or value, including their incentives, attitudes, and the anticipated

utility of a specific outcome. Expectancy indicates the likelihood that a certain level of effort

will result in a specific first-level outcome. Instrumentality refers to the extent to which this

first-level outcome will lead to a desired second-level outcome. For instance, a person may

feel motivated to perform at a high level (first-level output) in order to achieve a promotion

(second-level output).

This theory posits that motivation

arises from three key elements: the

degree to which an individual

desires a reward (valence), their

perception of the likelihood that effort will lead to successful performance (expectancy), and

their belief that performing well will result in obtaining the reward (instrumentality). This

relationship can be summarized by the formula "Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality =

Motivation."

Factors that affect job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is influenced by a combination of environmental, individual, and

psychological factors. Environmental factors include aspects like communication and

employee recognition, as noted by Krayer, Westbrook, Weiss, and Cropanzano. Individual

factors encompass emotions, genetics, and personality, as discussed by Cote and Morgan.

Psychological factors involve elements such as one’s personal life, family, and community,

according to Wright and Cropanzano. Each of these factors is briefly outlined below:

Additionally, the dynamics of superior-subordinate communication significantly impact job

satisfaction within organizations. An employee's perception of their supervisor's behavior can

have either a positive or negative effect on their job satisfaction. Various forms of

communicative behavior, including nonverbal cues like facial expressions, eye contact, vocal

tone, body language, and more, play a crucial role in shaping the superior-subordinate

relationship. These nonverbal signals from a supervisor can enhance interpersonal

connections with subordinates, thereby affecting job satisfaction. In certain cases, nonverbal

communication may have a greater impact than the actual verbal messages conveyed. A

manager who demonstrates nonverbal warmth, friendliness, and encourages open

communication is more likely to elicit positive feedback and greater job satisfaction from

their subordinates. Conversely, a manager who appears antisocial, unfriendly, and reluctant to
communicate will likely receive negative feedback and contribute to lower job satisfaction

among their staff.

In recent trends it is seen that schools have Academic co coordinators who supervise teachers

in their tasks and works right from lesson plan, classroom management, classroom

observation, note making, monthly planner and every task they are assigned.

Table 4: factors affecting Job satisfaction.