NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Note :This Symbol denotes that Question is excluded from JEE MAIN Syllabus.
It exists at the centre of an atom, containing entire positive charge and almost whole of mass.
The electron revolve around the nucleus to form an atom. The nucleus consists of protons
(+ve charge) and neutrons. A proton has positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron
(+ 1.6 × 10–19 C) and a mass equal to 1840 C) and a mass equal to 1840 times that of an
electron. A neutron has no charge and mass is approximately equal to that of proton.

PROPERTIES OF A NUCLEUS
NUCLEAR MASS :

As we know that every nucleus contains protons and neutrons and so every nucleus has a
definite [Link], since the mass of electron is negligible so atomic mass is roughly equal
to nuclear mass.

Atomic masses are measured in atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) defined as

1 amu = 1.6604 x 10 -27 kg

 1u = 931.478 MeV/c2

and its energy equivalent is 931.48 MeV

The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called as the atomic number (Z) of that atom.
The number of protons plus neutrons (called as Nucleus) in a nucleus of an atom is called as
mass number (A) of that atom.

A particular set of nucleons forming an atom is called as nuclide. It is represented as [Link]

nuclides having same number of protons (Z), but different number of nucleons (A) are called as
isotopes. The nuclide having same number of nucleons (A), but different number of protons (Z)
are called as isobars. The nuclide having same number of neutrons (A–Z) are called as isotones.

NUCLEAR CHARGE

Since nucleus contain +vely charged protons (charge = 1.6 x 10 -19 C ) and neutrons (neutral) so
every nucleus has a net +ve charge.

NUCLEAR RADIUS

A rough estimate of nuclear size suggests us that the radius of the nucleus of an atom having
mass number ‘A’ is given by R  R 0A 1/ 3

Where R0 is a constant found to be equal to R0=1.4×10–15 m = 1.4 fm.

NUCLEAR DENSITY

In spite of the fact that nuclear radius depends on mass number of the atom but nuclear density
is independent of mass number because if neutrons are supposed to be of almost the same
mass as that of protons then the total mass of a nucleus is proportional to A. If each nucleon are
supposed to have a mass m then nuclear density is given by

mA 3m
 
4 3 4 R 30 (Which is independent of A)
R 0 A
3

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NUCLEAR SPIN AND MAGNETIC MOMENT

Like orbital electrons in an atom, nucleons inside nucleus have well defined quantum states.
Correspondingly they have angular momentum and hence a magnetic moment. Like electrons
nucleons also have intrinsic angular momentum and ‘magnetic’ moment corresponding to their
spin.

NUCLEAR FORCES
If only the electrostatic and gravitational forces existed in the nucleus, then it would be impossible
to have stable nuclei composed of protons and neutrons. The gravitational forces are much too
small to hold the nucleons together compared to the electrostatic forces repelling the protons.
Since stable atoms of neutrons and protons do exist, there must be another attractive force
acting within the nucleus. This force is called the nuclear force.

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEAR FORCE

(1) They are charge [Link] nuclear force between two proton is same as that between
two neutrons or between a neutron and proton. This is known as charge independent character
of nuclear forces.

(2) They may be repulsive may be attractive (Repulsive at exceedingly small separation between
two nucleons appreciably smaller than 10–13 cm i.e. 10–15 m

(3) It is a short range force. Its radius of action is of the order of 10–13 cm.

(4) The nuclear force is of saturation character. Each nucleon in nucleus interacts with a limited
number of nucleons.

(5) Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational attractive [Link]
is the strongest of all the forces. This is why it is called strong interaction.

(6) Nuclear force is spin dependent. If two interacting nucleons are having parallel spins then
nuclear force operative between them is comparatively stronger and if their spins are antiparallel,
nuclear interaction is comparatively weaker.

(7) Nuclear force is a non-central force. They can not be represented as directed along the st.
line connecting the centres of the interacting nucleons. Its non central nature is due to the fact
that it depends also on the orientation of the nucleon spins.

MASS DEFECT
It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the masses of constituent
nucleons. Suppose a nucleus consists of ‘Z’ protons and ‘N’ neutrons. Mass of a proton, a neutron
and the resulting nucleus are respectively mp, mn and M then mass defect of the nucleus is given
by

m  Zm p  Nm n  M

If A is the mass number of the nucleus

m  [ Zm p  ( A  Z)m n  M ]

In terms of atomic masses we may also write mass defect as

m  [ Zm (11 H )  Nmn  m ( Az X)]

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Where m(11 H )  mass of one hydrogen atom.

m ( Az X)  mass of atom having atomic no. Z and mass no. A

e.g.,

mass of 11 H = 1.00784 u

mass of neutron = 1.00 874 u

Expected mass of deuterium = 2.01654 u

but measured mass = 2.0141 u.

mass defect,

m = 0.00244 u.

NUCLEAR STABILITY

Figure shows pot of N vs. Z for known nuclides. The stable nuclides are indicated by the black
dots. Non-stable nuclides decay by emission of particles, or electromagnetic radiation, in a
process called radioactivity

BINDING ENERGY
To break a nucleus into its constituent nuclei some energy is required to be supplied. This
energy is called Binding Energy of the given nucleus or the energy equivalent of the missing
mass of a nucleus is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

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BE = (m)c2 = [Zmp + (A–Z)mn – M]c2 ,

BE = m(in amu)×931 MeV

Where m =mass defect

Binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus. If there be n nucleons
which is equal to A,

Binding Energy B. E.

Nucleon A

From the plot of B.E. / nucleons Vs mass number (A), we observe that :

(1) Binding energy per nucleon has low value for both heavy and light nuclei i.e. Heavy as well as
light nuclei, both are unstable.B.E. / nucleons increases on an average and reaches a maximum
of about 8.7 MeV for A  50 – 80. For more heavy nuclei, B.E. / nucleons decreases slowly as A
increases. For the heaviest natural element U238 it drops to about 7.5 MeV. From above
observation, if follows that nuclei in the region of atomic masses 50 – 80 are most stable.

(2) The intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon so they are more
stable.

(3) Binding energy per nucleon increases rapidly upto mass number 20 but there are peaks
4 12 16
corresponding to 2 H e, 6 C, 8 O which indicates that these nuclei are more stable than
neighbours. The reason is that they may be considered to posses magic numbers i.e. their
mass number is divisible by 4 and these nuclei may have 42 He as their constituents.

(4) The minimum value of the BE/Nucleon is in the case of deuteron that is 1.11 Mev.

56
(5) The maximum value of the BE/Nucleon is 8.79 Mev for the nuclide 26 Fe which is therefore
the most stable nucleus.

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Example
1. Using the following plot of BE/nucleon vs mass number, mention the condition for which the
energy is absorbed or released for the reaction Z1 P A1  Z 2 Q A 2  Z 3 P A 3

Sol. Binding energy for reactant is (xEa + yEb) and that for product is zEc
Case-I : if (A1E1 + A2E2) > A3E3
Energy is absorbed.
Case-II : if (A1E1 + A2E2) < A3E3
Energy is released.
Note
(i) If we split a heavy nucleus into two medium sized nuclei and total binding energy of new nuclei
is greater then parent nuclei, then energy is released (Nuclear fission)
(ii) If two nuclei of small mass number combine to form a single medium size nucleus for which
binding energy is greater than the constituent nuclei, then energy is released (Nuclear fusion)

NUCLEAR FISSION
The breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable mass, with the
release of tremendous energy is called as nuclear fission.
The most typical fission reaction occurs when slow moving neutrons strike 92U235. The following
nuclear reaction takes place.

92U
235 + 0n1  56Ba
141 + 36Kr
92 + 30n1 + 200 MeV

If more than one of the neutrons produced in the above fission reaction are capable of inducing
a fission reaction (provided U235 is available), then the number of fission taking place at successive
stages goes increasing at a very brisk rate and this generates a series of fission. This is known
as chain reaction. The chain reaction takes place only if the size of the fissionable material
(U235) is greater than a certain size called the critical size.
If the number of fission in a given interval of time goes on increasing continuously, then a condition
of explosion is created. In such cases, the chain reaction is known as uncontrolled chain reaction.
This forms the basis of atomic bomb.
In a chain reaction, the fast moving neutrons are absorbed by certain substances known as
moderators (like heavy water), then the number of fissions can be controlled and the chain
reaction is such cases is known as controlled chain reaction. This forms the basis of a nuclear
reactor.

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NUCLEAR FUSION
The process in which two or more light nuclei are combined into a single nucleus with the
release of tremendous amount of energy is called as nuclear fusion. Like a fission reaction, the
sum of masses before the fusion (i.e. of bigger nucleus) and this difference appears as the
fusion energy. The most typical fusion reaction is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium.

1H
2 + 1H2  2He4 + 21.6 MeV

For the fusion reaction to occur, the light nuclei are brought closer to each other (with a distance
of 10–14 m). This is possible only at very high temperature to counter the repulsive force between
nuclei. Due to this reason, the fusion reaction is very difficult to perform. The inner core of sun is
at very high temperature, and is suitable for fusion. In fact the source of sun's and other star's
energy is the nuclear fusion reaction.

CONSERVATION LAWS IN NUCLEAR REACTION

Nuclear reaction processes have led to the formulation of useful conservation principles. The
four principles of most interest in this module are discussed below.

(i) Conservation of electric charge implies that charges are neither created nor destroyed. Single
positive and negative charges may, however, neutralize each other. It is also possible for a
neutral particle to produce one charge of each sign.

(ii) Conservation of mass number does not allow a net change in the number of nucleons i.e. total
number of protons and neutrons should also remain same on both sides of a nuclear reaction..
However, the conversion of a proton to a neutron and vice versa is allowed.

(iii) Conservation of mass and energy implies that the total of the kinetic energy and the energy
equivalent of the mass in a system must be conserved in all decays and reactions. Mass can be
converted to energy and energy can be converted to mass, but the sum of mass and energy
must be constant. In nuclear reactions, sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum
of masses after the reaction. The difference in masses appears in form of energy following the
Law of inter-conversion of mass & energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction is called as
Q Value of a reaction and is given as follows.

If difference in mass before and after the reaction is m amu (m = mass of reactants minus
mass of products) then

Q value = m (931) MeV

(iv) Conservation of momentum is responsible for the distribution of the available kinetic energy
among product nuclei, particles, and/or radiation. The total amount is the same before and after
the reaction even though it may be distributed differently among entirely different nuclides and/or
particles.

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Examples
2. In the sun about 4 billion kg of matter is converted to energy each second. Find the power output
of the sun in watt .

m
Sol. = 4×108 kgs–1
t

E = mc2

E m 2 E
 =  c  = 4×108×9×1016
t  t  t

E E
 = 3.6×1025 Js–1  = 3.6×1025 W
t t

3. A neutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the energy produced in this reaction in
MeV. Mass of an electron = 9 × 10–31 kg, Mass of Proton = 1.6725 × 10–27 kg, Mass of neutron =
1.6747 × 10–27 kg. Speed of light = 3 × 108 m/sec.

Sol. 0n
1  1H1 + –1e
0

m= [Mass of neutron – (mass of proton + mass of electron)]

= [1.6747 × 10–27 – (1.6725 × 10–27 + 9 × 10–31)]

= 0.0013 × 10–27 kg

 Energy released

E= mc2 = (0.0013 × 10–27) × (3 × 108)2 = 1.17 × 10–13 joule

1.17  1013
= eV = 0.73 × 106 eV = 0.73 MeV
1.6  1019

4. The nuclei involved in the nuclear reaction A1 + A2  A3 + A4 have the binding energies E1, E2, E3
and E4. Find the energy released (Q value) of this reaction.

Sol. Suppose M1, M2, M3, M4 are the rest masses of the nuclei A1, A2, A3 and A4 perticipating in the
reaction

A1 + A2  A3 + A4 + Q

Here Q is the energy released. Then by conservation of energy.

Q = (M1 + M2 – M3 – M4)c2

Now M1c2 = c2 (Z1mH + (A1 – Z) mn) – E1 etc. and

Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4 (conservation of charge)

A1 + A2 = A3 + A4 (conservation of mass number)

Here Q = (E3 + E4) – (E1 + E2)

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RADIOACTIVITY
 (EXCLUDED IN JEE MAIN SYLLABUS)
Among about 2500 known nuclides, fewer than 300 are stable. The others are unstable structures
that decay to form other nuclides by spontaneously emitting particles and electromagnetic radiation,
a process called radioactivity. The time scale of these decay processes ranges from a small
fraction of a microsecond to billions of years. The substances which emit these radiations are
called as radioactive substances. It was discovered by Henry Becquerel for atoms of Uranium.
Later it was discovered that many naturally occurring compounds of heavy elements like radium,
thorium etc also emit radiations.

At present, it is known that all the naturally occurring elements having atomic number greater
than 82 are radioactive. For example some of them are ; radium, polonium, thorium, actinium,
uranium, radon etc. Later on Rutherford found that emission of radiation always accompanied
by transformation of one element (transmutation) into another. In actual radioactivity is the result
of disintegration of an unable nucleus. Rutherford studied the nature of these radiations and
found that these mainly consist of ,  ,  particles (rays).

-Particles : (2He4)
These carry a charge of +2e and mass equal to 4mp. These are nuclei of helium atoms. The
energies of -particles very from 5 MeV to 9 MeV ; their velocities vary from 0.01 – 0.1 times of
c (velocity of light). They can be deflected by electric and magnetic field and have lower penetrating
power but high ionising power.

-Particles : (–1e0)
These are fast moving electrons having charge equal to e and mass me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Their
velocities very from 1% to 99% of the velocity of light (c). They can also be deflected by electric
and magnetic fields. They have low ionising power but high penetrating power.

-Radiations : (00)
These are electro-magnetic waves of nuclear origin and of very short wavelength. They have no
mass. They have maximum penetrating power and minimum ionising power. The energy released
in a nuclear reaction is mainly emitted in from these -radiations.

RADIOACTIVE DECAYS 

-decay
Nuclides decay is by emitting -particles. -particles are generally emitted by very heavy nuclei
containing to many nucleons to remain stable. The emission of such a nucleon cluster as a
whole rather than the emission of single nucleon is energetically more advantageous because
of the particularly high binding energy of alpha-particles. The parent nucleus (Z,A) is transformed
as

zX
A
 2 He 4  z z Y A 4


 
m  M 2 He 4  M   z2 Y
A4
 M X 
z
A

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Note

(i) Nuclear mass is different from atomic mass because nucleus is without electrons.

(ii) Released energy converts into kinetic energy

(iii) In nucleus, Atomic energy is 13.6 eV small atomic binding energy has been neglected.

(iv) Released energy is shared as kinetic energy by products and outgoing particles.

Calculation of Kinetic Energy 

He4
2
recoil

Momentum of particle + momentum of daughter nuclei = 0

 
(m  v ) (p D )

assuming parent nuclei to be at rest initially

   
p  pD = 0 p = pD

If Q is released energy or Q value of reaction.

K + KD = Q

pD2 p 2
 K  =Q  K  =Q
2m D 2m D

but

2K  ·m   m  mD  Q
 K   K 1   =Q 
2m D = Q  mD 
K =
mD  m

(A  4)m A  4
K = Q  K =  Q
4m  (A  4)m  A 

-DECAY 
Another way in which nuclides decay radioactively is by the emission of  particles. .When
neutron-proton ratio inside a nucleus is not suitable for it to be stable (either less or more) then
-decay takes place. Due to a special type of interaction called weak interaction a neutron gets
converted into a proton and a proton gets converted into a neutron and a positron. Electrons or
positrons are emitted from the nucleus just after their creation. This emission of electron or
positron from nucleus is called  -decay. Emission of positron (of the order of MeV) is called  -
decay and emission of electron (of the order of MeV) is called  -decay.

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(i) Negative  decay(- decay) 

Neutron inside nucleus is transformed into proton .

n p + e- + v (Antineutrino)

z XA 
z 1 Y A  e  v +energy released.

Equation corresponding to nuclear mass


m = M z X A  M  z 1 Y
A
 Me
Equation corresponding to atomic mass


m = M * z X A  M *  z 1 Y
A

energy released

E =mc2

(ii) Positive  decay(+ decay) 

Proton inside nucleus is transformed into neutron .

p n + e+ (Positron)+ v (neutrino)

Positron is anti-particle of electron. It is highly reactive.

zX
A
z 1 Y A  e   v +energy released.


Equation corresponding to nuclear mass

 
m = M z A x  M z 1 Y
A
 Me
Equation corresponding to atomic mass

 
m = M * z A x  M *z 1Y A  2Me 
energy released

E =mc2

Experiments show that  -particles are emitted with continuous range of kinetic energy.

Intensity of
 particles

K.E.

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iii Electron capture 

Nuclei having an excess of protons may capture an electron from one of the inner orbits which
immediately combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron. This process is called
electron capture (EC). The electron is normally captured from the innermost orbit (the K-shell),
and, consequently, this process is sometimes called K-capture.

The process is observed from the emission of the characteristic X-rays produced, when an
orbiting electron from an outer shell makes a downward transition into a K shell vacancy. The
X-rays are characteristic of daughter nuclei not of the parent because x-ray emission taken
place ‘K-capture’

0
1 e  4 Be7 
3 Li 7  v (A simple K-capture equation)

Neutrino and anti-neutrino

1. It has zero electric charge, hence shows no electromagnetic interaction.

2. Rest mass is possibly zero. Recent experiments show that mass of neutrino is less

 7 
than  ev  .
 c2 

3. It travles with speed of light.

4. It has spin quantum number 1 2 . A spin of 1 2 satisfies the law of conservation of angular
momentum when applied to  -decay.

5. It shows very weak interactions with matter.

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 - DECAY 
As we know that like the discrete energy orbits of electrons in an atom. Nucleons in an atom
inside the nucleus also have well defined energy state or discrete quantum state. After every
 or  emission a nucleus is in the excited state correspondingly subsequent to every -or
-emission a nucleus emits electromagnetic radiation (of the order of MeV) to come to ground
state. The frequency or the wavelength of the emitted radiations lie in -region and is called
-emission.
5 B12

12
6 C 13.4 Mev
e 4.4Mev

GROUP-DISPLACEMENT LAW 
(i) When a nuclide emits one -particle (2He4), its mass number (A) decreases by 4 units and
atomic number (Z) decreases by two units.
A A-4 + 2He4 + Energy
zX Z2Y

(ii) When a nuclide emits a  -particle, its mass number remains unchanged but atomic number
increases by one unit.

zX
A  z+1Y
A + –1e
0 +  + Energy (  is antineutrino)

(iii) When a nuclide emits a  + particle, its mass number remains unchanged but atomic number
decreases by one unit.

zX
A  z-1Y
A + +1e
0 +  + Energy ( is neutrino)

(iv) When a  particle is produced, both atomic and mass number remain constant.

RUTHERFORD-SODDY LAW (STATISTICAL LAW) 

The disintegration of a radioactive substance is random and spontaneous.

Radioactive decay is purely a nuclear phenomenon and is independent of any physical and
chemical conditions.

The radioactive decay follows first order kinetics, i.e., the rate of decay is proportional to then
number of undecayed atoms in a radioactive substance at any time t. If dN be the number of
atoms (nuclei) disintegrating in time dt, the rate of decay is given as dN/dt. From first order
kinetic rate law :

dN
= – N
dt

where  is called as decay or disintegration constant.

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Let N0 be the number of nuclei at time t = 0 and Nt be the number of nuclei after time t, then
according to integrated first order rate law, we have :

N0 N0
Nt = N0 e–t  t = ln N = 2.303 log N
t t

The half life (t1/2) period of a radioacitve substance is defined as the time in which one-half of the
radioactive substance is disintegrated. If N0 be the number of nuclei at t = 0, then in ha half life T,
the number of nuclei decayed will be N0/2

Nt = N0e–t ... (i)

N0
 = N0e–T ... (ii)
2

from (i) & (ii)

t/T n
Nt 1 1
  =  
N0 =  2  2
n : number of half lives

The half life (T) and decay constant () are related as :

0.693
T=


The mean life (Tm) of a radioactive substance is equal to the sum of life times of all atoms
divided by the number of all atoms and is given follows

 tdN  t e
t
dt
0

1
Tm= =  Tm =
 dN  e 
t
dt
0

ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE (EXCLUDED IN JEE MAIN SYLLABUS) 

The activity of a radioactive substance (or radioisotope) means the rate of decay per second or
the number of nuclei disintegrating per second. It is generally denoted by A.

dN
 A=-
dt

If at time t = 0, the activity of a radioactive substance be A0 and afte time t = t sec, activity be A0
then :

 dN   dN 
A0 = -  = N0  = N1  At = A0–t
 dt  t 0
At = - 
 dt  t  t

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Unit of activity
The activity is measured in terms of curie (Ci). 1 curie is the activity of 1gm of a freshly prepared
sample of radium Ra226 (t1/2 = 1602 yrs.)
1 curie 1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps (disintegration per second)

1 dps is also known as 1 bq (Becquerel)  1Ci = 3.7 × 1010 bq

Note : All the equations discussed above is valid only when the number of nuclii are very large

SURVIVAL PROBABILITY AND DECAY PROBABILITY FOR A FINITE TIME INTERVAL 

N 0e  t
The probability of suravival (i.e. not decaying) in time t is Psurvival  = e–t.
N0

Hence the probability of decay is Pdecay = 1 – e–t.

SUCCESSIVE DISINTEGRATION AND SECULAR EQUILIBRIUM 

Suppose ABC ... ... .... (i.e., radioactive nucleus A decays to B and B decays to C)

Let number of radioactive nucleus A (Parent nucleus) at time t = 0 be N0 and that of B = 0.

For A

dN A
  A N A  N A  N 0e   A t
dt

dN B dN B
For B   A N A   BN B    A N 0e   A t   B N B
dt dt

Multiplying both sides of this equation by e  B t dt , we get

e  B t . dN B   B N Be  B t dt   A N 0 e(  B   A ) t dt

d ( N B . e  Bt ) dN B
  e  Bt  N B .  Be  B t  d ( N B . e  Bt )  e  Bt dN B  N B Be  Bt dt
dt dt

 z z
d ( N Be  B t )   A N 0 e (  B   A ) t dt  N Be  B t 
AN0
( B   A )
e(  B A ) t  C

Where C is constant of integration.

 A N 0
at t=0, NB=0  C
( B   A )

AN0 AN0
Hence, N Be  B t  e(  B A ) t  1  NB  eAt  eB t
B  A  B  A

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Suppose the parent nucleus A is long lived i.e. the half life of the parent nucleus A is much larger
in comparison to the half life of the daughter nucleus B

 t1/2 A >> t1/2 B   A   B   B   A   B

 e  B t is negligible in comparison to e  A t

A
 NB  N 0e   A t
B

A
 NB  NA
B

 N A  A  N B B

i.e., after a time much longer in comparison to the half life of the daughter nucleus B but much
shorter in comparison to the half life of parent nucleus A, we have N A  A  N B  B This state is
called secular equilibrium

Examples
5.  The mean lives of an radio active substance are 1620 and 405 years for -emission and
-emission respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will decay if it is
decaying both by -emission and  -emission simultaneously.

Sol. When a substance decarys by  and  emission simultaneously, the equivalent rate of
disintegration eq is given by :

eq =  +

where  = disintegration constant for -emission only

 = disintegration constant for -emission only

1
Mean life is given by : Teq = 
eq

1 1 1 1 1
 eq =  +  = T = T + T = + = 308 × 10–3
eq   1620 405

N0
eqt = 2.303 log N
t

100 1
 (3.08 × 10–3) t = 2.303 log  t = 2.303 × log 4 = 449.24 years
25 3.08 10 3

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

6.  Two radioctive materials A1 and A2 have have decay constants of 10 0 and 0 . If initially they
have same number of nuclei, find the time after which the ratio of number their undecayed nuclei
will be (1/e)

NA e –100t 1
Sol. = –0t = e –90t = = e–1
NB e e

1
 9 0 t = 1 or t=
9 0

7.  The weight based ratio fo U238 and Pb226 in a sample of rock is 4 : 3. If the half life of U238 is
4.5×109 year, then find the age of rock.

Sol. Let initial no. of U-atoms = N0

After time t, (age of rock), let no. of atoms remaining undecayed = N

238 N 4 N0
 26 ( N 0 – N ) = 3  = 1.79
N

T log N 0 / N 4.5 109  log1.79

t= =
log 2 0.301

8.  A count rate-meter is used to measure the activity of a given sample. At one instant the meter
shows 4750 counts per minutes. Five minutes later it shows 2700 counts per minutes. Find :

(a) decay constant (b) the half lift of the sample

Sol. Initial activity = A0 = dN/dt at t = 0

Final activity = At = dN/dt at t = t

dN dN 4750 N0
 N 0 and  N t  =
dt t 0 dt t 5 2700 Nt

N0
Using t = 2.303 log
Nt

4750
 (5) = 2.303 log
2700

2.303 4750
 = log = 0.1129 min–1
5 2700

0.693
 t1/2 = = 6.14 min
0.1129

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

9.  A small amount of solution containing Na24 radionuclide with activity A = 2.0. × 103 disintegrations
per second was injected in the bloodstream of a man. The activity of 1 cm3 of blood sample
taken 1= 5.0 hours later turned out to be A' = 16 disintegrations per minute per cm3. The half-life
of the radionuclide is T = 15 hours. Find the volume of the man's blood.

Sol. Let V = volume of blood in the body of the human being. Then the total activity of the blood is AV.
Assuming all this activity is due to the injected Na24 and taking account of the decay of this
radionuclide, we get

VA = Ae–t

ln 2
Now = per hour, t = 5 hour
15

3
A –ln 2/3 2.0  10
Thus V = e = e–ln 2/3 cc = 5.95 litre
A (16 / 60)

Solved Examples
1. In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 gm for U235 (235.0439 a.m.u.) in 24 hours by a slow
neutron (1.0087 a.m.u.). Assuming that 35Kr92 (91.8973 a.m.u.) and 56Ba141 (140.9139 a.m.u.)
are produced in all reactions and no energy is lost, write the complete reaction and calculate the
total energy produced in kilowatt hour. Given 1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV.

Sol. The nuclear fission reaction is

92U
235 + 0n1  56Ba
141 + 36Kr
92 + 30n1

The sum of the masses before reaction

= 235.0439 + 1.0087 = 236.0526 a.m.u.

The sum of the masses after reaction

= 140.9139 + 91.8973 + (1.0087) = 235.8375 a.m.u.

 m = 256.0526 – 235.8373 = 0.2153 a.m.u.

energy released in the fission of U235 nucleus

E= 0.2153 × 931 = 200 Mev

Number of atoms in 1 gm

6.02  10 23
= = 2.56 × 1021
235

Energy released in fission of 1gm of U235

E = 200 × 2.56 × 102 = 5.12 × 1023 MeV

= (5.12 × 1023) × (1.6 × 10–13) = 8.2 × 1010 joule

8.2 1010
= kWh = 2.28 × 104 kWh
3.6 106
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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
2. A neutron collides elastically with an initially stationary deuteron. Find the fraction of the kinetic
energy lost by the neutron (a) in a head-on collision; (b) in scattering at right angles.

Sol. (a) In a heat on collision 2mK = pd + pn

p d2 p2
K=  n
2M 2m

where pd and pn are the momenta of deuteron and neutron after the collision. Squaring

m 2
p 2d  p 2n  2p d p n  2mK  p 2n  p d  2mK
M

1  m
or since pd  0 in a head on collision  pn = – 1   Pd
2  M

Going back to energy conservation

p d2 1  M 1  m    K
2
p d2 4mM
    So  K
2M  4m  M   2M (m  M) 2

This is the energy lost by neutron. So the fraction of energy lost is

4mM 8
= 2 =
(m  M ) 9

(b) In this case neutron is scattered by 90°. Then we have from the diagram


pd  p n ˆj  2mK ˆi

Then by energy conservation

p2n  2mK p 2n
+ =K
2M 2m

p2n  m   m 2mK
or 1    K 1  
2m  M   M

p 2n 1  m   m
or   = K 1  
2m  M   M

p 2n 2m
The energy lost by neutron in then K – = K
2m Mm

2m 2
or fraction of energy lost is  = =
Mm 3

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

3.  A stationary Pb200 nucleus emits an -particle with K.E., K = 5.77 MeV. Find the recoil velocity of
daughter nucleus. What fraction of the total energy liberated in this decay is accounted for the
recoil energy of the daughter nucleus ?

Sol. The momentum of the a-particle is given by,

Pd = P = 2m  K ...(i)

Let the recoiled momentum of the dauhter nucleus be Pd = md vd, where md and vd are the mass
and velocity of daughter nucles. Using the priciple of conservation of momentum we get,

2m  K
Pd = P = 2m  K  Vd = ...(ii)
md

1 2 4 K 2 2K
 Vd = =
196 mp 196 m p

Where mp is the mass of the proton.

 Vd = 3.39 × 105 m/s

Let the K.E. of the daughter nucleus be K' then,

K ' m

K md

As the momenta are same

K' m
 
K t m  md

m 4 K'
 K' = Kt = K  K' = 0.02 Kt 
m  md 196  4 t K t = 0.02

4.  A P32 radionuclide with half-life T = 14.3 days is produced in a reactor at a constant rate
q = 2.7 × 109 nuclei per second. How soon after the beginning of production of that radionuclide
will its activity be equal to A = 1.0 × 109 dps ?

Sol. Production of the nucleus is governed by the equation

dN g  N
=  
dt supply decay

g
we see that N will approach a constant value . This can also be proved directly. Multiply by et

and write.

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

dN t
e + et N = get
dt

d g t
Then (N et) = get or Net = e + const.
dt 

At t = 0 when the production is starteed, N = 0

g
0= + constant


g
Hence N = (1 – e–t)


Now the activity is A = N = g (1 – e–t)

1
From the problem –t
2 ·7 = 1 – e

This gives t = 0.463

0.463 0.463  T
so t= = = 9.5 days.
 0.693

T  A
Algebraically t = – ln 1  
ln 2  g

5.  A dose of 5mCi of P32 (t1/2 = 14 days) is a administered intravenously to a patient whose blood
volume is 3.5 ts. At the end of 1 hour, it is assumed that the phosphorous is uniformly distributed.
What would be the count rate/m of the withdrawn blood if the counter measuring the activity
had an efficiency of 10%:

(a) 1 hour after injection

(b) 28 days after injection

Sol. Let A0 = initial activity At = activity at time t

According to question

5  105
A0 = = 0.143 × 10–5 Ci/m
35 103

0.693
and = = 2.06 × 10–3 /Hr
14  24

A0
Now using t = 2.303 log
At

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(a) After 1.0 Hr

2.06  103  1 0.143  10 5

= log
2.303 At

 At = 1.42 × 10–6 Ci/m

 Count rate = (10/100) × (1.42 × 10–6) × 3.7 × 1010 dps = 5280 dps

(b) After 28 days, i.e., after two half lives (t1/2 = of P32 = 14 days) ;

At = A0 / 4 = 1.42 × 10–6 /4

 Count rate = (10/100) × (1.42 × 10–6 /4) × 3.7 × 1010 dps = 1322.75 dps

6.  In the chemical analysis of a rock, the mass ratio of two radioactive isotopes is found to be
100 : 1. The mean lives of the two isotopes are 4 × 109 and 2 × 109 years respectively. If it is
assumed that at the time of formation the atoms of both the two isotopes were in equal proportion,
calculate the age of the rock. Ratio of the atomic weights of two isotopes is 1.02 : 1.

Sol. Let two isotopes are A and B

mA A A 1.02
= 100 ;
mB AB = 1

TA = 4 × 109 years TB = 2 × 109 years [Also  = 1/T]

Let ratio of nuclei of two isotops be :

NA0 N At
at t = 0 and
N B0 N Bt at t = 1

NA0
For isotope A At = 2.303 log N
At

N B0
Similarly for isotope B Bt = 2.303 log N
Bt

N A 0 / N B0
On subtracting (A – B) t = 2.303 log
N At / N Bt

initial ratio
 (A – B)t = 2.303 log
final ratio

 1 1  1
  9
 9  t = 2.303 log
 4  10 2  10  100 / 1.02

 age = t = 1.83 ×1010 years

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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

7.  A given sample contains two types of atoms A and B in the ratio 3 : 1. Atoms of type A undergo
-decay with a half life of 30 days to form 'B' while 'atoms of type B' undergo -decay with a half
life of 45 days to from 'C', which is stable. Calculate the time after which the activities of A and
that of B are in the ratio 9 : 22

T 1/2=30days T1/2=45days
A B C

Sol. The radiactive decay series is given

T1 = 30days T1 = 45days
A 2
B 2
C

Initially NA (0) : NB (0) \ 3 : 1

dN A
+  A NA = 0
dt

dN B
=  A NA –  B NB
dt

dN C
= B NB
dt

NA = NA (0) e –  A t

 A N A ( 0) e –  A t
NB = c1 e –  Bt +
– A  B

5
Then we get, c1 = N
2 0

1 1
3  1  T1/ 2 3  1  30days
 NA (t) = N0   = N0  
4 2 4 2

 1 1

 5  1  45days 9  1  30 days

and NB (t) = N   – N0  
 2 0 2  4 2 
 

A NA 9 NA 3
Now, = i.e. =
BNB 22 NB 11

– t / 90
1
or,   =2 or, t = 90 days
2

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