Formation Pressures F I V E
7.2.2 Drilling Mud Parameters
There will be many changes in the drilling mud as an overpressured zone is entered.
The main effects on the mud due to abnormal pressures will be:
• Increasing gas cutting of mud
• Decrease in mud weight
• Increase in flowline temperature
Since these effects can only be measured when the mud is returned to surface they
involve a time lag of several hours in the detection of the overpressured zone. During
the time it takes to circulate bottoms up, the bit could have penetrated quite far into
an overpressured zone.
(a) Gas Cutting of Mud
Gas cutting of mud may happen in two ways:
• From shale cuttings - if gas is present in the shale being drilled the gas
may be released into the annulus from the cuttings.
• Direct influx - this can happen if the overbalance is reduced too much, or
due to Swabbing when pulling back the drillstring at connections.
Continuous gas monitoring of the mud is done by the mudlogger using gas
chromatography. A degasser is usually installed as part of the mud processing equipment
so that entrained gas is not re-cycled downhole or allowed to build up in the mud pits.
(b) Mud Weight
The mud weight measured at the flowline will be influenced by an influx of
formation fluids. The presence of gas is readily identified due to the large
decrease in density, but a water influx is more difficult to identify. Continuous
measurement of mud weight may be done by using a radioactive densometer.
(c) Flowline Temperature
Under-compacted clays, with relatively high fluid content, have a higher
temperature than other formations. By monitoring the flowline temperature
therefore a decrease in temperature will be observed when drilling through
normally pressured zones. This will be followed by an increase in temperature
when the overpressured zones are encountered (Figure 16). The normal
geothermal gradient is about 1 degree F/100 ft. It is reported that changes in
flowline temperature up to 10 degree F/100 ft. have been detected when drilling
overpressured zones.
When using this technique it must be remembered that other effects such as circulation
rate, mud mixing, etc. can influence the mud temperature.
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7.2.3 Drilled Cuttings
Since overpressured zones are associated with under-compacted shales with high fluid
content the degree of overpressure can be inferred from the degree of compaction of
the cuttings. The methods commonly used are:
• Density of shale cuttings
• Shale factor
• Shale slurry resistivity
Even the shape and size of cuttings may give an indication of overpressures (large
cuttings due to low pressure differential). As with the drilling mud parameters these
tests can only be done after a lag time of some hours.
(a) Density of Shale Cuttings
In normally pressured formations the compaction and therefore the bulk density
of shales should increase uniformly with depth (given constant lithology). If the
bulk density decreases, this may indicate an undercompacted zone which may
be an overpressured zone. The bulk density of shale cuttings can be determined
by using a mud balance. A sample of shale cuttings must first be washed and
sieved (to remove cavings). These cuttings are then placed in the cup so that it
balances at 8.3 ppg (equivalent to a full cup of water). At this point therefore:
rs x Vs = rw x Vt
where:
rs = Bulk density of shale
rw = Density of water
Vs = Volume of shale cuttings
Vt = Total volume of cup
The cup is then filled up to the top with water, and the reading is taken at the balance
point (r). At this point
r Vt = rs Vs + rw (Vt- Vs)
Substituting for Vs from the first equation gives:-
ρw
ρs =
2
2ρw − ρ
A number of such samples should be taken at each depth to check the density calculated
as above and so improve the accuracy. The density at each depth can then be plotted
(Figure 17).
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Formation Pressures F I V E
Depth, Thousand Feet
Normal Trend
Top Overpressure
Flowline Temp.
Figure 16 Flowline temperature to detect overpressure
(b) Shale Factor
This technique measures the reactive clay content in the cuttings. It uses the
“methylene blue” dye test to determine the reactive montmorillonite clay present,
and thus indicate the degree of compaction. The higher the montmorillonite,
the lighter the density – indicating an undercompacted shale.
Depth, Thousand Feet
Normal Trend
Top Overpressure
Bulk Density
Figure 17 Bulk density to detect overpressure
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(c) Shale Slurry Resistivity
As compaction increases with depth, water is expelled and so conductivity is
reduced. A plot of resistivity against depth should show a uniform increase in
resistivity, unless an undercompacted zone occurs where the resistivity will
reduce. To measure the resistivity of shale cuttings a known quantity of dried
shale is mixed with a known volume of distilled water. The resistivity can then
be measured and plotted (Figure 18).
7.3 Confirmation Techniques
After the hole has been successfully drilled certain electric wireline logs and pressure
surveys may be run to confirm the presence of overpressures. The logs which are
particularly sensitive to undercompaction are: the sonic, density and neutron logs. If
an overpressured sand interval has been penetrated then the pressure in the sand can
be measured directly with a repeat formation tester or by conducting a well test.
Depth, Thousand Feet
Normal Trend
Top Overpressure
Resistivity
Figure 18 Resistivity. to detect overpressure
8 FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT
When planning the well, both the formation pore pressure and the formation fracture
pressure for all of the formations to be penetrated must be estimated (Figure 19). The
well operations can then be designed such that the pressures in the borehole will always
lie between the formation pore pressure and the fracture pressure. If the pressure in
the borehole falls below the pore pressure then an influx of formation fluids into the
wellbore may occur. If the pressure in the borehole exceeds the fracture pressure then
the formations will fracture and losses of drilling fluid will occur.
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Formation Pressures F I V E
8.1 Mechanism of Formation Breakdown
The stress within a rock can be resolved into three principal stresses (Figure 20).
A formation will fracture when the pressure in the borehole exceeds the least of
the stresses within the rock structure. Normally, these fractures will propagate in a
direction perpendicular to the least principal stress (Figure 20). The direction of the
least principal stress in any particular region can be predicted by investigating the
fault activity in the area.
Depth, ft.
Geostatic Pressure
(Overburden) Gradient
Fracture Pressure Gradient
‘Normal’ Pore Pressure
Gradient = 0.465 psi/ft
Pressure, psi
Figure 19 Pore Pressure, Fracture Pressure and Overburden Pressures
and Gradients for a Particular Formation
To initiate a fracture in the wall of the borehole, the pressure in the borehole must be
greater than the least principal stress in the formation. To propagate the fracture the
pressure must be maintained at a level greater than the least principal stress.
sV
sH
Direction of Least
Principal Stress.
The Resulting
Fracture in the Rocks
sH
Figure 20 Idealised view of the stresses acting on the block
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8.2 The Leak-Off Test, Limit Test and Formation Breakdown Test
The pressure at which formations will fracture when exposed to borehole pressure is
determined by conducting one of the following tests:
• Leak-off test
• Limit Test
• Formation Breakdown Test
The basic principle of these tests is to conduct a pressure test of the entire system in
the wellbore (See Figure 21) and to determine the strength of the weakest part of this
system on the assumption that this formation will be the weakest formation in the
subsequent open hole. The wellbore is comprised of (from bottom to top): the exposed
formations in the open hole section of the well (generally only 5-10ft of formation is
exposed when these tests are conducted); the casing (and connections); the wellhead;
and the BOP stack. The procedure used to conduct these tests is basically the same in
all cases. The test is conducted immediately after a casing has been set and cemented.
The only difference between the tests is the point at which the test is stopped. The
procedure is as follows:
1 Run and cement the casing string
2 Run in the drillstring and drillbit for the next hole section and drill out of the
casing shoe
3 Drill 5 - 10 ft of new formation below the casing shoe
4 Pull the drillbit back into the casing shoe (to avoid the possibility of becoming
stuck in the openhole)
5 Close the BOPs (generally the pipe ram) at surface
6 Apply pressure to the well by pumping a small amount of mud (generally 1/2
bbl) into the well at surface. Stop pumping and record the pressure in the well.
Pump a second, equal amount of mud into the well and record the pressure at
surface. Continue this operation, stopping after each increment in volume and
recording the corresponding pressure at surface. Plot the volume of mud pumped
and the corresponding pressure at each increment in volume. (Figure 22).
(Note: the graph shown in Figure 21 represents the pressure all along the wellbore
at each increment. This shows that the pressure at the formation at leak off is
the sum of the pressure at surface plus the hydrostatic pressure of the mud).
7 When the test is complete, bleed off the pressure at surface, open the BOP rams
and drill ahead
It is assumed in these tests that the weakest part of the wellbore is the formations
which are exposed just below the casing shoe. It can be seen in Figure 21, that when
these tests are conducted, the pressure at surface, and throughout the wellbore, initially
increases linearly with respect to pressure. At some pressure the exposed formations
start to fracture and the pressure no longer increases linearly for each increment in the
volume of mud pumped into the well (see point A in Figure 22). If the test is conducted
until the formations fracture completely (see point B in Figure 22) the pressure at
surface will often drop dramatically, in a similar manner to that shown in Figure 22.
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Formation Pressures F I V E
The precise relationship between pressure and volume in these tests will depend on
the type of rock that is exposed below the shoe. If the rock is ductile the behaviour
will be as shown in Figure 22 and if it is brittle it will behave as shown in Figure 23.
Pump
Surface Pressure
BOP Stack
Wellhead
True Vertical Depth (Ft. TVD)
Casing and
connections
Exposed
Formation
Pressure (psi)
Figure 21 Configuration during formation integrity tests
700
B
600
Surface Pressure, psi
A
500
400
300
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Vol., bbl
Behaviour of a Ductile Rock
Figure 22 Behaviour of a ductile rock
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700
600
Surface Pressure, psi
500
400
300
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Vol., bbl
Behaviour of a Brittle Rock
Figure 23 Behaviour of a brittle rock
700
600 D
C
Surface Pressure, psi
500
400
300
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Vol., bbl
FigureP-V
24 P-V behaviour
Behaviour duringa aLeak
during leak off
Offtest
Test
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Formation Pressures F I V E
700
600
Surface Pressure, psi
Pre-determined Maximum Pressure
500
400
300
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Vol., bbl
P-V Behaviour in a Limit Test
Figure 25 P-V behaviour in a limit test
700
600
Surface Pressure, psi
500
400
300
200
100
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Vol., bbl
Behaviour
Figure 26 Behaviour in a in
in a FBT FBT Test rock
a ductile
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The “Leak-off test” is used to determine the pressure at which the rock in the open
hole section of the well just starts to break down (or “leak off”). In this type of
test the operation is terminated when the pressure no longer continues to increase
linearly as the mud is pumped into the well (See Figure 24). In practice the pressure
and volume pumped is plotted in real time, as the fluid is pumped into the well. When
it is seen that the pressure no longer increases linearly with an increase in volume
pumped (Point C) it is assumed that the formation is starting to breakdown. When
this happens a second, smaller amount of mud (generally 1/4 bbl) is pumped into the
well just to check that the deviation from the line is not simply an error (Point D). If
it is confirmed that the formation has started to “leak off” then the test is stopped and
the calculations below are carried out.
The “Limit Test” is used to determine whether the rock in the open hole section of
the well will withstand a specific, predetermined pressure. This pressure represents
the maximum pressure that the formation will be exposed to whilst drilling the next
wellbore section. The pressure to volume relationship during this test is shown in
Figure 25. This test is effectively a limited version of the leak-off test.
The “Formation Breakdown Test” is used to determine the pressure at which the
rock in the open hole section of the well completely breaks down. If fluid is continued
to be pumped into the well after leak off and breakdown occurs the pressure in the
wellbore will behave as shown in Figure 26.
8.2.1 Leak Off Test Calculations
In a Leak-Off test the formation below the casing shoe is considered to have started
to fracture at point A on Figure 24. The surface pressure at point A is known as the
leak off pressure and can be used to determine the maximum allowable pressure
on the formation below the shoe. The maximum allowable pressure at the shoe can
subsequently be used to calculate:
• The maximum mudweight which can be used in the subsequent openhole section
• The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)
The maximum allowable pressure on the formation just below the casing shoe is
generally expressed as an equivalent mud gradient (EMG) so that it can be compared
with the mud weight to be used in the subsequent hole section.
Given the pressure at surface when leak off occurs (point A in Figure 24) just below
the casing shoe, the maximum mudweight that can be used at that depth, and below,
can be calculated from :
Maximum Mudweight (psi/ft)
Pressure at the shoe when Leak-off occurs
=
True Vertical Depth of the shoe
Pressure at surface and hydrostatic pressure of mud in well
=
True Vertical Depth of the shoe
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Formation Pressures F I V E
Usually a safety factor of 0.5 ppg (0.026 psi/ft) is subtracted from the allowable
mudweight.
It should be noted that the leak-off test is usually done just after drilling out of the
casing shoe but when drilling the next hole section other, weaker formations may be
encountered.
Example
While performing a leak off test the surface pressure at leak off was 940 psi. The
casing shoe was at a true vertical depth of 5010 ft and a mud weight of 10.2 ppg was
used to conduct the test.
The Maximum bottom hole pressure during the leakoff test can be calculated from:
hydrostatic pressure of column of mud + leak off pressure at surface
= (0.052 x 10.2 x 5010) + 940
= 3597 psi
the maximum allowable mud weight at this depth is therefore
= 3597 psi
5010 ft
= 0.718 psi/ft = 13.8 ppg
Allowing a safety factor of 0.5 ppg,
The maximum allowable mud weight = 13.8 - 0.5 = 13.3 ppg.
8.2.2 The Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) of a fluid
It is clear from all of the preceding discussion that the pressure at the bottom of the
borehole must be accurately determined if the leak off or fracture pressure of the
formation is not to be exceeded. When the drilling fluid is circulating through the
drillstring, the borehole pressure at the bottom of the annulus will be greater than the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud. The extra pressure is due to the frictional pressure
required to pump the fluid up the annulus. This frictional pressure must be added
to the pressure due to the hydrostatic pressure from the column of mud to get a true
representation of the pressure acting against the formation at the bottom of the well.
An equivalent circulating density (ECD) can then be calculated from the sum of
the hydrostatic and frictional pressure divided by the true vertical depth of the well.
The ECD for a system can be calculated from:
Pd
ECD = MW +
0.052 xTVD
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where ,
ECD = Equivalent circulating density (ppg)
MW = Mud weight (ppg)
Pd = Annulus frictional pressure drop at a given circulation rate (psi)
TVD = True vertical depth (ft)
The ECD of the fluid should be continuously monitored to ensure that the pressure at
the formation below the shoe, due to the ECD of the fluid and system, does not exceed
the leak off test pressure.
8.2.3 MAASP
The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure – MAASP – when drilling ahead
is the maximum closed in (not circulating) pressure that can be applied to the annulus
(drillpipe x BOP) at surface before the formation just below the casing shoe will start
to fracture (leak off). The MAASP can be determined from the following equation:
MAASP = Maximum Allowable pressure at the formation just below the shoe minus
the Hydrostatic Pressure of mud at the formation just below the shoe.
EXERCISE 3 LEAK – OFF TEST
A leakoff test was carried out just below a 13 3/8" casing shoe at 7000 ft. TVD using
9.0 ppg mud. The results of the tests are shown below. What is the maximum allowable
mudweight for the 12 1/4" hole section?
BBLS PUMPED SURFACE PRESSURE
(psi)
1 400
1.5 670
2 880
2.5 1100
3 1350
3.5 1600
4 1800
4.5 1900
5 1920
EXERCISE 4 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY - ECD
If the circulating pressure losses in the annulus of the above well is 300 psi when
drilling at 7500ft with 9.5ppg mud, what would be the ECD of the mud at 7500ft.
EXERCISE 5 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE - MAASP
If a mudweight of 9.5ppg is required to drill the 12 1/4” hole section of the above well
what would the MAASP be when drilling this hole section?
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