Chapter Two

Process Control Tuning

Desired outcomes
 upon completion of this topic, students should:
Understand processes control tuning methods
Familiarity with advanced control algorithms and methods such as Adaptive, fussy
logic, and other nonlinear compensators.

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 Purpose of Control
What is the aim of the controller tuning?
The critical issue in controller design is to obtain both of the following control
performance requirements:
• Fast responses, and
• Good stability
Unfortunately, for practical systems these two wishes can not be achieved
simultaneously. In other words:
• The faster the response is, the worse the stability become, or
• The better the stability is, the slower the response become.
So, in order to compromise between the two conflicting interests of the control
system, tuning of the various parameters of the control system is required.

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 Cont..
Tuning is required to obtain acceptable stability, and medium fastness of
response
Figure on the right shows
various responses ranging
from very low and more
stable to very fast and less
stable

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 PID Controller Tuning
PID Stands for:
P  Proportional
I  Integral
D  Derivative

 The usefulness of PID controls lies in their general applicability to most control
systems.
 In particular, when the mathematical model of the plant is not known and therefore
analytical design methods cannot be used, PID controls prove to be most useful.
 In the field of process control systems, it is well known that the basic and modified
PID control schemes have proved their usefulness in providing satisfactory control,
although in many given situations they may not provide optimal control.

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 Cont..
 It is interesting to note that more than half of the industrial controllers in use today
are PID controllers or modified PID controllers.
 Because most PID controllers are adjusted on-site, many different types of tuning
rules have been proposed in the literature.
 Using these tuning rules, delicate and fine tuning of PID controllers can be made
on-site.
 There are four Modes of Controllers
 Each mode of control has specific advantages and limitations.
 Proportional (P)
 Proportional plus Integral (PI)
 Proportional plus Derivative (PD)
 Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)

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 Proportional Control (P)
In proportional mode, there is a continuous linear relation between value of the
controlled variable and position of the final control element.

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑐𝑝(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡)

𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡)
- 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

Output of proportional controller is

As the gain is increased the system
𝑐𝑝(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) responds faster to changes in set-
The transfer function can be written as point but becomes progressively
under-damped and eventually
𝐶𝑝(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑝 unstable.
𝐸(𝑠)
By Geremu G. 6
 Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

𝐾𝑖 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑖 ∫

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑝𝑖 𝑡

𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)+ 𝑐(𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡)
-

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑐𝑝𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The transfer function can be written as

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 Cont..
 Integral control describes a controller in which the output rate of change is
dependent on the magnitude of the input.
 Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower rate of change of the output.
 The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have the unique ability to
return the controlled variable back to the exact set point .
 Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it responds relatively slowly to
an error signal and that it can initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error
is produced.
 This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For this reason, the
integral control mode is not normally used alone, but is combined with another
control mode.

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Proportional Plus derivative Control (PD)
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑟(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑝𝑑 𝑡
𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)+ 𝑐(𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏(𝑡)
-

𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐𝑝𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑 𝑑𝑡
The transfer function can be written as
By Geremu G. 9
 Cont..
 The stability and overshoot problems that arise when a proportional
controller is used at high gain can be mitigated by adding a term
proportional to the time-derivative of the error signal. The value of the
damping can be adjusted to achieve a critically damped response.
 The higher the error signal rate of change, the sooner the final control
element is positioned to the desired value.
 The added derivative action reduces initial overshoot of the measured
variable, and therefore aids in stabilizing the process sooner.
 This control mode is called proportional plus derivative (PD) control
because the derivative section responds to the rate of change of the
error signal

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Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)
𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
𝑑 𝑲𝒅
𝒅𝒕
𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝒓(𝒕) 𝒆(𝒕) + 𝒄𝒑𝒊𝒅 𝒕
+ 𝑲𝒑 𝒆(𝒕)+ 𝒄(𝒕)
𝐾𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝒃(𝒕)
- +
𝑲𝒊 𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝐾𝑖 ∫

𝑭𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑐𝑝𝑖𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
The transfer function is:
By Geremu G. 11
 Cont..
Although PD control deals neatly with the overshoot and ringing problems
associated with proportional control it does not cure the problem with the
steady-state error. Fortunately it is possible to eliminate this while using
relatively low gain by adding an integral term to the control function which
becomes
The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers
CL RISE Over Settling S-S
Response TIME shoot Time Error
Small
Kp Decrease Increase Decrease
Change
Decrease
Ki Increase Increase Eliminate

Small Small
Kd Decrease Decrease
Change
Change
By Geremu G. 1414121212
 Tips for Designing a PID Controller
1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved
2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.
 Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three controllers
(proportional, derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not necessary. For
example, if a PI controller gives a good enough response (like the above example),
then you don't need to implement derivative controller to the system. Keep the
controller as simple as possible.

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 PID Tuning
The transfer function of PID controller is given as
𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑑 (𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑖 +𝐾𝑑 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠
It can be simplified as
𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑑 𝑠 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + +𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸 𝑠 𝑇𝑖 𝑠
Where 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑑 =
𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑝

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Cont..

By Geremu G. 15
Cont..

By Geremu G. 16
Zeigler-Nichol’s PID Tuning Methods

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 Zeigler-Nichol’s First Method
 In the first method, we obtain
experimentally the response of the
plant to a unit-step input.
 If the plant involves neither
integrator(s) nor dominant complex-
conjugate poles, then such a unit-step
response curve may look S-shaped

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 Cont..
This method applies if the response to a step input exhibits an S-shaped
curve.
Such step-response curves may be generated experimentally or from a
dynamic simulation of the plant.
Table-1

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Zeigler-Nichol’s Second Method

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 Cont..
Thus, the critical gain
Kcr and the
corresponding period
Pcr are determined.

Table-2

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Example

By Geremu G. 22
 Cont..
Transfer function of the plant is
1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 5)

Since plant has an integrator therefore Ziegler-Nichol’s

first method is not applicable.

According to second method proportional gain is varied

till sustained oscillations are produced.

That value of Kc is referred as Kcr.

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Cont..

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Final Simulink diagram with tuned PID parameters

Transfer function of
PID controller is thus
obtained as

By Geremu G. 28
 Electronic PID Controller

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅4 (𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1)(𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1)

=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 1
= + + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠
By Geremu G. 29
 Cont..

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 1
= + + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅4 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2
= 1+ + 𝑠
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2

𝑅4 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑇𝑑 =
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2

In terms of Kp, Ki, Kd we have

𝑅4 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅4 𝑅4 𝑅2 𝐶1
𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾𝑑 =
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅3
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 Fuzzy logic controller
Introduction
The term fuzzy refers to things which are not clear or are vague.
In the real world many times we encounter a situation when we can’t
determine whether the state is true or false, their fuzziness provides a very
valuable flexibility for reasoning.
In this way, we can consider the inaccuracies and uncertainties of any
situation.
In Boolean system truth value, 1.0 represents absolute true value and 0.0
represents absolute false value.
But in the fuzzy system, there is no logic for absolute true and absolute
false value only. But there is also intermediate values too which are
partially true and partially false.

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 Cont..
Difference between fuzzy and crisp (Boolean) logic

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 Randomness Versus Fuzziness
Randomness describes the uncertainty of event occurrence where as Fuzziness
describes event ambiguity.
Or whether an event occurs is random. To what degree it occurs is fuzzy.
In a classical (crisp) set, the membership of an element in the universe (in the
set) is either full or the element is not a member where as in a fuzzy set, the
membership of an element of the universe (in the set) is measured by a function
that attempts to describe the ambiguity or vagueness.
In a classical (crisp) set, the transition of an element in the universe (in the set)
from membership to non-membership is abrupt and well defined where as in a
fuzzy set, such a transition from membership to non-membership is gradual
since the boundaries of the set are vague.
So the elements of a fuzzy set can be members of other fuzzy sets of the
universe, with a different degree of membership. This can never happen in a
crisp set.

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 Classical Set and Fuzzy Set

The figure shows a classical set A and a fuzzy set 𝐴.

Point a is clearly a member and point b is not a member of the crisp set A.
Similarly Point a is clearly a member and point b is not a member of the fuzzy set A.
However the membership of the point c*, which is on boundary region of the fuzzy
set A is ambiguous.
If the complete membership is represented by the number 1, and no membership by
the number 0, then point c on the boundary of A should have some intermediate value
of membership on the interval [0,1].
By Geremu G. 34
 Representation of fuzzy variables
Elements of a fuzzy set are mapped to a universe of real numbered membership
values in the range between [0 1] using a membership function.
Thus, if an element, say x, is a member of fuzzy set 𝐴, then this mapping is
given by:

By Geremu G. 35
 Cont..
In the above summation equations of slide 86, the horizontal bar does not
represent a quotient. Instead it shows that the numerator is the membership
value associated with the element indicated in the denominator.
Similarly the symbol ‘+’ does not indicate the algebraic add. Instead, it
represents a collection or aggregation of elements.
This is true for the notation by continuous time fuzzy set also.
Fuzzy operations
Consider three fuzzy sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 in the universe of discourse X. Union,
intersection, and complement of fuzzy sets are given by:
Union ⇒ Maximum (𝜇𝐴 (𝑥), 𝜇𝐵 (𝑥)) ⇒
Intersection ⇒ Minimum (𝜇𝐴 (𝑥), 𝜇𝐵 (𝑥)) ⇒
Complement ⇒ 1- membership value of the variable ⇒
All operations on classical sets like commutativity, associativity,
distributivism, identity, idem potency are also hold good for fuzzy sets except
for the excluded middle rules which are extended for fuzzy sets as:
andBy Geremu G. 36
 Example
Consider the following fuzzy sets:

By Geremu G. 37
 Fuzzy Logic Control
It is a technique to embody human-like thinking into a control system.
 It can be designed to emulate human deductive thinking to infer conclusions from
the past experience.
 The traditional control Structure of fuzzy control system
approach requires formal
modeling of the physical
reality.
 Fuzzy control incorporates
ambiguous human logic
into computer programs

By Geremu G. 38
 Some terminologies in fuzzy logic control
Rule base: It contains the a set of rules and the IF-THEN conditions provided by the
experts to govern the decision making system, on the basis of linguistic information.
Recent developments in fuzzy theory offer several effective methods for the design
and tuning of fuzzy controllers. Most of these developments reduce the number of
fuzzy rules.
Fuzzification: It is used to convert inputs i.e. crisp numbers into fuzzy sets. Crisp
inputs are basically the exact inputs measured by sensors and passed into the control
system for processing, such as temperature, pressure, rpm’s, etc.
Inference engine: It determines the matching degree of the current fuzzy input with
respect to each rule and decides which rules are to be fired according to the input
field. Next, the fired rules are combined to form the control actions.
Defuzzification: It is used to convert the fuzzy sets obtained by inference engine
into a crisp value. There are several defuzzification methods available and the best
suited one is used with a specific expert system to reduce the error.
By Geremu G. 39
 Fuzzification
Fuzzification is the process where the crisp quantities are converted into fuzzy by
identifying the uncertainties present in the crisp values, we form the fuzzy values.
This conversion to fuzzy values is represented by the membership functions.
Membership functions characterize the fuzziness in fuzzy set. It classifies the
elements in the set, whether it is continuous or discrete. Eventually this will enable
us to develop mathematically the fuzzy set theory.
Thus fuzzification process may involve assigning membership values for the given
crisp quantities.
There are so many methods for fuzzification of which some of them are as follow:
1) Intuition 2) Partition 3) Code

By Geremu G. 40
 Rule base system
In the field of artificial intelligence (machine intelligence) there are various
ways to represent knowledge.
The most common way is to represent human knowledge using natural
language expression of the type:
IF premise (antecedent), THEN conclusion (consequent)
The above form is commonly referred as IF-THEN rule.
It expresses an inference such that if we know a fact (premise, hypothesis,
antecedent), then we can infer, or derive, another fact the conclusion
(consequent).
An example of creating fuzzy logic rules base system

By Geremu G. 41
An example of a rule base for a simple home temperature control

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 Defuzzification
There are two aspects we have to consider when working fuzzy logic control.
1. Computing, to reason and to model with fuzzy information
2. Applying the fuzzy result to the real situation
The first aspect can be advantageously done by fuzzy information. But the second
aspect can be executed only by crisp information.
Since all information contained in the fuzzy set is described by its membership
function, and membership functions can also be formed by graphical representations
of different shapes, like triangle, trapezoidal, Gaussian etc, membership value
assignment is mandatory
 Membership functions for
fuzzy sets can be assigned
‘small’, ‘medium’ and
‘large’ as shown in the
figure on the right side.
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Defuzzification methods

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 Example

Area under the curve

By Geremu G. 45
 Advantage and Disadvantages of fuzzy logic
Advantages
This system can work with any type of inputs whether it is imprecise, distorted
or noisy input information.
The construction of Fuzzy Logic Systems is easy and understandable.
Fuzzy logic comes with mathematical concepts of set theory and the reasoning
of that is quite simple.
It provides a very efficient solution to complex problems in all fields of life as
it resembles human reasoning and decision making.
The algorithms can be described with little data, so little memory is required.
Disadvantages
Many researchers proposed different ways to solve a given problem through
fuzzy logic which lead to ambiguity. There is no systematic approach to solve
a given problem through fuzzy logic.
Proof of its characteristics is difficult or impossible in most cases because
every time we do not get mathematical description of our approach.
As fuzzy logic works on precise as well as imprecise data so most of the time
accuracy is compromised By Geremu G. 46