MATTER & MATERIALS

Valence electrons in an atom (p. 72)

• An orbital is a region in space around the nucleus where
the electrons are likely to be found.

• Gr10 revision...
– Aufbau diagram
– Electron figuration
– Group nr / period & orbital type
– Group nr & valency / valence electrons
 Valence electrons in an atom (p. 73)
• Electrons are likely to be found in the:

– S-orbitals (spherical)

– Electrons in 1S is close to nucleus

– In 2S – orbital electrons are further away from nucleus
 Valence electrons in an atom (p. 73)
• Electrons are likely to be found in the:

– p-orbitals (teardrop shape)

– 3 sub-orbitals
 Valence electrons in an atom (p. 73)
Aufbau principle is used to
place electrons in an atom:

– Fill lowest energy level first

– Max 2 electrons per orbital
– Electrons must have opposite
spin
– No pairing in p-orbitals, before
each has at least 1
 Valence electrons in an atom (p. 73)

Expanded notation:
1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1
Condensed notation:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Short hand version (Ne = energy levels full):
[Ne] 3s2 3p4
 Worked example 1 (p. 74)

Expanded notation:

Condensed notation:

Short hand version:

[ ]
 Revision (p. 72)

• A model is a simplified representation of a system

– They help us understand the physical world
– We use periodic table to predict properties of elements

• Lewis diagram is model used to predict the arrangement of

valence electrons
– Valence electrons are dots
– Paired electrons = pair of dots, single electrons = single dot

• Valence electrons = electrons in outermost

energy level of an atom
 Revision (p. 72)

• Lewis diagrams of: H20, Mg2+, Cl- and NH3

• Couper structure for: O2, N2
 Chemical bonds (p. 75)

• When 2 atoms approach one another the positive nucleus

of each atom pulls on the valence electrons...

A chemical bond = an electrostatic force holding atoms

together in a molecule or crystal
 Chemical bonds (p. 75)

• Consider the electrostatic forces between 2 Hydrogen

atoms:
- Repulsive forces between electrons increase the potential
energy
- Repulsion between two nuclei increase potential energy
- Attractive forces between nucleus & electrons decrease
potential energy
 Bond energy (p. 75)
• Atoms will bond if the molecule that forms has a lower
potential energy than the sum of the potential energies of
the two separate atoms.
- Bond produces more stable compound
- Energy between atoms change with distance between nuclei
- Optimal distance for bond is where energy is minimum

Bond energy = energy required to break one mole of a

particular covalent bond in the gaseous state.
 Energy & Bond length (p. 76)
1) No attraction or repulsion,
atoms to far.
Potential energy close to 0.

2) Atoms move closer, nucleus

starts to attract electrons of
other atom. Ep decrease.
Attraction force stronger
than repulsion.

3) Ep at its lowest. Force of

attraction = force of
repulsion. A bond form.

4) If brought closer, repulsion

will be more than attraction.
Ep at increases.
 Breaking / forming bonds (p. 77)
• Energy is needed to break a bond.
- Bonds can be thought of as negative Ep
- Energy must be transferred to bond to get the Ep to be zero
- Lower Ep = more stable molecule
 Bond length (p. 96)
• Bond length = distance between the nuclei of covalently
bonded atoms.
- Determined by point where Ep of two bonded atoms
are lowest

• Bond order = the number of bonds (single, double or triple)

that exist between two atoms.

• The shorter the bond length, the higher the bond energy
 Bond strength (p. 97)
• Factors that affect bond strength:
- Bond energy = the greater the bond energy, the greater
the bond strength
- Bond length = greater bond length, the weaker the
strength
- Size of bonded atoms = bond length decrease as atomic
size decrease: thus smaller atomic size, stronger bond
strength
- Number of bonds = higher bond order, stronger bonds
 Covalent chemical bonds (p. 77)
• Covalent bond = chemical bond that forms when atoms
share their outermost electrons
- Orbitals overlap & result in larger molecular orbital that
contain shared pair of electrons
- Both atoms electrically neutral
- Distribution of proton and electron charges provided force
of attraction between atom
Covalent chemical bonds (p. 77)
 Covalent chemical bonds (p. 78)
• In covalent chemical bonds:
- Electrons are shared to obtain a noble gas structure
- Each shared pair forms a bond
* Bonding electrons lower Ep
* Unfilled valence orbitals are filled with the shared valence
electrons

Octet rule = atoms tend to combine in such a way that they

each have eight electrons in their outer energy level, giving
them the electron configuration of a noble gas.
 Types of covalent bonds (p. 78)
Type of
Description Example
covalent bond
One pair of electrons shared F2
Single between two atoms (2)
Two pairs of electrons shared (4) O2
Double

Three pairs of electrons shared (6) N2

Triple

Coordinate / One atom supplies both electrons NH4+

dative

• Coordinate bonds form when atoms have an

incomplete complement of electrons.
 Class / Homework (p. 79)
• Activity 1, p. 79
- 1, 2, 4, 5 & 6

• Activity 1, p. 97
- 1.2, 1.3
Covalent bonds: Lewis diagram (p. 80)
• Drawing the Lewis diagram
- Central atom is bound to 2 or more atoms. Terminal atoms
bonded to one atom only...
- Thus: H-O-H

• Lone pairs & valency

- Shared electrons = bonding electrons
- Electrons that are already paired = lone pairs
- Shared pair of electrons can be indicated by lines =
Couper structure
- Valency = number of bonds atom can make
 Example 1 (p. 81)
• Use Lewis diagram to show bond that forms in water
- Determine amount of valence electrons
- Oxygen = 6, Hydrogen = 1
- Draw valence electrons

- Each H-atom shares 1 electron with the unpaired O

electrons to obtain noble gas structure
- Single covalent bond formed
 Example 2 (p. 81)
• Double covalent bonds form in CO2 and O2
• Triple covalent bond forms in N2

Lewis structure Couper

 Dative covalent bonds (p. 83)
• Both the shared electrons come from the same atom...
• Example: Ammonia (NH3) binds to hydrogen (H+) to form an
ammonium ion.
 Activity 1 (p. 83)
• 1.2
• 2&3
 Molecular shape (VSEPR) (p. 84)
• The shape (3-dimensional structure) of a molecule affects its
physical & chemical properties

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model is a

technique to predict the shapes of molecules in which
bonding pairs and lone electron pairs are arranged
around each atom to maximise the angle between them.

- Called VSEPR model

- Electrons arrange as far apart as possible to prevent repulsion
 Molecular shapes: no lone pairs (p. 85)

• A = central atom & X = number of atoms bound to central atom

 Shape – with lone pairs (p. 85)

• A = central atom & X = number of atoms bound to central atom

 Five molecular shapes (p. 86)
• NB Table p. 86 – Lewis & Couper of VSEPR shapes

• AX2 = Linear
 Five molecular shapes (p. 86)
• NB Table p. 86 – Lewis & Couper of VSEPR shapes

• AX3 = Trigonal planar

 Five molecular shapes (p. 86)
• NB Table p. 86 – Lewis & Couper of VSEPR shapes

• AX4 = Tetrahedral
 Five molecular shapes (p. 86)
• NB Table p. 86 – Lewis & Couper of VSEPR shapes

• AX5 = Trigonal bipyrimadal

 Class / Homework
• Activity 1, p. 87
- 1, 2, 3 & 5 for: a, b
Electronegativity & polar bonds (p.90)
Electronegativity (EN) = a measure of how strongly an atom
attracts the shared pair of electrons in a chemical bond.

• Electronegativity scale
- Ranges from 0,7 to 4 & have no units
- Higher EN means stronger force of attraction
- EN generally increas across a period
Electronegativity & polar bonds (p.90)
• Differences in EN (ΔEN) determines type of chemical bond &
intramolecular forces
- Determine ΔEN by subtracting the smaller EN from larger EN

• Covalent bond
- ΔEN < 2,1
- Non-polar covalent: ΔEN = 0
- Weak polar covalent: ΔEN < 1
- Polar covalent: 1 < ΔEN < 2,1

• Ionic bond
- ΔEN > 2,1
 Polarity = NB!! (p.91)
• Non-polar covalent bond = both atoms attract the bonding
electrons equally
- Usually forms between two identical atoms
- Examples: H2 & O2

• A polar covalent bond = electrons are pulled closer to the

atom with the higher electronegativiy
- Example: HCl
- H = EN 2,1 & Cl = EN 3,0
- Thus: electrons closer to Cl than H.
Molecule slightly more negative on the Cl
side & more positive on H side.
 Worked example 1 (p.92)
• Use electronegativity to predict the bond type and polarity
of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). N = 3,0 & O = 3,5

ΔEN = EN (O) - EN (N)

ΔEN = 3,5 - 3,0
ΔEN = 0,5

Bond is covalent and weakly polar.

 Polar & non-polar molecules (p.92)
• Non-polar molecules = the charge is evenly spread across
the molecule
- No polar bonds, no permanent charge difference between one
part of the molecule and another (Example: Cl2)

• Polar molecules = the charge distribution is uneven

- One end of molecule is more negative than the other

• Dipole = molecule with a negative and positive end due to a

polar bond
 Polarity & molecular shape (p.93)
• Polarity of bond not only factor that determines if molecule
is polar or non-polar

• Example 1: Non-polar molecules with polar bonds

- Three bonds in BF3 are polar (ΔEN = 2,0)
- Symmetrically arranged around B
- F atoms slightly negative
- No side of the molecule has more
negative or positive charges
 Polarity & molecular shape (p.93)
• Polarity of bond not only factor that determines if molecule
is polar or non-polar

• Example 2: Polar molecules with polar bonds

- O-H bonds are polar (ΔEN = 1,4)
- Molecule has bent shape
- O has higher EN, thus this side more negative
- H side is slightly positive
- Water is dipole
Polarity & molecular shape (p.93)
 Worked example 2 (p.94)
• Determine if CH2Cl2 is a polar or non-polar molecule

1. Draw a Lewis diagram

 Worked example 2 (p.94)
• Determine if CH2Cl2 is a polar on non-polar molecule
1. Draw a Lewis diagram
2. Identify each type of bond (H = 2,1; C = 2,5 & Cl = 3,0)

ΔEN for H-C:

ΔEN = 2,5 – 2,1 = 0,4
Weakly polar

ΔEN for C-Cl:

ΔEN = 3,0 – 2,5 = 0,5
Weakly polar
 Worked example 2 (p.94)
• Determine if CH2Cl2 is a polar on non-polar molecule
1. Draw a Lewis diagram
2. Identify each type of bond (H = 2,1; C = 2,5 & Cl = 3,0)
3. Indicate charges on Lewis diagram

ΔEN for C-H:

ΔEN = 2,5 – 2,1 = 0,4
Weakly polar

ΔEN for Cl-C:

ΔEN = 3,0 – 2,5 = 0,5
Weakly polar
 Worked example 2 (p.94)
• Determine if CH2Cl2 is a polar on non-polar molecule
1. Draw a Lewis diagram
2. Identify each type of bond (H = 2,1; C = 2,5 & Cl = 3,0)
3. Indicate charges on Lewis diagram
4. Determine the shape = tetrahedral
 Worked example 2 (p.94)
• Determine if CH2Cl2 is a polar on non-polar molecule
- Diagram shows that polar bonds are assymetrically
arranged.
- The chlorine atoms are more negative than the hydrogen
atoms, so the molecule is POLAR.
 Class / Homework
• Activity 1 p. 92
- 1.1 – 1.4 & 2.3

• Activity 2 p. 95
- 3 (only BeCl3, HBr & Br2O)
- 4.1 – 4.3
 Interatomic forces (p.98)
• Interatomic force = an electrostatic force of attraction between
atoms due to the sharing or transfer of electrons.

• Ionic bond:
- Between metal & non-metal
- Electrons are transferred, resulting in cation and anion

• Covalent bond:
- Between non-metal & non-metal
- Electrons are shared

• Metallic bond:
- Positive nuclei of metals attracted to delocalised electrons
 Intermolecular forces (p.98)
• Intermolecular force = force of attraction between
molecules.
- Weaker than interatomic forces
- Less energy needed to break the bonds (bond energy)
- If interatomic forces break, chemical properties change
(Eg: water vs H2 and O2)
- If intermolecular forces break, the physical state changes
(Solid – liquid – gas)
 Intermolecular forces (p.99)
• Strength of intermolecular force determines the physical
state of the substance at certain temperature and pressure.
- Stronger intermolecular force = higher tendency to be a
solid at certain temperature
- Eg: H2O = liquid at room temp.
CO2 = gas at room temp.
Thus: H2O have stronger intermolecular forces
- This type of force weaken as substance change state from
solid to liquid to gas
- The weaker the intermolecular forces, the further apart the
molecules
Intermolecular forces (p.99)
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.100)
1.) Ion-dipole force.
- Attraction between ion & the oppositely charged end of
dipole / polar molecule
- Strength of ion-dipole force depends on:
• Size of charge
• Strength of dipole
• Distance between centres of
ion and polar molecule
- Reason why ionic
compounds
dissolve in water
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.100)
2.) Ion-induced dipole force.
- Attraction between ion & non-polar molecule
- Disturbs arrangement of e- in non-polar molecule
- Rearrangement causes dipole
- Example: NaCl & C6H12
- If ion is removed, molecule
will be non-polar again
(temporary)
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.100)
3.) Van der Waals forces
- Weak interaction between polar & non-polar molecules
- Not as strong as other two types of forces
- Three types of Van der Waals forces:
• Dipole-dipole
• Dipole-induced dipole
• Induced dipole (London or dispersion forces)
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.100)
3.1) Dipole-dipole forces
- Attraction between polar molecules & molecules of pure
substance
- Molecules of similar size and mass, or more polar
molecules haves stronger dipole forces
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.101)
3.1) Dipole-dipole forces
- Hydrogen bond = special dipole dipole force
- Strongest of all intermolecular forces (not interatomic...)

Hydrogen bond = force of attraction between a hydrogen

atom bonded to oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine in a molecule;
and the lone pair of electrons on the oxygen, nitrogen or
fluorine atom bonded to hydrogen in an adjacent molecule.

- Hydrogen bonds happen in alcohols at the region where

the -OH is added
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.102)
3.2) Dipole-induced dipole forces
- Weak attraction
- Polar molecule disturbs arrangement of electrons in
non-polar molecule
- Forms temporary induced dipole
 Types of intermolecular forces (p.102)
3.3) Induced dipole forces
- Between non-polar substances, they include
• Atoms (noble gases)
• Diatomic molecules
• Non-polar compounds
- Electrons constantly in motion, now & then they are
unequal distribution of electrons
- This leads to small change in charge, instantaneous
dipole forms.
- The dipole affects other molecules/atoms nearby
- Example: CO2
 Worked example 1 (p.103)
• Determine the intermolecular forces that forms when
ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is added to water.

H-bonds at –OH group of ethanol & induced dipole forces

between the particles.
Strength of Van der Waals... (p.103)
• Factors that influence the strength of van der Waals forces
- Type of attraction
* Induced dipole < dipole-dipole < hydrogen bonds
- Relative molecular mass
* Induced dipole forces stronger between larger molecules
- Shape of molecule
* Greater in long, thin molecules because they lie close
- Electronegativiy of elements
* Greater ΔEN between atoms in polar molecules,
stronger intermolecular forces
Class / Homework (p.104)