Native Americans: History, Identity, and Contemporary Issues
Introduction Native Americans, also referred to as American Indians, First
Americans, or Indigenous Americans, are the original inhabitants of the United
States, particularly the lower 48 states and Alaska. This term may also encompass
Americans with ancestral ties to the Indigenous peoples of North and South
America. The U.S. Census Bureau classifies "American Indians and Alaska Natives"
as individuals "having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South
America ... and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment."
However, the Census Bureau does not categorize "Native Americans" as a distinct
group, recognizing that this term can also include Native Hawaiians, who are
enumerated separately.
Impact of Colonization The arrival of Europeans in the Americas in 1492 led to
catastrophic consequences for Indigenous populations. The introduction of
foreign diseases, often weaponized by colonizers, coupled with warfare, ethnic
cleansing, and enslavement, resulted in a drastic decline in Native American
populations. Scholars widely classify aspects of this colonization as genocide. As
European settlers expanded across the continent, Indigenous communities faced
violent massacres, forced removals from ancestral lands, and exploitative
government policies. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, assimilation
efforts, including forced reeducation and land dispossession, continued as part of
federal policy.
Legal and Political Status At the founding of the United States, Native American
tribes were considered semi-independent nations, as they largely lived in
separate communities. The federal government initially engaged with them
through treaties, recognizing them as sovereign nations. However, the Indian
Appropriations Act of 1871 ended this recognition, classifying tribes as "domestic
dependent nations." While this law curtailed tribal independence, it did preserve
certain rights, such as tribal sovereignty, which allows many reservations to
remain outside state jurisdiction, with tribal courts overseeing legal matters
within their territories.
The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans
born in the country, ensuring their right to vote and extending Fourteenth
Amendment protections to them. Nevertheless, several states continued to
impose barriers to Native voting rights for decades. The Indian Civil Rights Act of
1968 extended many, though not all, protections of the U.S. Bill of Rights to
Native American tribes.
Cultural and Demographic Shifts Since the 1960s, Native American self-
determination movements have contributed to significant advancements, but
challenges remain. Today, more than five million Native Americans live in the U.S.,
with approximately 80% residing outside reservations. As of 2020, the states with
the highest percentage of Native Americans include Alaska, Oklahoma, Arizona,
California, New Mexico, and Texas.
Pre-Columbian Cultures and European Contact Before European contact,
Indigenous peoples in North America were diverse, with distinct cultural and
linguistic traditions. Anthropologists classify these groups into ten cultural
regions:
• Arctic (Aleut, Inuit, Yupik)
• Subarctic
• Northeastern Woodlands
• Southeastern Woodlands
• Great Plains
• Great Basin
• Northwest Plateau
• Northwest Coast
• California
• Southwest (Oasisamerica)
Many Indigenous cultures operated under matrilineal systems, with communal
land ownership, which contrasted sharply with European concepts of individual
land rights. These differences, along with shifting alliances and conflicts, led to
extensive political and social disruptions.
The introduction of Old World diseases had devastating effects, with smallpox
among the deadliest. Scholars estimate that Indigenous populations declined by
as much as 90% within a century of European arrival. While disease was a
significant factor, the disruptions caused by European colonialism also
exacerbated Indigenous vulnerability to illness and resource depletion.
Forced Removal and Assimilation After the American Revolution, U.S. leaders,
including George Washington and Henry Knox, promoted the "civilization" of
Native Americans, aiming to assimilate them into American society. Some tribes,
such as the Choctaw, voluntarily adopted aspects of European-American culture,
but federal policies often enforced assimilation through coercion.
The 19th century saw the rise of Manifest Destiny, a belief that justified the
westward expansion of European Americans at the expense of Native peoples.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the forced relocation of Indigenous
communities to lands west of the Mississippi River. This led to the infamous Trail
of Tears, during which thousands of Native Americans perished due to exposure,
disease, and starvation.
Modern Native American Identity and Sovereignty Today, Native Americans
maintain a unique legal and political relationship with the U.S. government
through treaties, tribal sovereignty, and federal trust responsibilities. The latter
half of the 20th century saw a resurgence in Native activism, leading to the
establishment of Native-run schools, media outlets, and language preservation
programs. The creation of First Nations Experience, the first Native American
television channel, is one example of Indigenous media representation. Tribal
universities, Native American studies programs, and cultural revitalization
initiatives have also strengthened Indigenous identities and autonomy.
Terminology and Identity The terminology surrounding Native American identity
varies. Older generations often identify as "Indian" or "American Indian," while
younger individuals prefer terms such as "Indigenous" or "Aboriginal." The term
"Native American" typically excludes Native Hawaiians and some Alaskan Native
groups, such as the Aleut, Yup'ik, and Inuit. In Canada, Indigenous peoples are
generally referred to as First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.
Conclusion Native Americans have faced centuries of displacement, violence, and
assimilationist policies. However, through resilience and activism, Indigenous
communities continue to assert their rights, preserve their cultures, and
contribute to contemporary American society. Their struggle for sovereignty,
representation, and recognition remains a vital part of U.S. history and its ongoing
development.
