1.

Coordinate Geometry let Q' be the intersection of DN with XY, then Q' has
2 2 2 2
coordinates ( 0, ( r2 − x 2 ) / y 0 ) . Since r1 − x1 = ZX = r2 − x2 , so Q = Q'.
2 2 2
When we do a geometry problem, we should first look at the given facts and
the conclusion. If all these involve intersection points, midpoints, feet of
perpendiculars, parallel lines, then there is a good chance we can solve the Example 2. (1998 APMO) Let ABC be a triangle and D the foot of the altitude
problem by coordinate geometry. However, if they involve two or more from A. Let E and F be on a line passing through D such that AE is perpendicular
circles, angle bisectors and areas of triangles, then sometimes it is still possible to BE, AF is perpendicular to CF, and E and F are different from D. Let M and N
to solve the problem by choosing a good place to put the origin and the x-axis. be the midpoints of the line segments BC and EF, respectively. Prove that AN is
Below we will give some examples. It is important to stay away from messy perpendicular to NM.
computations!
A
Example 1. (1995 IMO) Let A, B, C and D be four distinct points on a line, in (Remarks. We can set the origin at D and the
that order. The circles with diameters AC and BD intersect at the points X and Y. x-axis on line BC. Then computing the
B
The line XY meets BC at the point Z. Let P be a point on the line XY different M coordinates of E and F will be a bit messy. A
from Z. The line CP intersects the circle with diameter AC at the points C and M, F
better choice is to set the line through D,E,F
E N D C horizontal.)
and the line BP intersects the circle with diameter BD at the points B and N.
Prove that the lines AM, DN, and XY are concurrent.
Solution. (Due to Cheung Pok Man, 1998 Hong Kong Team Member) Set the
Q Q' origin at A and the x-axis parallel to line EF. Let the coordinates of D, E, F be (d,
M (Remarks. Quite obvious we should set the b), (e, b), (f, b), respectively. The case b=0 leads to D=E, which is not allowed.
X N origin at Z. Although the figure is not symmetric
P with respect to line XY, there are pairs such as So we may assume b≠ 0. Since BE ⊥ AE and the slope of AE is b/e, so the
M, N and A, D and B, C that are symmetric in equation of line BE works out to be ex + by = e2 + b2. Similarly, the equations of
A B Z C D roles! So we work on the left half of the figure, lines CF and BC are fx + by = f 2 + b2 and dx + by = d2 + b2, respectively.
the computations will be similar for the right Solving the equations for BE and BC, we find B has coordinates (d+e, b–(de/b)).
Y half.) Similarly, C has coordinates (d+f, b–(df/b)). Then M has coordinates (d+(e+f)/2,
b–(de+df)/(2b)) and N has coordinates ((e+f)/2, b). So the slope of AN is 2b/(e+f )
and the slope of MN is −(e+f )/(2b). Therefore, AN ⊥ MN.
Solution. (Due to Mok Tze Tao, 1995 Hong Kong Team Member) Set the origin
at Z and the x-axis on line AD. Let the coordinates of the circumcenters of Example 3. (2000 IMO) Two circles Γ1 and Γ2 intersect at M and N. Let l be the
triangles AMC and BND be (x1, 0) and (x2, 0), and the circumradii be r1 and r2, common tangent to Γ1 and Γ2 so that M is closer to l than N is. Let l touch Γ1 at
respectively. Then the coordinates of A and C are (x1 – r1, 0) and (x1 + r1, 0), A and Γ2 at B. Let the line through M parallel to l meet the circle Γ1 again at C
respectively. Let the coordinates of P be (0, y0). Since AM ⊥ CP and the slope of and the circle Γ2 again at D. Lines CA and DB meet at E; lines AN and CD meet
2 2
CP is –y0/(x1+ r1), so the equation of AM is ( x1 + r1 ) x − y0 y = x1 − r1 . Let Q be the at P; lines BN and CD meet at Q. Show that EP=EQ.
2 2
intersection of AM with XY, then Q has coordinates (0, ( r1 − x1 ) / y 0 ) . Similarly,

1 2
 Γ1 (Remarks. Here if we set the x-axis on the line has coordinates (ab/(c2–a2), abc/(c2–a2)), A has coordinates (−b/a, 0), O has
Γ2 through the centers of the circles, then the coordinates (ab, 0) and Q has coordinates (0, ab/c). Then BC has slope c and
N QO has slope −1/c. Therefore, QO ⊥ BC.
equation of the line AB will be complicated. So it
O1 is better to have line AB on the x-axis.)
O2 Example 5. (1998 IMO) In the convex quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC
C P Q D and BD are perpendicular and the opposite sides AB and DC are not parallel.
Solution. Set the origin at A and the x-axis on line
M Suppose that the point P, where the perpendicular bisectors of AB and DC meet,
A E B AB. Let B, M have coordinates (b,0), (s,t), is inside ABCD. Prove that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if the
respectively. Let the centers O1, O2 of Γ1, Γ2 be triangles ABP and CDP have equal areas.
at (0, r1), (b, r2), respectively. Then C, D have coordinates (−s,t), (2b−s,t),
respectively. Since AB, CD are parallel, CD=2b=2AB implies A, B are midpoints B (Remarks. The area of a triangle can be computed by taking
of CE, DE, respectively. So E is at (s, − t). We see EM ⊥ CD. the half length of the cross product. A natural candidate for
the origin is P and having the diagonals parallel to the axes
To get EP=EQ, it is now left to show M is the midpoint of segment PQ. Since O1 A C
will be helpful.)
O2 ⊥ MN and the slope of O1 O2 is (r2–r1)/b, the equation of line MN is bx+(r2– P
r1)y = bs+(r2–r1)t. (This line should pass through the midpoint of segment AB.) Solution. (Due to Leung Wing Chung, 1998 Hong Kong
Since O2M=r2 and O1M=r1, we get D Team Member) Set the origin at P and the x-axis parallel
to line AC. Then the equations of lines AC and BD are y=p and x=q, respectively.
(b − s ) 2 + ( r2 − t ) 2 = r22 and s 2 + ( r1 − t ) 2 = r12 . Let AP=BP=r and CP=DP=s. Then the coordinates of A,B,C,D are
( − r 2 − p 2 , p ) , ( q, r 2 − q 2 ) , ( s 2 − p 2 , p) , ( q ,− s 2 − q 2 ), respectively. Using the
Subtracting these equations, we get b2/2=bs+(r2–r1)t, which implies (b/2, 0) is on
line MN. Since PQ, AB are parallel and line MN intersects AB at its midpoint, M determinant formula for finding the area of a triangle, we see that the areas of
triangles ABP and CDP are equal if and only if
must be the midpoint of segment PQ. Together with EM ⊥ PQ, we get EP=EQ.
1 − r 2 − p2 p 1 s2 − p2 p
Example 4. (2000 APMO) Let ABC be a triangle. Let M and N be the points in 2 2
= ,
2 q r −q 2 q − s − q2
2
which the median and the angle bisector, respectively, at A meet the side BC. Let
Q and P be the points in which the perpendicular at N to NA meets MA and BA, which after cancelling 1
on both sides is equivalent to
respectively, and O the point in which the perpendicular at P to BA meets AN 2
produced. Prove that QO is perpendicular to BC. − r 2 − p 2 r 2 − q 2 − pq = − s 2 − p 2 s 2 − q 2 − pq.
B (Remarks. Here the equation of the angle bisector is a
bit tricky to obtain unless it is the x-axis. In that case, Since f(x)= − x 2 − p 2 x 2 − q 2 − pq is strictly decreasing when x ≥ |p| and |q|,
P the two sides of the angle is symmetric with respect equality of areas hold if and only if r=s, which is equivalent to A, B, C, D
to the x-axis.) concyclic (since P being on the perpendicular bisectors of AB, CD is the only
Q possible place for the center).
M Solution. (Due to Wong Chun Wai, 2000 Hong Kong
Team Member) Set the origin at N and the x-axis on After seeing these examples, we would like to remind the readers that there are
A N O line NO. Let the equation of line AB be y = ax+b, pure geometric proofs to each of the problems. For examples (1) and (3), there
then the equation of lines AC and PO are are proofs that only take a few lines. We encourage the readers to discover these
y=−ax−b and y=(–1/a)x+b, respectively. Let the equation of BC be y=cx. Then B simple proofs.
has coordinates (b/(c–a), bc/(c–a)), C has coordinates (−b/(c+a), −bc(c+a)), M

3 4
Although in the opinions of many people, a pure geometric proof is better and A
more beautiful than a coordinate geometric proof, we should point out that Ceva’s Theorem. For ∆ABC, let D be on line BC, E
sometimes the coordinate geometric proofs may be preferred when there are α α' be on line CA and F be on line AB. If lines AD, BE
many cases. For example (2), the different possible orderings of the points D, E, F E and CF are concurrent, then
X
F on the line can all happen as some pictures will show. The coordinate γ AF BD CE
geometric proofs above cover all cases. β' × × = 1.
β γ'
C FB DC EA
B D
2. Stewart’s Theorem and Ceva’s Theorem
(Remarks. By the sine law, AF/sin γ =AC/sin∠AFC and FB/sin γ’=CB/sin∠CFB
Notations: For ∆ABC, its area will be denoted by [ABC] or SABC. As usual, let a Since sin∠AFC = sin∠CFB, we get AF/FB = (AC sin γ)/(CB sin γ’). Using
be the length of side BC, b be the length of side CA and c be the length of side
similar equations, we see that the equation in Ceva’s theorem can be written as
AB.
sin α sin β sin γ
A = 1.
Stewart’s Theorem. Let D be a point on side BC. Let sin α ' sin β ' sin γ '
c b p, m and n be the lengths of line segments AD, BD and
p This is called the trigonometric form of the equation.)
CD respectively. Then
m n
Proof. Let O be the concurrent point. Through A,
B D C b2m +c2n = a(p2+mn). A draw a line parallel to BE and let it intersect line
m+n = a BC at E’. Similarly, through A, draw a line parallel
F E to CF and let it intersect line BC at F’. Then AF/FB
Proof. Since ∠ADB +∠ADC=180˚, so cos∠ADB + cos∠ADC = [Link] formula O
= F’C/CB, CE/EA = CB/BE’ and CD/CF’ =
follows from the cosine law as cos∠ADB = (m2+p2–c2)/(2mp) and cos∠ADC = OD/OA = BD/BE’. So BD/DC = BE’/F’C.
(n2+p2–b2)/(2np). Therefore,
E' B D C F'
AF BD CE F ' C BE ' CB
Formulas. (1) If AD is the median to side BC, then m = a/2 = n. Let ma denote × × = × × = 1.
1 FB DC EA CB F ' C BE '
the length of AD. Stewart’s theorem yields m a = 2b 2 + 2c 2 − a 2 . This formula
2 AF BD CE
is sometimes refered to as Apollonius’ formula. Note we have the interesting Converse of Ceva’s Theorem. If × × = 1, then lines AD, BE and
FB DC EA
formula CF are concurrent.
4( m a2 + mb2 + mc2 ) = 3( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ).
Proof. We will prove the converse by the method of false position. We are given
(2) If AD is the angle bisector of ∠ BAC, then m/n=c/b and m+n=a imply AF BD CE
m=ca/(b+c) and n=ba/(b+c). Let ta denote the length of AD. Stewart’s theorem × × = 1. Let lines AD and BE intersect at X and lines CX and AB
FB DC EA
 a2  AF ' BD CE AF AF '
t
yields a = bc  1 −
 (b + c ) 2  . intersect at F’. By Ceva’s theorem, × × = 1. So = . Then
  F ' B DC EA FB F ' B
AB AF AF ' AB
= +1 = +1 = , which implies F= F’ .
Next we come to an important theorem known as Ceva’s theorem. It explains FB FB F'B F'B
why medians or altitudes or angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.

5 6
Facts. (a) If AD, BE and CF are the median of ∆ABC, then they concur at a point
called the centroid of the triangle, which is commonly denoted by G. In this case, A
c/2 a/2 b/2 Let s = (a+b+c)/2 be the semiperimeter of ∆ABC. Let I
the Ceva equation is just × × = 1. b be the incenter of ∆ABC and r be the radius of the
c/2 a/2 b/2 c
I r
r incircle of ∆ABC. Then
(b) If AD, BE and CF are the altitudes of ∆ABC, then they concur at a point r
called the orthocenter of the triangle, which commonly denoted by H. In this ar br cr
C [ ABC ] = [ AIB ] + [ BIC ] + [CIA] = + + = sr.
b cos A c cos B a cos C B a 2 2 2
case, the Ceva equation is just × × = 1.
a cos B b cos C c cos A
(c) If AD, BE and CF are the angle bisectors of ∆ABC, then they concur at a Heron’s Formula. [ ABC ] = s ( s − a)(s − b)(s − c) .
point called the incenter of the triangle, which is commonly denoted by I. In this
bc /(a + b) ca /(b + c) ab /(c + a )
× × = 1. (Since points
Proof. By cosine law, cos C =(a2+b2–c2)/(2ab). We have
case, the Ceva equation is just
ac /(a + b) ba /(b + c) cb /(c + a )
on an angle bisector are equidistant from the sides of the angle, I is equidistant a 2b 2 a 2b 2
from AB, BC, CA and hence it is the center of the inscribed circle in ∆ABC.) [ ABC ]2 = sin 2 C = (1 + cos C )(1 − cos C )
4 4
(d) The perpendicular bisectors of sides AB, BC, CA concur at a point called the (2ab + a 2 + b 2 − c 2 )(2ab − a 2 − b 2 + c 2 )
=
circumcenter of the triangle, which is commonly denoted by O. (Since points on 16
a perpendicular bisector of a line segment are equidistant from the endpoints, O ( a + b + c ) ( a + b − c ) (c + a − b ) (c − a + b )
=
is equidistant from A, B, C and hence it is the center of the circumscribed circle.) 2 2 2 2
= s( s − c)(s − b)(s − a ).

3. Formulas
(Remarks. Combining with the formulas above, we get
B abc ( s − a)( s − b)( s − c)
a R= and r = .)
Extended Sine Law. Let R be the radius of the 4 s ( s − a )(s − b)( s − c) s
circumcircle of ∆ABC. Then
O C a b c
= = = 2 R.
A sin A sin B sin C
4. Theorems about Concyclic Points
D
a a
Proof. Draw diameter BD. Then = = BD = 2R. A D
Intersecting Chord Theorem.
sin A sin D P
A B (1) Let line segments AB and CD (or both extended to)
C
Area of Triangle. Letting ha denote the height from A to intersect at point P. Then A,B,C,D are concyclic if and only
c b side BC, we have A B if PA×PB = PC×PD.
ha
ah a ab sin C abc D
P
[ ABC ] = = = .
B a C 2 2 4R C

7 8
 C ∠PFE =∠PBD ⇔∠PFE +∠PFD =∠PBD +∠PFD ⇔∠PFE +∠PFD =
(2) Let lines PC and AB intersect at P. Then PC is tangent to 180°⇔ D,E,F are collinear.
the circumcircle of ∆ABC if and only if PC2 = PA× PB. _________________________________________________________________
P A B

Proof. For (1), observe that ∠APD =∠CPB. So A,B,C,D are concyclic ⇔ 5. Menelaus’ Theorem and Other Famous Theorems
∠APD=∠CPB ⇔ ∆APD ~ ∆CPB ⇔ PA/PD=PC/PB ⇔ PA×PB =PC×PD. Below we will write P = WX ∩ YZ to denote P is the point of intersection of
lines WX and YZ. If points A, B, C are collinear, we will introduce the sign
For (2), observe that ∠APC =∠CPB. So PC is tangent to the circumcircle of convention : AB/BC = AB / BC (so if B is between A and C, then AB/BC ≥ 0,
∆ABC ⇔∠ACP=∠CBP ⇔ ∆ACP ~ ∆CBP ⇔ PC/PA=PB/PC ⇔ PC2 = otherwise AB/BC ≤ 0).
PA×PB. Menelaus’ Theorem Points X, Y, Z are taken
B from lines AB, BC, CA (which are the sides of
Ptolemy’s Theorem. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if X △ABC extended) respectively. If there is a line
Y
passing through X, Y, Z, then
AB × CD + AD × BC = AC × BD.
A C Z AX BY CZ
(For general quadrilateral, AB × CD + AD × BC ≥ AC × BD. ) ⋅ ⋅ = −1.
XB YC ZA
Proof. On side AB, construct ∆BAE ~ ∆CAD. Then Proof. Let L be a line perpendicular to the line through X, Y, Z and intersect it at
AB/AC=AE/AD=BE/CD and ∠BAE =∠CAD. So O. Let A’, B’, C’ be the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C to L respectively.
Then
D C ∠BAC = ∠BAD −∠CAD =∠BAD −∠BAE =∠EAD. AX A' O BY B ' O CZ C ' O
= , = , = .
Then ∆BAC~ ∆EAD. So BC/AC=ED/AD. Then XB OB ' YC OC ' ZA OA'
E Multiplying these equations together, we get the result.
AB × CD + AD × BC = AC × BE + AC × ED ≥ AC × BD. AX BY CZ
A Converse of Menelaus’ Theorem. If ⋅ ⋅ = −1 , then there is a line
B Equality holds if and only if BE+ED=BD. This occurs if XB YC ZA
and only if ∠DBA=∠EBA=∠DCA, i.e. ABCD is cyclic. passing through X, Y, Z .
Proof (by the method of false position). To see this, let Z’=XY∩CA. Then
Simson’s Theorem. Let P be on the plane of ∆ABC. Let D,E,F be the feet of the applying Menelaus theorem to the line through X, Y, Z’ and comparing with the
perpendiculars from P to lines BC, CA, AB respectively. If P is on the equation above, we get CZ/ZA = CZ’/Z’A. Then CA/ZA = 1 + (CZ/ZA) =
circumcircle of ∆ABC, then D,E,F are collinear. The converse is also true. 1+(CZ’/Z’A) = CA/ZA. It follows Z=Z’.
P Proof. Connect PA and PB. Since ∠PFA= 90°=∠PEA,
E so P, F, A, E are concyclic and hence ∠PFE =∠PAE. Q Pascal’s Theorem Let A, B, C, D, E, F be points
R
A Similarly, ∠PDB = 90°=∠PFB, so P, B, D, F are Z on a circle (which are not necessarily in cyclic
F concyclic and hence DE P order). Let
C F
X P=AB∩DE, Q=BC∩EF, R=CD∩FA.
B ∠PBD +∠PFD =180°. B
A
D C Y
Now P is on the circumcircle ⇔ ∠PAE =∠PBC ⇔ Then P,Q,R are collinear.

9 10
Proof. Let X = EF ∩ AB, Y = AB ∩ CD, Z = CD ∩ EF. Applying Menelaus’ D
C''
Example 3. (2001 Australian Math Olympiad) Let
C' A,B,C,A’,B’,C’ be points on a circle such that AA’ is
theorem respectively to lines BC, DE, FA cutting △XYZ extended, we have B
perpendicular to BC, BB’ is perpendicular to CA,
ZQ XB YC XP YD ZE YR ZF XA A''
CC’ is perpendicular to AB. Further, let D be a point
⋅ ⋅ = −1, ⋅ ⋅ = −1, ⋅ ⋅ = −1 . on that circle and let DA’ intersect BC in A’’, DB’
QX BY CZ PY DZ EX RZ FX AY intersect CA in B’’, and DC’ intersect AB in C’’, all
A H A' segments being extended where required. Prove that
Multiplying these three equations together, then using the intersecting chord B'' C A’’, B’’, C’’ and the orthocenter of triangle ABC are
theorem to get XA·XB = XE·XF, YC·YD = YA·YB, ZE·ZF = ZC·ZD, we arrive at B' collinear.
the equation
ZQ XP YR Solution Let H be the orthocenter of △ABC. Applying Pascal’s theorem to A, A’,
⋅ ⋅ = −1.
QX PY RZ D, C’, C, B, we see H, A’’, C’’ are collinear. Similarly, applying Pascal’s
theorem to B’, D, C’, C, A, B, we see B’’, C’’, H are collinear. So A’’, B’’, C’’, H
By the converse of Menelaus’ theorem, this implies P, Q, R are collinear. are collinear.
Example 4. (1991 IMO unused problem) Let
Remarks. There are limiting cases of Pascal’s Theorem. For example, we may C ABC be any triangle and P any point in its
move A to approach B. In the limit, A and B will coincide and the line AB will interior. Let P1, P2 be the feet of the
become the tangent line at B. P1 P2 perpendiculars from P to the two sides AC and
Q2 P BC. Draw AP and BP and from C drop
Below we will give some examples of using Pascal’s theorem in problems. perpendiculars to AP and BP. Let Q1 and Q2 be
Q1 B
A the feet of these perpendiculars. If Q2≠P1 and
Example 1. (2001 Macedonian Math Olympiad) For the circumcircle of △ABC, Q1≠P2, then prove that the lines P1Q2, Q1P2
let D be the intersection of the tangent line at A with line BC, E be the and AB are concurrent.
intersection of the tangent line at B with line CA and F be the intersection of the
tangent line at C with line AB. Prove that points D,E,F are collinear. Solution Since ∠CP1P, ∠CP2P, ∠CQ2P, ∠CQ1P are all right angles, we see
Solution Applying Pascal’s theorem to A, A, B, B, C, C on the circumcircle, we that the points C, Q1, P1, P, P2, Q2 lie on a circle with CP as diameter. Note A =
easily get D, E, F are collinear. CP1 ∩ PQ1 and B = Q2P ∩ P2C. Applying Pascal’s theorem to C, P1, Q2, P, Q1,
P2, we see X = P1Q2 ∩ Q1P2 is on line AB.
D A
Example 2. Let D and E be the midpoints of the minor O
C
E arcs AB and AC on the circumcircle of △ ABC, A B Desargues’ Theorem For triangles ABC and
Q R respectively. Let P be on the minor arc BC, Q = DP ∩ BA R A’B’C’, if lines AA’, BB’, CC’ concur at a
I P point O, then points P, Q, R are collinear,
and R = PE ∩ AC. Prove that line QR passes through the
B C incenter I of △ABC. Q B' where P = BC ∩ B’C’, Q = CA ∩ C’A’, R =
P A' C' AB ∩ A’B’.

Solution Since D is the midpoint of arc AB, line CD bisects ∠ACB. Similarly,
line EB bisects ∠ABC. So I = CD ∩ EB. Applying Pascal’s theorem to C, D, P,
E, B, A, we get I, Q, R are collinear.

11 12
Proof. Applying Menelaus’ theorem respectively to line A’B’ cutting △OAB Proof. Let M = AB ∩ CD, N = DE ∩ FA. Applying Newton’s theorem to
extended, line B’C’ cutting △OBC extended and the line C’A’ cutting △OCA quadrilateral AMDN, we see lines AD, IL, GJ concur at a point A’. Similarly,
extended, we have lines BE, HK, GJ concur at a point B’ and lines CF, HK, IL concur at a point C’.
OA' AR BB ' OB' BP CC ' AA' OC ' CQ Then A’,B’,G,J are collinear; B’,C’,H,K are collinear; C’,A’,I,L are collinear.
⋅ ⋅ = −1, ⋅ ⋅ = −1, ⋅ ⋅ = −1.
A' A RB B ' O B' B PC C ' O A' O C ' C QA Next we apply Pascal’s theorem to G, G, I, L, L, H and get points A, O, P are
AR BP CQ collinear, where O = GI ∩ LH and P = IL ∩ HG. Applying Pascal’s theorem
Multiplying these three equations, RB ⋅ PC ⋅ QA = −1. again to H, H, L, I, I, G, we get C, O, P are collinear. Hence A, C, P are collinear.
By the converse of Menelaus’ theorem, this implies P,Q,R are collinear. Now AB ∩ A’B’ = AB ∩ GJ = G, BC ∩ B’C’ = BC ∩ HK = H and CA ∩ C’A’ =
CA ∩ IL =P are collinear. Applying the converse of Desargues’ theorem to
Converse of Desargues’ Theorem. For triangles ABC and A’B’C’, if points P, △ABC and △A’B’C’, we get lines AA’=AD, BB’=BE, CC’=CF are concurrent.
Q, R are collinear, where P = BC ∩ B’C’, Q = CA ∩ C’A’, R = AB ∩ A’B’, then
lines AA’, BB’, CC’ concur at a point O.
Proof. We can prove it as follow: let O=BB’∩CC’. Consider △RBB’ and △ 6. Nine Point Circle and Euler Line
QCC’. Since lines RQ, BC, B’C’ concur at P, and A = RB ∩ QC, O = BB’ ∩ CC’,
A’=BR’ ∩ C’Q, by Desargues’ theorem, we have A,O,A’ are collinear. Therefore, The following theorem is a very interesting theorem. It is a high point in the
lines AA’, BB’, CC’ concur at O. history of geometry.
X H A
D
Newton’s Theorem A circle is inscribed in a Nine Point Circle Theorem. For ∆ABC, let A’, B’,
E quadrilateral ABCD with sides AB, BC, CD, DA touch A C’ be the midpoints of sides BC,CA,AB respectively.
G O the circle at points E, F, G, H respectively. Then lines Let D,E,F be the feet of the altitudes to sides BC,
AC, EG, BD, FH are concurrent. C' K CA, AB respectively. Let K,L,M be the midpoints of
C F B
B'
the line segments joining the orthocenter H to
Proof. Let O=EG∩FH and X=EH∩FG. Since D is the intersection of the tangent F N vertices A, B, C respectively.
lines at G and at H to the circle, applying Pascal’s theorem to E,G,G,F,H,H, we H E
L Then A’,B’,C’,D,E,F,K,L,M lie on a circle (called
get O, D, X are collinear. Similarly, applying Pascal’s theorem to E, E, H, F, F, M
G, we get B, X, O are collinear. the nine point circle of ∆ABC). The center N of this
B A' D C circle is the midpoint of OH and the radius of this
Then B,O,D are collinear and so lines EG, BD, FH are concurrent at O. Similarly, circle is half the circumradius of ∆ABC.
we can also obtain lines AC, EG, FH are concurrent at O. Then Newton’s
theorem follows. 1 1
A Proof. By the midpoint theorem, C ' B ' = BC = LM and C ' L = AH = B ' M .
G 2 2
B L Brianchon’s Theorem Lines AB, BC, CD,
M F Since AH⊥BC, B’C’LM is a rectangle. The circumcircle of B’C’LM contains E,
H O DE, EF, FA are tangent to a circle at points
K G, H, I, J, K, L (not necessarily in cyclic F since B’L, C’M are diameters and∠B’EL = 90°=∠C’FM. So B’,C’,E,F,L,M
C D J N order). Then lines AD, BE, CF are are concyclic. Similarly, A’,B’,D,E,K,L are concyclic. So, the nine points lie on a
I E
concurrent. common circle. Note B’L, C’M, A’K are diameters of the nine point circle.
P

13 14
 A Next note O is the orthocenter of ∆A’B’C’. Since 7. Power of Points Respect to Circles
∆ABC ~ ∆A’B’C’, so ∆ABH ~ ∆A’B’O and
K The power of a point P with respect to a circle is the number d2 − r2, where d is
C' A’O/AH = A’B’/AB =1/2 ⇒ A’O = ½AH = KH. the distance from P to the center of the circle and r is the radius of the circle. (If
B'
Since A’O⊥BC and KH⊥BC, so A’O∥KH. Then P is outside the circle, the power is positive. If P is inside, the power is negative.
O
H
A’OKH is a parallelogram. Since A’K is a diameter of If P is on the circle, the power is 0.)
the nine point circle, its center is the midpoint of OH.
B A' C In the intersecting chord theorem, if P is inside a circle and
PO A' AA' is a chord through P, then the product PA × PA' is
Finally, N,K are midpoints of OH, AH respectively. The radius NK of the nine A r-d
r+d
point circle is half the circumradius OA by the midpoint theorem. constant and can be determined by taking the case the
chord AA' passes through P and the center O. This gives
A Euler Line of ∆ABC. Since A’O= ½AH and
A=A'
r PA × PA' = r2 − d2, where r is the radius of the circle and d
d = OP. In the case P is outside the circle, the product PA ×
A’O∥AH, so OH and AA’ intersect at a point G such PA' can be determined by taking the limiting case PA is
P O
that OG=½HG=⅓OH. Similarly, this point G is on tangent to the circle. Then PA × PA' = d2 − r2.
N H BB’ and CC’. Hence G is the centroid. (Note
OG Thus, PA × PA' is the absolute value of the power of P with respect to the circle.
A’G=⅓A’A.) The points O,G,N,H lie on a common This is known as the power-of-a-point theorem.
A' C line (called the Euler line of ∆ABC). We have OH =
B
2ON = 3OG. Next we will look at points having equal power with respect to two circles.
A For ∆ABC, there is an inscribed circle with center I Theorem. On a plane, for distinct points R,S and a number m, the locus of all
and radius r. If we extend the sides of ∠BAC beyond points X such that RX2−SX2 = m is the line perpendicular to line RS. Also, for
B and C, then the bisectors of ∠BAC and the external distinct points R,S,X,Y, we have RX2−SX2 = RY2−SY2 if and only if XY ⊥RS.
angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C are concurrent at a Proof. Let R,S have coordinate (a,0),(b,0). Point X with
X(x,y)
point Ia that is equidistant from side BC and the sides coordinate (x,y) is on the locus if and only if ((a−x)2+y2) −
B of ∠BAC. Hence, Ia is the center of a circle tangent ((b−x)2+y2) = m, which is equivalent to x =
C
ra to side BC and the sides of ∠BAC. This is called the R(a,0) S(b,0) (a2−b2−m)/2(a−b), a line perpendicular to RS. The second
ra escribed circle or excircle of ∆ABC opposite A, Ia is statement follows by using Pythagoras’ theorem for the
ra
called the excenter and its radius ra is called the if-part and letting m = RY2−SY2 so that X,Y are both on the locus for the only-if-
Ia
exradius. Similarly, there are excircles opposite to B part.
and C. Let circles C1 and C2 have distinct centers O1 and O2. By the theorem, the points
X whose powers with respect to C1 and C2 are equal (i.e. O1X2 − r12 = O2X2 −r22 )
Feuerbach’s Theorem. For ∆ABC, the inscribed circle is internally tangent to form a line perpendicular to line O1O2. This line is called the radical axis of the
the nine point circle and the three escribed circles are externally tangent to the two circles. In the case of three circles C1, C2, C3 with noncollinear centers O1,
nine point circle. O2, O3, the three radical axes of the three pairs of circles intersect at a point
called the radical center of the three circles. (This is because the intersection

15 16
point of any two of these radical axes has equal power with respect to all three C3 Solution 1. Let C1 be the circle with center D
C2
circles, hence it is on the third radical axis too.) and radius BD, C2 be the circle with center E
F A and radius CE, and C3 be the circle with center
If two circles C1 and C2 intersect, their radical axis is E
F and radius AF. The line through A
C2 the line through the intersection point(s) perpendicular to EF is the radical axis of C2 and
perpendicular to the line of the centers. (This is B C3, the line through B perpendicular to FD is
O1 O2 because the intersection point(s) have 0 power with the radical axis of C3 and C1 and the line
C1 C
respect to both circles, hence they are on the radical D through C perpendicular to DE is the radical
axis.) C1 axis of C1 and C2. These three lines concur at
P the radical center of the three circles.
C2
If the two circles do not intersect, their radical axis
C1
can be found by taking a third circle C3 intersecting
both C1 and C2. Let the radical axis of C1 and C3 F A Solution 2. Let P be the intersection of the
O1 intersect the radical axis of C2 and C3 at P. Then the perpendicular line from B to FD with the perpendicular
O2 E line from C to DE. Then PB⊥FD and PC⊥DE. By
radical axis of C1 and C2 is the line through P P
C3 perpendicular to the line of centers of C1 and C2. B
the theorem above, we have
C PF2−PD2= BF2−BD2 and PD2−PE2= CD2−CE2.
We will illustrate the usefulness of the intersecting chord theorem, the concepts D
of power of a point, radical axis and radical center in the following examples. Adding these and using AF=BF, BD=CD and CE=AE,
we get PF −PE2= AF2−AE2. So PA⊥EF and P is the desired concurrent point.
2

Example 1. (1996 St. Petersburg City Math Olympiad) Let BD be the angle
bisector of angle B in triangle ABC with D on side AC. The circumcircle of Example 3. (1985 IMO) A circle with center O passes through vertices A and C
triangle BDC meets AB at E, while the circumcircle of triangle ABD meets BC at of triangle ABC and intersects side AB at K and side BC at N. Let the
F. Prove that AE = CF. circumcircles of triangles ABC and KBN intersect at B and M. Prove that OM is
B perpendicular to BM.
Solution. By the intersecting chord theorem, AE
× AB = AD × AC and CF × CB = CD × CA, so B Solution. For the three circles mentioned, the
E F AE/CF = (AD/CD)(BC/AB). However, AB/CB = radical axes of the three pairs are lines AC, KN
AD/CD by the angle bisector theorem. So AE = M and BM. (The centers are noncollinear because
K
CF. two of them are on the perpendicular bisector of
A D C N AC, but not the third.) So the axes will concur at
A Example 2. (1997 USA Math Olympiad) Let ABC O the radical center P. Since ∠PMN = ∠BKN = ∠
F be a triangle, and draw isosceles triangles BCD, P NCA, it follows that P, M, N, C are concyclic.
E A C
CAE, ABF externally to ABC, with BC, CA, AB as
B
their respective bases. Prove the lines through A, By power of a point, BM × BP = BN × BC = BO2 − r2 and PM × PB = PN × PK
B, C, perpendicular to the lines EF, FD, DE, = PO2 − r2, where r is the radius of the circle through A, C, N, K. Then PO2 −
C
respectively, are concurrent. BO2 = BP(PM − BM) = PM2 − BM2. By the theorem above, this implies OM ⊥
D
PB, which is the same as OM ⊥BM.

17 18
Example 4. (1997 Chinese Math Olympiad) Let quadrilateral ABCD be Doing (a)−(b)+(c)+(d)−(e), we get NH2−MH2 = ON2−OM2. So OH⊥MN.
inscribed in a circle. Suppose lines AB and DC intersect at P and lines AD and
BC intersect at Q. From Q, construct the tangents QE and QF to the circle, Alternative Solution. (1) Let J be on line DM such that JB∥DF. Since ∠AFC
= 90°=∠ADC, so A,C,D,F are concyclic. Then ∠JBD = ∠BDF = ∠BAC. So
where E and F are the points of tangency. Prove that P, E, F are collinear. line BJ is tangent to the circumcircle of △ABC. Then OB⊥JB. So OB⊥DF.
A Solution. Let M be a point on PQ such that ∠CMQ Similarly, OC⊥DE.
C1 =∠ADC. Then D, C, M, Q are concyclic and also, B, (2) We note line OH contains the center of the circumcircle and the center of
E
C, M, P are concyclic. Let r1 be the radius of the the nine point circle. We will show N, M are on the radical axis of these circles
D O1
circumcircle C1 of ABCD and O1be the center of C1. and hence OH⊥MN.
C B By power of a point, From (1), we know A,C,D,F are concyclic. By the intersecting chord theorem,
F
Q 2 2 NA×NC = NF×ND. Since AC is a chord of the circumcircle and FD is a chord
M PO1 − r1 = PC × PD = PM × PQ on the nine-point circle, so N is on the radical axis of the circles and similarly
P and QO12 − r12 = QC × QB = QM × PQ. for M.
________________________________________________________________
Then PO12 − QO12 = (PM – QM) PQ = PM2 − QM2, which implies O1M⊥PQ.
The circle C2 with QO1 as diameter passes through M, E, F and intersects C1 at 8. Miscellaneous Examples
E, F. If r2 is the radius of C2 and O2 is the center of C2, then PO12 − r12 = PM ×
PQ = PO22 − r22. So P lies on the radical axis of C1, C2, which is the line EF. Example 1. (1994 Canadian Math Olympiad) Let ABC be an acute triangle.
Let D be on side BC such that AD⊥BC. Let H be a point on the segment AD
A Example 5. (2001 Chinese National Senior High Math different from A and D. Let line BH intersect side AC at E and line CH
intersect side AB at F. Prove that ∠EDA =∠FDA.
Competition) As in the figure, in △ ABC, O is the
circumcenter. The three altitudes AD, BE and CF A Solution 1. Draw a line through A parallel to BC. Let
O P Q
F
E intersect at H. Lines ED and AB intersect at M. Lines the line intersect line DE at Q and line DF at P. Note
H
FD and AC intersect at N. Prove that (1) OB⊥DF, OC ∆APF~∆BFD. So AP/BD=AF/BF. Similarly,
C
B
D ⊥DE; (2) OH⊥MN. F H E AQ/CD=AE/CE. Also, by Ceva’s theorem,
AF BD CE AF AE
Solution. (1) Since ∠AFC = 90°=∠ADC, so A,C,D,F = 1⇔ ⋅ BD = ⋅ CD ⇔ AP=AQ.
M N FB DC EA FB CE
are concyclic. Then ∠BDF =∠BAC. Also, ∠OBC = B C
D This with DA=DA and ∠DAP = 90°=∠DAQ yield
½(180˚−∠BOC) = 90°−∠BAC = 90°−∠BDF implies OB⊥DF. Similarly, ∆DAP~∆DAQ. Therefore, ∠EDA =∠FDA.
OC⊥DE.
A Solution 2. Let A’, E’ be the mirror image of A,E
(2) We have 2
CH⊥MA ⇔ MC −MH = AC −AH 2 2 2
(a) with respect to line BC. Since AF, CD, EH concur
F H E at B, by Ceva’s theorem,
2 2 2 2
BH⊥NA ⇔ NB −NH = AB −AH (b)
DA⊥BC ⇔ DB2−DC2 = AB2−AC2 (c) C AD HF CE − A' D HF CE '
B D 1= = .
DH FC EA DH FC E ' A
OB⊥DF = DN ⇔ BN2−BD2 = ON2−OD2 (d) E' By the converse of Menelaus’ theorem, D, F, E’
2 2 2 2
OC⊥DE =DM ⇔ CM −CD = OM −OD . (e) A' are collinear. Hence, ∠EDA =∠E’DA’=∠FDA.

19 20
Example 2. (1997 USA Math Olympiad) Let ABC be a triangle, and draw BF DB FD
isosceles triangles BCD, CAE, ABF externally to ABC, with BC, CA, AB as By the extended sine law, R A = , RC = , RE = . Dividing the
2 sin A 2 sin C 2 sin B
their respective bases. Prove the lines through A, B, C, perpendicular to the first inequality by sin A, second inequality by sin C, third inequality by sin E
lines EF, FD, DE, respectively, are concurrent. and adding them, we get by the AM-GM inequality that
Solution. Let A’,B’,C’ be points on FE,DF,ED  sin B sin A   sin C sin B 
A 4(RA + RC + RE ) ≥ AB  +  + BC  +  +⋯
respectively such that AA’⊥FE, BB’⊥DF and CC’  sin A sin B   sin B sin C 
F ⊥ ED. Let D’,E’,F’ be points on CB,AC,BA ≥ 2(AB+BC+CD+DE+EF+FA) = 2P.
A' E respectively such that DD’⊥CB, EE’⊥AC and FF’
F' E' The result follows.
B' D' C' ⊥ BA. Now DD’, EE’, FF’ are perpendicular
B bisectors of the sides of △ABC. So they concur. By
Example 4. (1997 Chinese National Senior High Math Competition) Circles
C the trigonometric form of Ceva’s theorem, we have
C1, C2 with centers O1, O2 and distinct radii intersect at M, N. C1, C2 are
D sin ∠E ' EF sin ∠F ' FD sin ∠D ' DE internally tangent to a circle C with center O at S and T respectively. Prove that
= 1.
sin ∠DEE ' sin ∠EFF ' sin ∠FDD ' OM⊥MN if and only if S,T,N are collinear.
Since E’E⊥CA and EF⊥AA’, so ∠E’EF≅ ∠CAA’. Similarly, ∠DEE’≅ ∠
A’AB, ∠F’FD≅∠ABB’, ∠EFF’≅∠B’BC, ∠D’DE≅∠BCC’ and ∠FDD’≅ Solution. Let the tangents at S and at T to circle C
C
C1 C2 intersect at P. Let Q = OP ∩ ST. Now OP⊥ST and so
∠B’BC. So
O
M
PQ×PO = PS2. Also, PS2 = PN×PM by the intersecting
sin ∠CAA' sin ∠ABB ' sin ∠BCC ' O2
= 1. O1
T chord theorem. Then PQ×PO = PN×PM, which implies
sin ∠A' AB sin ∠B ' BC sin ∠B ' BC N
O,Q,N,M concyclic. Hence,
Q
S
By the converse of Ceva’s theorem, we get AA’, BB’, CC’ are concurrent,
which is the required conclusion. ∠OMN = 90˚ ⇔ ∠OQN = 90˚
⇔ S,T,N are collinear since OQ⊥ST.
Example 3. (1996 IMO) Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon such that AB is
P
parallel to DE, BC is parallel to EF and CD is parallel to FA. Let RA, RC, RE
denote the circumradii of triangles FAB, BCD, DEF, respectively and let P A Example 5. The inscribed circle of △ABC touches
denote the perimeter of the hexagon. Prove that RA + RC + RE ≥ P/2.
sides BC, CA, AB at D, E, F respectively. P is a
P B C Q Solution. Due to the parallel opposite sides, we have point inside △ABC. The inscribed circle of △PBC
∠A =∠D, ∠B =∠E,∠C =∠F. Let PQRS be the touches sides BC,CP,PB at D,Q,R respectively.
A smallest rectangle containing the hexagon with side F Prove that E,F,R,Q are concyclic.
D BC on PQ as shown. We have R P E
Solution. If EF ∥ BC, then ∠AFE =∠AEF implies
Q
2BF ≥ PS+QR = AP+AS+DQ+DR B
S ∠ABC =∠ACB. So △ABC is isosceles. Then D is
S R
F E = (AB sin B+FA sin C)+(CD sin C+DE sin B). D C
the midpoint of BC and P is on AD. Then EFRQ is
Similarly, 2DB ≥ (CD sin A+BC sin B)+(EF sin B+FA sin A) an isosceles trapezoid and so E,F,R,Q are concyclic.
and 2FD ≥ (EF sin C+DE sin A)+(AB sin A+BC sin C). CS BF AE
If EF∩BC=S, then by Menelaus theorem, = −1. Since AF=AE,
SB FA EC

21 22
 CS BR PQ
BR=BD=BF, CQ=CD=CE, PQ=PR, we get = −1. So by the
SB RP QC 3. (1996 Iranian Math Olympiad) Let ABC be a scalene triangle (i.e. no two
converse of Menelaus’ theorem, we have R, Q, S collinear. By the intersecting sides equal). The medians from A, B, C meet the circumcircle again at L, M,
chord theorem, SE×SF = SD2 = SR×SQ. Then E,F,R,Q are concyclic. N respectively. If LM=LN, prove that 2BC2=AB2+AC2. (Hint: Show
LN LG
= first.)
Example 6. As in the figure, circles C1, C2 with centers O1, O2 respectively AC CG
intersect at A, B. P is a point on line AB. From P, draw tangents to circle C1 at
C and circle C2 at D. Let EF be a common tangent to both circles with E on C1 4. (1996 St. Petersburg Math Olympiad) Let BD be the bisector of angle B in
and F on C2. Prove that AB, CE, DF are concurrent. △ABC. The circumcircle of △BDC meets AB at E, while the circumcircle
of △ABD meet BC at F. Prove that AE=CF.
P Solution. Let Q = AB∩EF. Let lines CE, DF intersect
line AB at R, R’ respectively. We have to show R=R’. 5. (1995 IMO) Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon with AB = BC = CD, DE =
M R R'
E EF = FA and ∠BCD = ∠EFA = 60˚. Prove that AG+GB+GH+DH+HE ≥
C Q Let line EF intersect lines PC, PD at M, N
F respectively. Applying Menelaus’ theorem to line CF.
N
O1 A MC PR QE
O2 D CER through △QMP, we get = −1. Since
6.
CP RQ EM
A
PR PC PR' PD E'
B MC=ME, we get = . Similarly, = . F In the figure, if lines AD, BE, CF are concurrent,
RQ QE R' Q QF
show that lines AD’, BE’, CF’ are concurrent.
By the intersecting chord theorem, PC2=PA×PB=PD2 and QE2=QA×QB=QF2.
PR PR' E
So = . Therefore, R=R’. F'
RQ R' Q D'
C
B D

Exercises
7.
1. Let a, b, c denote the lengths of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Let ha, A K
D In the figure, ABCD, AFHD, KGCD are
hb, hc be the heights from A, B, C to the opposite sides respectively. Let R be parallelograms and KG, FH intersect at point E.
the circumradius, r be the inradius and s be the semiperimeter of △ABC. F H
Show that lines FK, BD, GH are concurrent. (Hint:
E There are more than one ways of solving this. One
1 1 1 1
(a) For △ABC, show that h + h + h = r . way is to let FK, BD intersect at X, then show G,H,X
a b c
B G C are collinear.)
A B C A r
(b) Show that r = 4 R sin sin sin . (Hint: Show tan = .)
2 2 2 2 s−a
8. (a) Let the angle bisector of ∠BAC intersect the circumcircle of △ABC at
2. Show that among all triangles with the same perimeter, the equilateral D. Show that if point I on the line segment AD is the incenter of △ABC,
triangle has the largest area. then BD = ID = CD. (Remark: The converse is also true.)

23 24
 (b) Show that OI2 = R2 −2Rr, where O is the circumcenter, R is the
circumradius and r is the inradius of △ABC.

9. Let a,b,c and a’, b’, c’ be the lengths of two triangles. Let K(x,y,z) be the
area of a triangle with side lengths x,y,z. Show that
K (a + a' , b + b' , c + c' ) ≥ K (a, b, c) + K (a' , b' c' ) .
When does equality hold?

10.
A (Hong Kong IMO Prelim Contest 90-91) Let P be an
c interior point of △ ABC and extend lines from the
d d vertices through P to the opposite sides. Let a,b,c,d
a b
d P denote the lengths of the line segments indicated in the
B figure. Find abc if a+b+c = 43 and d = 3.
C

25