BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
REGULAR M.SC PROGRAM

Vegetable seed production Technology

REVIEW ON CONSTRAINTS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
OF VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA
Compiledby:
1. Misganaw Abeje…………BDU1500886
2.Tiblet Molla ………….BDU1500897

3.WalelignBitewulign………BDU1402461

4.Mekuanint Basazinew...........BDU1500884

Summited to Baye Berihun (PhD)

May, 2023
Bahirdar,Ethiopia
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objective ....................................................................................................................................... 2
2.VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA ........................................................................ 3
2.1 Importance of Vegetable Production ............................................................................................ 3
2. 2. Requirements for Vegetable Quality Seed Production ............................................................... 3
2.2.1. Climate and Physiographic Factors ....................................................................................... 3
2.2.2 Soil Factors ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.2.3 Agronomic Factors ................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.4. Biological Factors ................................................................................................................. 8
2. 2.5. Socio Economic Factors....................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Principles of Vegetable Seed Production ...................................................................................... 9
2.4 Vegetable Seed Extraction Methods ........................................................................................... 10
3. VEGETABLE SEED SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA............................................................................. 10
3.1. Status of the Ethiopian Seed Industry ........................................................................................ 10
3.2. Seed System Structure ............................................................................................................... 11
4. MAJOR CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION IN
ETHIOPIA ............................................................................................................................................ 12
4.1 Major Challenges of Vegetable Seed Production ....................................................................... 12
4.1.1 Inadequate Seed Marketing Information and Infrastructure ................................................ 12
4.1.2. Diseases and Pests Introduction .......................................................................................... 12
4.1.3. Lack of a Clear Seed Strategy ............................................................................................. 13
4.1.4. Inefficient Extension Services ............................................................................................ 13
4.1.5. Private Companies Tend to Concentrate on Profitable Crops............................................. 13
4.1.6. Lack of Awareness about Seed Production ......................................................................... 14
4.1.7. Inadequate Basic Seed Supply ............................................................................................ 14
4.1.8. Lack of Postharvest Handling Experiences......................................................................... 14
4.1.9. Budget Limitation for Field Inspection ............................................................................... 14
4.1.10. Lack of Effective Large Scale Seed Enterprise and Industry ............................................ 15
4.2. Opportunities to Develop Vegetable Seed Production in Ethiopia ............................................ 15
4.2.1. Presence of High Seed Demands with a Limited Seed Supply ........................................... 15
4.2.2. Governments and Assisting Agencies are Currently Reassessing their Strategies ............. 15

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 4.2.3. Government Investments in Rural Infrastructure and General Agricultural Policies ......... 15
4.2.4. Availability of Human Resource with Trained Person ....................................................... 16
4.2.5. Presences of Strong National and Regional Initiatives in Seed Production ........................ 16
4.2.6. Presence of Development Agents and Different Cooperatives ........................................... 16
4.2.7 Research System .................................................................................................................. 16
4.2.8 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) ......................................................................... 16
4.2.9. Climate ................................................................................................................................ 17
4.2.10. Water Supply .................................................................................................................... 17
4.2.11. Transport ........................................................................................................................... 17
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.................................................................................................. 18
6. REFFERENCE ................................................................................................................................. 19

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetable production is an important economic activity in Ethiopia (Mihretu, 2019). Ethiopia

has a variety of vegetable crops grown in different agro-ecological zones by small farmers,
mainly as a source of income as well as for food. Commercial producers are also involved in
the production, processing and marketing of vegetable. The crops are produced under rain fed
and irrigated condition (Dawit, et al 2004).Ethiopia has favourable climate and edaphic
conditions for the production of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate vegetables in the
lowlands (<1500 meters above sea level), midlands (1500-2200) and highlands (>2200),
respectively (EHDA, 2012).

The vegetable crops are very important source of nutrition to a country like Ethiopia where
the population experiences malnutrition due to heavy dependency on cereal crops. Its primary
contribution is solving the heath problem through providing vitamins, minerals and protein
also important for food security in times of drought, famine and food shortage. Vegetables
serve as suitable crops for farming systems diversification and land intensification,
particularly with recent increases in the establishment of small and medium scale irrigation
schemes in the country. The successful seed production of these crops depends on the supply
of good quality seed. Cultivation practices for vegetable seed production require more
attention and special skills compared to field crops (Shimeles, 2000).

In order to improve the production and productivity of vegetables domestically the

availability of suitable production inputs is very important, among which quality seed is
crucial. Under the current situation in the country, the dominant part of vegetables is
produced from imported seeds. This has a negative impact on farmers' welfare and the
demand for foreign currency. However, research results show that for almost all types of
vegetable crops produced in the country, seeds can be produced domestically, even for those
that require vernalization(Dawit, et al 2004).

Major seed system constraints in Ethiopia are inadequate seed marketing information and
infrastructure, diseases and pests introduction due quarantine problem, lack of a clear seed
strategy, inefficient extension services, limited collaboration within the seed sector, private
companies tend to concentrate on profitable crops, lack of awareness and knowledge gap
about seed production, inadequate basic seed supply, budget limitation for field inspection,
lack of effective large scale seed enterprise and industry(Mihretu, 2019)

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Sustainable availability of good quality seed and well-functioning seed system is vital
development issue, without it which attaining the required agricultural production and
productivity is impossible. Therefore, it is highly important to assess or review challenges
and opportunities of vegetable seed production in Ethiopia that entirely influence quality seed
production and subsequent crop production (Mihretu, 2019).

1.1 Objective
To review or assess Constraints and Opportunity of Vegetable seed production in Ethiopia

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2. VEGETABLESEED PRODUCTION INETHIOPIA
2.1 Importance of Vegetable Production

Nutritional and health value of vegetables is also well recognized in Ethiopia because
vegetables play important roles in human health by way of providing antioxidants such as
vitamin A, C and E that are important in neutralizing free radicals (oxidants) known to cause
cancer, cataracts, heart disease, hypertension, stroke and diabetes (Demissie et al., 2009;
Tabor and Yesuf, 2012). Vegetables constitute also source of cash income for the households
and an opportunity to increase smallholder farmers’ participation in the market (Alemayehu
et al., 2010). Vegetables are also used as source of raw material for local processing industry.
Products like tomato paste, tomato juice, and oleoresin and ground spice of Capsicum are
produced for exports making a significant contribution to the national economy (Aklilu,
1997; Baredo, 2013). The increasing development of the horticulture industry and the
intensive production practices of horticultural crops are creating employment opportunity,
especially for women and youth (Ethiopian Investment Agency, 2012).

2. 2. Requirements for Vegetable Quality Seed Production

2.2.1. Climateand Physiographic Factors

Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis and respiration have a role in the yield potential of
vegetable seeds; thus, the climate parameters that influence how well these processes work
must be at their best. Every crop has certain climatic needs. A crop must be cultivated in an
environment that complies with these specifications in order to achieve the maximum
possible yield per unit of land. It is possible to develop a crop that is well suited to a certain
environment with little alterations (AVRDC, 1990). Following are the main environmental
elements that affect the production of vegetable seeds: Photoperiod,temperature,
precipitation, wind, elevation, topography, and slope steepness.

Light: Light for the plant is not only used as an informational medium, but also for producing
food through the process of photosynthesis. The plants have varying preferences for light
intensity. The light saturation point is the point above which an increase in light intensity
does not result in an increase in photosynthetic rate. The crops such as corn, cucurbits,
legumes, potato, and sweet potato require a relatively high level of light for proper plant
growth, while onions, asparagus, carrot, celery, lettuce and spinach can grow satisfactorily
with lower light intensity (Dennis, 1998).

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Light duration is the length of the light period (also called photoperiod or day length) varies
according to the season of the year and latitude. One important plant response to day length
in some plants is flowering. Short day plants flower rapidly when the days get shorter, for
amaranths, soybean and long-day plants flower fast when days get longer, for spinach, radish,
cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnip. The plants that are not affected by day length are
called day-neutral plants. These plants can flower under any light period for, tomato, brinjal,
lettuce, cucurbits, carrot (Xiaoyuet al., 2012)

Temperature: Temperature significantly influences the transition from the vegetative to the
reproductive phase of the crop species having specific critical temperature requirements for
flowering. Not only has the flowering, the prevailing temperature during growth and
developmental phases of plant determined the final seed yield. The seed yield and quality
depend on the growing seasons and specific location (Semahagneet al. 2006). The high
temperature has direct dramatic effects on plant growth and development, organic matter
decay, seed germination, root development, and water and nutrient absorption by roots. The
size, quality, and shape of storage organs are greatly affected by soil temperature. The most
crops are injured at temperatures at or slightly below freezing. Tropical or subtropical plants
may be killed or damaged at temperatures above freezing but below 50ºF (10ºC) (Xiaoyuet
al., 2012).

Rainfall: an appropriate balance between sufficient rainfall for crop growth and
establishment and sufficiently dry conditions for satisfactory pollination and seed ripening is
the most important factor in the vegetable seed production. The sufficient soil moisture must
be ensured during flowering stage when the crop is moisture sensitive, owing the reduced
root growth. The seed viability can be seriously affected by high rainfall during the seed
ripening period (Rashid and Singh, 2000).

Wind: The excessive wind increases water loss from the crop, soil and prevent maximum
activity of pollinating insects, carry wind-borne pollen over long distances and increases loss
of seed by enhancing shattering during seed ripening. The strong winds during the
reproductive phase can cause severe crop losses through lodging, shattering and shedding of
seed. On the other hand gentle wind facilitates increased pollination in cross-pollinated crops
(George, 1980)

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2.2.2 Soil Factors

The soil both supports the plant and serves as a water storage area. Depending on the amount
of basic salts and acidic elements present, the soils might be neutral, acidic, or alkaline. Most
crops can thrive best on neutral soils. Additionally, it is the principal supplier of plant
nutrients. The type and rate of plant development are significantly influenced by its physical
and chemical properties.

The best soils for growing vegetable seeds are often those that are deep, rich, well-drained,
and light to medium in texture. Well-drained organic soils are also acceptable. Good texture
and structure are crucial when choosing a soil for vegetable production. When high yields are
sought, silt loam soils are among the best for producing the majority of vegetable crops (Has,
1997).

2.2.3 Agronomic Factors

2.2.3.1 Site Selection

The three major points should be considered in selecting a field for growing vegetables such
as site topography, soil type, and water availability (quantity and quality). The selections of
suitable areas for seed production are based on climatic factors which ensure a relatively
satisfactory environment for vegetable quality seed production (Joseph et al., 2009).

2.2.3.2Land Preparation

The optimum land preparations for seed beds has mellow soils comprised of fine sized
particles, free of clods, weeds and previous crop residue. The appropriate soil preparation for
the various vegetables, the yield is found to be better. The plants can be grown on raised or
flat surfaces. The seed beds must be uniform as the vegetable seeds require precision planting
for best performance and uniform development (Joseph et al., 2009)

2.2.3.3 Method of Seed Production

Vegetable seeds are propagated through direct drilling or transplantation methods. Planting at
the right time is essential for these crops. They are various methods of planting such as "seed-
to-seed" method is one which involves planting of the biennial seed and harvesting of the
seed crop the next season. Carrots and onions are typically grown similarly. The other
method is the "root-to-seed" method which involves the planting of the biennial seed and
transplanting of the seed crop in the next season. Row spacing for the vegetable seed

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production differ from the fresh market production. The factors taken into consideration for
growing the plants include provision of sufficient space for flower development, air
movement, machinery cultivation and harvest operations (Peter, 2001)

The use of an appropriate seed class and an approved source is necessary for raising the seed
crop. They are four classes of seeds, namely, breeders, foundation, registered and certified.
Isolation is one of most important during seed production to ensure that the possibility of
cross-pollination between different cross-compatible plots or fields is minimized. The
adequate isolation also assists in avoiding admixture during harvesting and the transmission
of pests and pathogens from alternative host crops. The vegetable seed crops can be isolated
by time and by distance, for highly cross-pollinated (by insects) vegetable crops like onion,
radish, cabbage, cauliflower and cucurbits require isolation distance of 800-1000m, while
wind pollinated vegetables like spinach, beet require isolation distance of about 2000m
(Rashid and Singh, 2000)

2.2.3.4. Fertilizer Management

The best management approaches preserve or improve economical yields while lowering the
load of certain fertilizer compounds entering ground and surface water. The integrated
management of nutrients is meant to be financially sound, environmentally effective, and
based on the needs of the crops. They should be seen as a way to strike a balance between
economically producing vegetables and being environmentally responsible. Adequate
fertilizer ratios, suitable irrigation scheduling methods, and crop nutritional status monitoring
should all be employed at the field level (Guodong et al., 2016).

2.2.3.5. Water Management

All water uses, from the source of irrigation water to plant water usage, must be taken into
account in proper water management planning. It's crucial to distinguish between the water
needs of crops and those of irrigation or industrial systems. Field preparation, crop
establishment, crop growth and development, within-season system maintenance, chemical
delivery, frost protection, and other purposes including dust management all require irrigation
water (Lincoln et al., 2016).

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2.2.3.6. Disease and Pest Management

The health of vegetable seed production is best maintained through management practices
that integrate different techniques. It is important to consider the economics of the crop, cost
of the management practice, history of the production area, weather and climatic conditions,
and potential risk for disease, insects to develop. Integrated management strategies are more
likely to successfully control diseases, insect than non-integrated. Ultimately, integrated
management strategies provide a means for producers to reduce the risks of economic losses
(Colquhoun et al., 2015)

2.2.3.7. Harvesting, Processing, Extraction andDrying Of Seeds

Seed quality is often determined at the harvesting stage. Thus, it is widely agreed that seeds
should be extracted only after they have fully developed in the fruit or when their moisture
content has fallen below 25%. Early harvesting helps to keep out harmful elements including
harsh weather, mildew, insects, birds, and rodents. The steps are made to avoid mechanically
mixing other types of seed with the seed and damaging the seed. All process activities,
including winnowing, cleaning, separating, drying, and packing, are carried out meticulously
and on schedule after harvesting (Kuo et al., 2006).)

It is of great importance to harvest the seed crop at the time that will allow both the
maximum yield and the best quality seeds. The seeds are harvested when their moisture
content is about 15-20%. Cole crops are harvested when siliqua becomes yellow; the pods of
legume vegetables are harvested when they are dry enough. In vegetables like tomato, brinjal,
chilies and cucurbits well ripen fruits are collected. They are cut or smashed under pressure to
extract seeds. In brinjal and tomato, crushed fruits are allowed to ferment for one or two days
for quick and easy extraction of seeds. In order to preserve seed viability and vigor it is
necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture content level. The drying of seeds may be done by
sunlight, chemical desiccants and by mechanical driers. The air temperature of the drier
should not exceed 38°C in order to maintain good vigor and viability of the seeds. Sensitive
seeds like onion, carrot, and leek are requiring dry temperature below 27°C. For short period
storage clean and dried seeds should be filled in neat and clean sacks or bags and stored in a
clean, cool go down (Rashid and Singh, 2000).

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2.2.3.8 Storage Period of Vegetables Seed

The finest conditions must be maintained for the seed after it has been extracted and dried in
order to preserve the highest levels of seed quality characteristics. The main input for the
nation's vegetable production program is stored seeds. Temperature and relative humidity
together have the practical impact of reducing the potential viability or lifespan of seeds
throughout the course of their storage life. Low RH and temperature often cause a steady
decline in seed viability. More important than storage temperature in attaining ideal storage
conditions is the regulation of RH and its consequent impact on seed moisture content
(McDonald, 2001).

Onion seed is the most sensitive to storage conditions, and tomato seed the least sensitive. In
storage experiments at 50°F (10°C) and 50% RH, seeds of bean, cucumber, pea, sweet corn,
tomato, and watermelon did not decrease significantly in germination over a 9-year period.
Under similar conditions, seed stocks of cabbage, carrot, celery, lettuce, okra, onion, pepper,
spinach, and turnip did not decrease significantly in germination during 36 weeks. The
viability of seeds of most vegetable species will be maintained at a satisfactory level for 10-
12 months when stored under conditions where the sum of the per cent RH and the
temperature (F) does not exceed 100 (Loren and Elhadi,2008).

2.2.4. Biological Factors

The biotic factors include higher plants and animals as well as both good and bad insects,
microbes, and other species. Controlling disease and insects is crucial for growing
wholesome seed harvests. A insect infestation not only lowers seed production but also
lowers quality. In the same way as market veggies are produced, seeds are produced using the
same control techniques. The variety of pesticides that are readily available varies from
country to country, but only products that have been approved and tested should be used in
seed production due to the potential negative effects of pesticides, which include the
unintentional killing of pollinating insects, alteration of the seed's potential germination, and
a decrease in quality (Rashid and Singh, 2000).

2. 2.5. Socio Economic Factors

The man or women produce changes in plant environment and responsible for specific crop
and soil management, breeding of varieties for increased yield and introduction of exotic
plants. Factors affecting the crop production are economic condition of the farmers greatly

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decides the input, the educational status and technical known-how of the farmers, the
resource allocation, ability, and social value of the farmers, government, prices, policy,
marketing and storage facilities (Chandrasekaranet al., 2010).

2.3 Principles of Vegetable Seed Production

Isolation Distance: For successful hybrid seed production the field must be isolated from
other varieties of the same crop, cultivated species and their wild relatives if any to make sure
the production of genetically pure seeds. Many of these crops are highly cross pollinated;
hence isolation distance for both foundation and certified seed production should be
maintained as per the seed production standard. The isolation distance between cross
compatible varieties can be achieved by the following ways (Tomar, et al, 2017).

1. Time isolation: It will allow the seed production of different varieties of the same crop at
the same place each year. If the season is too long enough to allow two production cycles of
the cross compatible crops then they are isolated by time. For example, early and mid-
maturity group of cauliflower grown for seed production can be isolated by time.

2. Distance isolation: The isolation distance for self-pollinated varieties is comparatively

less but, for cross-pollinated varieties the isolation distance from other variety should be
relatively more. The isolation distance also varies with the direction of insect flight (in case
of insect pollinated varieties) or the direction of winds (in case of wind-pollinated varieties).

Rouging: is the removal of individual plant which do not confirm to the distinct limits of a
particular variety. Therefore, rouging is a technique that is used in seed production to
maintain genetic purity of the variety. The off-types may occur in a crop due to a variety of
the morphological types within a crop. The cross-pollinated vegetable crops like Cole crops,
Cucurbits and Onion) shows high morphological diversity than self-pollinated) crops (e.g.
Peas, Tomato, Fenugreek). Therefore, the varieties of self-pollinated crops are generally more
uniform and stable than varieties of cross pollinated crops (Tomar, et al, 2017).

Selection of suitable season and areas for seed production: For seed production the crop
should be grown in areas where dry seasons prevail at the time of seed maturity and
extraction. The locations are also important in seed production to enhance seed yield with
better quality (Tomar, et al, 2017).

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Threshing and seed extraction: It varies from crop to crop. Threshing can be done by hand
or machines. Threshing machines should be properly cleaned to avoid admixture. Generally,
seeds should be extracted from dry fruits or from fruits in which the seeds are wet at the time
of extraction.

Seed Standards: It refer to the field inspection of the harvested produce as well as the
manner of harvesting, transporting, processing and packing. Unless, a seed certification
agency keeps track of harvested produce until it is packed and sealed the identity of the lots
cannot be assured. Seed certification agency should lay down standard for processing plants.
In addition, field and seed standards, such as isolation distances, inseparable other crop seeds,
weeds, plants affected by seed borne diseases, genetic purity, percentage of pure seed, other
crop and weed seeds, inert matter, moisture content, germination and insect damage, should
be prescribed for successful accomplishment of the certification (Tomar, et al, 2017).

2.4 Vegetable Seed Extraction Methods

There are two methods of seed extraction in vegetable crops.

Dry Method: The fully matured and dried fruits are harvested and kept under sun light for 2-
3 days. After removal of seeds, these are dried under sun light between 8.00-11.00 Am and
2.00- 5.00 PM to reduce the high moisture content. The seeds of Chili, Okra, Sponge gourd
and Ridge gourd etc are extracted by dry method. The seeds of Radish are harvested when
pods become brown and parchment like when the seeds are near maturity (Tomar et al.,
2016). The harvesting of carrot umbels should be done where the secondary umbel is fully
ripe and third under umbels have started to turn brown. For high quality seed, primary and
secondary umbels should harvest and rest should be avoided (Tomaret al., 2016).

Wet Method: This method is used for seeds extraction of tomato, cucumber, muskmelon,
watermelon, ash gourd, bitter gourd, round melon and long melon. It could be acid, alkali and
Fermentation Method.

3. VEGETABLE SEED SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA

3.1. Status of the Ethiopian Seed Industry

Ethiopia's seed system encompasses all of the many organizational, institutional, and
individual activities involved in the creation, reproduction, processing, storage, distribution,
and selling of seed in the nation. Farmers, especially smallholder farmers, are involved in a

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variety of seed systems, which can ensure that they will be able to market their output and
receive the amount and quality of seeds they want (Atilaw, 2010). Legal issues, such as seed
certification programs, seed standard authorization, variety release procedures, intellectual
property rights, and contract laws enforcement, are also crucial parts of seed systems that
affect the price and quality of seeds moving through them in the nation (Abebe and Lijalem,
2011).

Seed systems in Ethiopia can be divided into three components: the formal system, the
informal system (sometimes called local or farmers’ seed system) and alternative or
integrated seed system (Getachew, 2010; Adane, et.al. 2010 and Gebremedhin, 2014). Both
informal and formal seed systems are operating simultaneously in the country and difficult to
demarcate between the two. The formal seed supply is not well developed in many
developing countries, including Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, as in many other countries in sub-
Saharan Africa, the informal seed marketing is still the dominant system for seed supply. The
proportion of seed supplied by the formal seed system is estimated to be around 10-20% in
Ethiopia (Kiroset al., 2009 and Getachew, 2010)

In Ethiopia informal, alternative and formal seed systems co-exist. The informal system with
low quality seed is dominant (Adaneet al., 2010). The formal system is too small to
contribute significantly to improve the situation. The informal seed system should prioritize
improving seed quality by increasing awareness and skills of farmers, improving seed quality
of early generations and market access. The alternative and formal seed systems should
prioritize improving the production capacity of quality seed by availing new varieties,
designing quality control methods and improving farmer’s awareness.

3.2. Seed System Structure

The seed industry in Ethiopia involves range of both public and private sector. The national
research system-headed by the Ethiopian institute of agriculture research (EIAR) and
comprised of a range of federal research centers, regional research centers, and agricultural
universities and faculties is charged with developing improved varieties and materials needed
to produce and multiply certified seed for onward sale to farmers. Regulatory function, such
as, varietal release reviews and seed certification are performed by various department of the
MoARD (Spielmanet al., 2009). Improved seed production and multiplication is carried out
by the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE), which relies on its own farm and to a limited extent,
private sub-contractor, state farms and cooperatives- to bulk up seed that is supplied to the

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regional extension and input supply system, more recently, state owned regional seed
enterprise have also emerged in Oromiya, South and Amhara.

4. MAJOR CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF VEGETABLE

SEED PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA
4.1 Major Challenges of Vegetable Seed Production

4.1.1 Inadequate Seed Marketing Information and Infrastructure

Remote area farmers or furthest from cities are faced by in accessibility of seed market
information and infrastructure. The fact we know that seed must reach the farmer at the right
time, place, in the right amount with appropriate price and of the highest economic quality.
Since seed Marketing is sensitive to so many factors, it has been considered as a high risk for
seed distribution.

In our country Ethiopia seed marketing remains one of the weakest links in the seed supply
chain, thus limiting farmer access to good quality seed. It is also a big constraint for African
countries in general. The marketing system is poor, access to market information is limited
and so far market linkage is weak or non-existent (Bezabihet al, 2014). Therefore, to
minimize the high risk-business nature of the seed sector, it is very crucial to implement and
follow all the marketing functions and marketing principles. For this reason it is very
important to understand what are the challenges of seed marketing? Why only few farmers
are participating in the seed marketing, etc.? Although so many measures has been taken to
improve the service efficiency of the seed sector (public institution) for the last five decades,
farmers’ access to seed was hindered by technical problems, poorly developed seed sector
and rural marketing infrastructures. The formal seed sector, despite all the efforts made to
improve the sector for the last five decades, it was able to supply only 10-20% of the
potential demand of the country. In this respect development and promotion of different seed
system at both community and private levels near by the farmers’ area are a potential solution
to this problem (Getachew, 2010).

4.1.2. Diseases and Pests Introduction

The imported seeds are distributed by local traders, farmers’ cooperative/union, bureaus of
agriculture, and NGOS. Such seeds are rarely checked for quarantine and quality by the seed
regulatory department of the Ministry of Agriculture and the regional bureaus of agriculture.

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Access to quality seed sources is limited incase farmers use any available seeds they access
that increase seed

4.1.3. Lack of a Clear Seed Strategy

While the legal seed industry has struggled to supply farmers' requirements, the informal seed
economy has gone largely unnoticed, underappreciated, and unreported. Many things might
make Ethiopia's seed system less effective. Because these elements were not thoroughly
investigated, no adequate strategy was developed to support the commercial growth of local
seed marketing, which in turn stifles the economy as a whole. Because of this, it has
continued to be challenging to use local seed resources (Getachew, 2010).The country's
vegetable seed system, according to Bezabihet al. (2014), is in its infancy and mostly
depends on informal, community-based seed production and uncontrolled seed import.
Therefore, developing a defined seed strategy is a need before developing programs and
projects for the seed industry.

4.1.4. Inefficient Extension Services

Most farmers and even some extension agents do not know the types of imported varieties
used by the farmers. The varietal replacement period is very long as older varieties are still in
production due to the weak variety development program and slow promotion of newly
released varieties by the extension system. Whenever; there is chance varieties are chosen or
replaced for their yielding potential, taste, color, long shelf life, market demand and largely
availability of seed (Bezabihet al., 2014). So as to lack of adequate extension information is
one of the main reasons for the low adoption rates of improved varieties.

4.1.5. Private Companies Tend to Concentrate on Profitable Crops

Only provides seed from a small selection of cultivars, notably those where producing
hybrids and seeds for specific income crops have received emphasis. Most horticultural
crops, legumes, and low-value, self-pollinating cereals do not often attract private investment
and are either neglected or left in the hands of governmental organizations. The cultivation of
these low-margin crops is a major source of income for small farmers, but output is
sometimes limited by a number of issues, including limited purchasing power, a lack of
suitable new varieties, insufficient extension and awareness, and inadequate infrastructure.
Many developing nations increasingly look for alternate seed supply systems as part of their

13
culture because of the limited performance of governmental firms in providing seed to small
farmers (Getachew, 2010).

4.1.6. Lack of Awareness about Seed Production

In developing countries farmers still do seed selections save before harvesting based on their
experience and save their own seed for a long time which not genetically pure and low in
yield and relates specially for easily out crossing crops. Some old cultivars commonly used
by farmers within the presence of elite newly released varieties for such crops which due to
lack of awareness and updating knowledge. Seed companies do not generally have a
commercial interest in many of the crops grown by small farmers because they earn relatively
small profit margins. There is therefore still a challenge within rural communities to identify
cost-effective mechanisms to update their knowledge and deliver seeds to small farmers
(ISSD, 2013).

4.1.7. Inadequate Basic Seed Supply

The seed enterprise through research recommends the variety and the class of seed to be
multiplied. Seed must be obtained from an authentic source (FAO, 2012).However; most of
the contractual farmers are insisting to give back what has been produced and the seed is sold
as grain instead of seed in any local markets. The government also understood that a single
enterprise couldn’t meet the huge demand of seeds in the whole country (Abebe and Lijalem,
2011). Limited number of private investors in the Rift Valley also produces seeds and sells to
farmers, or NGOs which purchase seed and distribute to farmers through development
programs (Bezabihet al, 2014).

4.1.8. Lack of Postharvest Handling Experiences

To prevent seed degradation, especially during peak harvest, storage, and handling of the
seed, a proper and adequate post-harvest handling system is essential (Gebremedhin, 2014).

4.1.9. Budget Limitation for Field Inspection

Some established seed enterprises, NGOs and public services trying to supply certified seed
for rural populations. However, most of them face various structural, technical and financial
problems (ISSD, 2013)

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4.1.10. Lack of Effective Large Scale Seed Enterprise and Industry

Ethiopian seed production is still in its infancy. One of the main factors hindering the correct
growth of the seed business is a lack of technology for seed manufacturing, but the opposite
is also true. It is challenging for public colleges and research institutions to multiply and
distribute high-quality seeds on their own. The private sector, in particular, has the potential
to grow and enhance the seed business. Ethiopian Seed Enterprise is now anticipated to
contribute more to addressing the issue of seed shortage in the medium term, if not
immediately (ISSD, 2013).

4.2. Opportunities to Develop Vegetable Seed Production in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is endowed with diverse agro-ecologies suitable for the production of different
categories of vegetables. Tropical, sub-tropical and temperate vegetables are produced in the
lowlands (2200 masl), respectively (FAO, 1984; EHDA, 2011; EHDA, 2012).

4.2.1. Presence of High Seed Demands with a Limited Seed Supply

The demand for improved seed is still increasing rapidly from time to time over the last seven
years (Abebe et.al, 2017).This is true for cereal crops such as wheat, Teff, etc, and vegetables
seed such as potato, onion, and pulses. The existing private and public companies in Ethiopia
produce limited amount of seed that do not cope with the growing demand in the country due
to both technical and organizational low capacity. Over 95% of seed sources come from
farm-saved seed of non-improved land races (Getachew, 2010).

4.2.2. Governments and Assisting Agencies are Currently Reassessing their Strategies

Now days the government is paying greater attention to the potential contributions of private
firms, cooperatives and other nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) which are currently
reassessing their strategies.

4.2.3. Government Investments in Rural Infrastructure and General Agricultural

Policies

There are normally determined independently of the needs of the seed sector, can indirectly
exercise a profound influence on the growth and structure of the seed supply sector.
Investments in rural roads, markets and storage facilities can substantially reduce the cost of
improved seed by decreasing transport, processing and distribution costs.

15
4.2.4. Availability of Human Resource with Trained Person

Now a days, from different colleges graduated professionals and technicians in the field of
agriculture and others exist in good number throughout the country. This thus, unemployment
also increase day after days this asset is lacking in many developed countries. This is a very
important factor, which if the seed system becoming strengthen and properly managed, can
facilitate the transition with them.

4.2.5. Presences of Strong National and Regional Initiatives in Seed Production

One of the major constraints for small farmers face is the limited availability of credit from
formal sources (such as commercial banks and the government) to finance farming
operations. Micro finance and development banks of Ethiopia give priority for agriculture
based despite seed programs working with small farmers often provide a credit package
which covers the cost of inputs such as foundation seed, fertilizer, and mechanical
cultivation, to be repaid using revenue earned from the seed they produce at harvest time
Willingness among stakeholders and their commitment towards promoting seed suppliers
despite improve seed production system.

4.2.6. Presence of Development Agents and Different Cooperatives

Currently, more graduated youths are cooperated in different ways that given priority in the
government of Ethiopia especially by micro and small enterprise development agency.

4.2.7 Research System

Bezabih et al, (2014) stated that Ethiopia has strong agricultural research programme,
operating at federal as well as regional states. Ethiopia follows the OECD seed generation
(breeder seed, pre-basic, basic and certified seed) system of seed production. Research
Centers are largely responsible for the first three generations, while the public seed
enterprises, private and seed producer cooperative/unions are producing certified seed.

4.2.8 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Different types of seeds are multiplied and distributed by private seed farmers and other
farmer institutions like unions and cooperatives (Marediaet al., 1999). Several non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) in Ethiopia, including Vita, World Vision Ethiopia,
SOS-Sahel, Sasakawa Global Africa, International Development Enterprise (IDE), Food for
the Hunger Ethiopia (FHE), and many others, support farmers by providing inputs, building

16
their capacity, and managing their knowledge through activities like visits to exchange
experiences and sharing market data (Bezabihet al., 2014).

4.2.9. Climate

Ethiopia’s agro-Climatic conditions make it suitable for the production of a broad range of
fruits, vegetables as well as other horticultural crops (Fasikaw, 2019)

4.2.10. Water Supply

Ethiopia has huge run-off and ground water potential. However, it utilizes a small portion of
these resources. Ethiopia is endowed with abundant water resources.

4.2.11. Transport

Road plays a vital role in transporting people and goods in Ethiopia. The Government has
identified the road sector as top priority for public investment and remarkable progress has
been made in the expansion of the road network in the country. Road transport is by far the
most dominant means of transport in Ethiopia providing for over 90% passenger and freight
carriage. Both asphalt and gravel roads radiate from Addis Ababa to main cities, towns and
centers of commercial, industrial and agricultural activities. International highways also link
Addis Ababa to neighbouring countries like Djibouti, Kenya and the Sudan (Nimona, 2017).
Air transport is an important part of Ethiopia’s transport network. Ethiopian Airline, Africa’s
World Class Airline, which has gained a very good reputation internationally in its 68 years
of active services, provides both domestic and international air transport services. Domestic
flight services are provided through 17 destinations across the country. Ethiopian links the
country with over 63 destinations worldwide (Fasikaw, 2019).

17
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Vegetable seed production is an important economic activity in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is blessed

with a variety of agro-ecologies that are appropriate for growing various types of vegetables.
In the lowlands (2200 masl), tropical, subtropical, and temperate vegetables are cultivated,
accordingly.In general, greater research into Ethiopia's seed system is necessary, especially if
the three seed systems are to be managed with complete cooperation and designated duties. In
addition, the following considerations should be taken into consideration: Every seed
producer must be channelled into the seed system, the seed system strategy must be prepared
attractive seed chains with respect to quality, time and place of supply, and fair pricing, and
more times seed production per year is necessary to fill the enormous gap between seed
demand and supply. Establish clear and simple institutional and functional linkages between
research a and practice. It is vital that the nation develop and implement a defined seed
plan.Inadequate seed marketing information and infrastructure, diseases and pests
introduction due quarantine problem, lack of a clear seed strategy, inefficient extension
services, limited collaboration within the seed sector, private companies tend to concentrate
on profitable crops, lack of awareness and knowledge gap about seed production, inadequate
basic seed supply, budget limitation for field inspection, lack of effective large scale seed
enterprise and industry are major constraints of vegetable seed production in Ethiopia.
Whereas presence of high seed demands with a limited seed supply, availability of human
resource with trained person, availability of water, favourable climate condition, etc are the
opportunities of vegetable seed production in Ethiopia.

18
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