Buddhism and Jainism

1. Buddhism and Jainism ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

1.1. Emergence of New Religious Ideas ......................................................................................................... 3

Causes of Origin of New Religions................................................................................................................... 3

1.2. Buddhism .............................................................................................................................................. 5

Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE) ..................................................................................................................... 5
Teachings of Buddha ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Sangha ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Vihara .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Important Buddhist Sites .............................................................................................................................. 13
Symbols of Worship ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Buddhist Texts .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Buddhist Councils ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Different Schools of Buddhism ...................................................................................................................... 17
Spread of Buddhism ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Mudras of Buddha ........................................................................................................................................ 25
Decline of Buddhism ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Important Buddhist Scholars......................................................................................................................... 27
Important Buddhist Architecture .................................................................................................................. 30

1.3. Jainism ................................................................................................................................................ 31

Teachings of Jainism ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Spread of Jainism ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Different Schools of Jainism .......................................................................................................................... 34
Ashtamangala (Eight Auspicious Symbols of Jainism) ................................................................................... 37
Jaina Literature ............................................................................................................................................ 37
Jaina Councils ............................................................................................................................................... 40
Important Jaina Scholars .............................................................................................................................. 40
List of 24 Jaina Tirthankaras ......................................................................................................................... 42
Important Jain Heritage Sites and Jain Architecture ...................................................................................... 43
ContribuXon of Jainism ................................................................................................................................. 45

1.4. Buddhism and Jainism ......................................................................................................................... 45

1.5. Other Heterodox Ideas ......................................................................................................................... 46

Purana Kassapa ............................................................................................................................................ 46
Makkhali Goshala ........................................................................................................................................ 46
Ajita Kesakambala........................................................................................................................................ 47
Pakudha Kachchayana.................................................................................................................................. 47
 Sanjaya Bela\hipu\a ................................................................................................................................... 47
Nigantha Natapu\a ..................................................................................................................................... 47

1.6. Classical Indian languages ................................................................................................................... 48

Change in the Criteria for conferring Classical Language ............................................................................... 48
Prakrit: The language of the people.............................................................................................................. 48
Pali ............................................................................................................................................................... 50
Emergence of New Religious Ideas

• The sixth century BCE was an important stage in Indian history regarding the development of new
religions. During this period, there was a growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the
Brahmanas, which ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox religious sects. Among these,
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements and later developed
into well-organised popular religions.

Causes of Origin of New Religions

• During the sixth century BCE, new religious ideas emerged from prevailing social, economic, and religious
conditions. The basic reasons that contributed to their emergence are given below.
v Discrimination against lower varnas
v Reaction of Kshatriya
v Vaishya quest for higher status
v Religious unrest
v New agricultural economy
v Reaction against the changes in material life

Discrimination Against Lower Varnas

• In post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas based on birth. Naturally, this division
generated tensions.
• Members of higher varnas enjoyed certain privileges that were denied to members of lower varnas. Some
were restricted from studying the Vedas and participating in rituals. Hence, Vedic religious practices
became irrelevant for a large section of society.
• The new religions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the notion of birth as a measure of
social status, and hence, many people from lower varnas were attracted to them.

Reaction of Kshatriya
• Kshatriyas, who functioned as rulers, came to wield much more political power than before. They
wanted the highest status in society, but Brahmanas claimed the highest status. Hence, Kshatriyas
reacted strongly against the domination of the Brahmanas, who claimed various privileges.
• Kshatriya seems to have led a protest movement against the importance of birth in the Varna system,
which is one reason for the origin of new religions.

Vaishya Quest for Higher Status

• The use of iron, surplus agriculture, urban settlement, and metal money facilitated trade, which improved
the economic conditions of the Vaishyas.
• Vaishyas, who were ranked third in Brahmanical society, wanted to improve their social status, but the
orthodox varna system did not allow this. Buddhism and Jainism did not give much importance to the
notion of birth for social status, so Vaishyas were attracted to them.
• In addition to the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas extended generous support to Mahavira and Buddha. Rich
traders like Anathapindika also donated generously to the Buddhist Sanghas.
• The merchants (setthis) extended the chief support to Buddha and Mahavira. This was because:
1. In the initial stage, Jainism and Buddhism did not attach importance to the existing varna system.
Hence, it was possible for Vaishyas to improve their social status in the new religion.
2. They preached the philosophy of non-violence, which would end wars between different kingdoms
and promote trade and commerce.
3. The Brahmanical law books, the Dharmasutras, condemned lending money on interest. They
condemned a person who lived on interest. In contrast, Buddhism and Jainism did not condemn
money lending.
4. The Brahmanical attitude to trade was not encouraging. Sea voyages were considered taboo because
they could impact the purity of the caste structure. In contrast, the Buddhists approved of sea
voyages.

Religious Unrest
• The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the later Vedic period were unacceptable to the common
people, and the superstitious beliefs and mantras confused them.
• The teachings of the Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical
and not easily understood by all.
• Hence, the people needed a simple, short, and intelligible way to salvation. Such religious teaching
should also be in their own language. The teachings of Buddha and Mahavira fulfilled this need.

New Agricultural Economy

• Iron was introduced in western Uttar Pradesh by 1000 BCE and gradually spread to eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Its use expanded agriculture in forest areas and increased productivity. However, the agricultural
economy, reliant on iron ploughshares, needed bullocks. This clashed with Brahmanical practices, which
promoted cattle sacrifices for religion or food.
• In this context, the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism, which advocated non-violence and discouraged
the killing of animals, gained popularity.

Reaction Against the Changes in Material Life

• Some people did not like the changes in material life in the mid-Ganga plain between the sixth and fifth
centuries BCE. Old-fashioned people disliked using and accumulating coins, and they detested new
dwellings and dresses.
• The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to the masses.
So, the common people wanted to return to primitive life.

Buddhism

Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE)

• Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born Siddhartha in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu
(Nepal) in 563 BCE. His father, Shuddodana, was the leader of Sakya Gana, and his mother, Mayadevi,
was the princess of the Koliya clan. His mother died during childbirth, so his aunt, Prajapati Gautami,
raised him.
• A royal court scholar at Kapilvastu, serving under King Shuddhodhana, predicted that Siddhartha would
one day renounce his kingdom. Consequently, Siddhartha was given a sheltered upbringing within the
palace and was insulated from the harsh realities of life.
ð Kapilavastu is variously identified with Piprawah (Uttar Pradesh) and Tilaurakot (Nepal).
• At the age of sixteen, Siddhartha married Yashodhara and had a son called Rahula.
• One day, at the age of 29, Siddhartha persuaded his charioteer to take him into the city. His first journey
into the world outside was traumatic. He saw an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and an ascetic. At that
moment, he realised that the decay and destruction of the human body were inevitable. Deeply
anguished at these sights, Siddhartha left home in search of the ultimate truth.
• Siddhartha spent six years as a wandering ascetic. He met many teachers and explored several paths,
including extensive fasting and prolonged meditation, but could not get enlightenment.
• Finally, at the age of 35, Siddhartha abandoned the extreme methods and started meditation under a
peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. On the 49th day of his meditation, he attained supreme knowledge,
i.e. enlightenment (nirvana/nibbana). Since then, he has been called Buddha (the wise/enlightened
one).
• Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh), which is known as
Dhammachakrapravartana (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). His five disciples in the first sermon
were Kaundinya, Bhardika, Vashpa, Mahanama, and Ashvajit.

Kaundinya
• Kaundinya was the first disciple of Lord Buddha. He was also the first disciple of Buddha to become
arahant (attained nirvana).
• Kaundinya was a Brahmin who worked as a royal court scholar at Kapilvastu under King
Shuddhodhana. He predicted that Siddhartha would become Lord Buddha.

Meditation Teachers of Gautama Buddha

 • According to Buddhist scriptures, Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra were Gautama Buddha's first
and second meditation teachers.
• After becoming an ascetic, Siddhartha learned meditation from Alara Kalama, a hermit, a teacher of
yogic meditation, and a master of Shraman thought. Alara taught him a dhyanic state called the sphere
of nothingness. Siddhartha eventually found himself on par with Alara, who could not teach him more.
Then, Siddhartha left and sought a new teacher, Udraka Ramaputra.
• Thereafter, during forty-five years of his life, Buddha visited many places on foot, teaching dhamma or
the path of righteous living, converting people and organising them into a community (Sangha). He
encountered many staunch supporters of rival sects, including the Brahmanas, but defeated them in
debates.
• Buddha visited:
v Vaishali (Vajji)
v Rajgir, Bodh Gaya and Pataliputra (Magadha)
v Kushinagar (Malla)
v Sarnath (Kashi)
v Kausambi (Vatsa)
v Shravasti and Ayodhya (Kosala)
v Mathura (Shurasena)
• During this long period of 45 years, Buddha wandered with the sangha of monks for eight months each
year, resting in caves during the four monsoon months. The monks had no material possessions and were
dependent on daily alms. They were obliged to eat whatever food they received as alms.
ð Some historians believe that Buddha's rule of forbidding monks from wandering during the
monsoon was intended to prevent the destruction of seedlings, as agriculture was the primary source
of livelihood for people in the sixth century BCE.
• Buddha's activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and the low, and the
man and woman. Hence, people from all Varnas, castes and classes became his disciples.
• The major rulers at the time of the Buddha, such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadh, Chanda
Pradyota of Avanti, Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala, became his disciples.
• The Buddha passed away or achieved Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty in 483 BCE in Kushinagar
(Uttar Pradesh). The Mallas of Kushinagara cremated his body with ceremonies befitting a Universal King
(cakravartin). His relics from the funeral pyre were collected and divided into eight shares and were
distributed among Ajathsatru of Magadha, the Licchavis of Vaishali, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Mallas of
Kushinagar, Bullies of Allakappa, the Mallas of Pava, the Koliyas of Ramagrama and a Brahmana of
Vethadipa for erecting stupas over the sacred relics.
• The sacred relics were commemorated in eight different stupas. Two more stupas came into existence,
one over the ashes of the cremation pyre and a further one over the vessel (urn) in which the bones and
ashes had been gathered. Thus, stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the
earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
• It is said that Ashoka (272–232 BC), an ardent follower of Buddhism, opened seven of these eight stupas
and collected a major portion of the relics for enshrinement within the 84,000 stupas he built to
popularise Buddhism and the cult of the stupas.
ð It is difficult to determine the exact dates of Vardhamana Mahavira's and Gautama Buddha's births and
deaths, and there is a dispute over this. The generally accepted birth date of Buddha is 566 to 563 BCE.
ð Gautama Buddha was known by the following names:
1. Shakyamuni – The sage (muni) of the Shakya clan.
2. Mahamuni – The Great Sage.
3. Tathagata – One who has attained the enlightenment or the “Thus Gone One.”
4. Siddhartha – His childhood name.
5. Buddha – The Enlightened or Awakened One.

Queen Maya’s Dream

• According to Buddhist texts, before the birth of the Buddha, Queen Maya Devi, the mother of Buddha,
had a in which she saw a white elephant entering her womb. Sage interpreted this dream as a sign that
she would give birth to either a universal monarch or a great enlightened person.

Mahabhinishkramana
• When Prince Siddhartha was twenty-nine years of age, deeply moved by the suffering he witnessed —
old age, sickness, death, and asceticism, he decided to renounce the world in a quest for truth and
liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• One night, Siddhartha left the palace quietly on his horse Kanthaka, accompanied by his charioteer
Chhandaka. This event is known as Mahabhinishkramana (the great departure or renunciation), and the
symbol of the horse is associated with It.

[UPSC CSE 2015] Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Bud-
dha?
1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 3
 b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 3 and 4 only
Ans: 3 and 4 only

Teachings of Buddha
• The Buddha's teachings have been reconstructed from stories, mainly from the Sutta Pitaka.
• The Buddha never claimed to be a god or even inspired by divinity. He regarded the social world as the
creation of humans rather than of divine origin. He did not recognise the existence of god and soul
(atman). He also attacked the varna system.
• Buddha questioned the authority of Vedas and discarded the caste system, animal sacrifices and
complex rituals.

Arya Satya and Ashtangika Marga

• The basic teachings of the Buddha include:
1. The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)
2. The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)

• The Four Noble Truths form the essence of Buddha's teachings:

1. Life is full of suffering (Dukkha – Suffering).
2. The root cause of suffering is desire (Samudaya - Cause of suffering).
3. Suffering ends when desires are eliminated (Nirodha - End of Suffering).
4. This can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path, which promotes the path of moderation
between severe penance and self-indulgence (Magga - Marga or Way).

The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• Gautama Buddha recommended an eightfold path for the elimination of human misery. It consists of the
following principles:
1. Right observation
2. Right determination
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right exercise
7. Right memory
8. Right meditation.
Panchasheel
• Gautama Buddha laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The rules are called Panchasheel.
1. No killing: Do not commit violence.
2. No lying: Do not speak a lie
3. No stealing: Do not steal
4. No misconduct: Do not indulge in corrupt practices
5. No alcohol or drugs: Do not use intoxicants

Teachings of Buddha
• Practical reformer: Buddha was concerned with people's happiness in this life rather than being
involved in fruitless controversies regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahman. In the earliest forms of
Buddhism, whether or not god existed was irrelevant. Buddha even made a list of metaphysical
questions, such as whether there was life after death, the eternity of the universe, the soul, etc. Buddha
forbade his followers from asking these questions as no one could know the answer.
ð Avyakta is a Sanskrit word meaning "unfathomable" or "unexplained.” In Buddhism, it refers to a set of
unanswerable questions that the Buddha refused to answer.
• Rationalist: Buddha was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of reason and not based
on blind faith. He tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays
of supernatural power. He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than simply accept his
words.
• Emphasis on karuna (compassion): Buddha advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical. He
also taught people to be kind and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• Emphasis on karma (action): Buddha believed that the results of our actions (karma), good or bad,
affect us both in this life and the next.
• Nibbana: The Buddha preached nirvana, the ultimate goal in a man's life. It means shedding all desires
and ending suffering, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. According to Buddha, desire is the
real problem, and ending desire will liberate the soul (nirvana), i.e., free from the cycle of birth and death.
ð Nibbana literally means the extinguishing of the ego and desire.
• Middle Path: The middle path refers to neither indulging in extreme attachment to worldly pleasure
nor committing severe penance. Buddha taught that one should pursue the middle path and avoid the
excesses of luxury and austerity.
• Emphasis on individual action: The Buddha taught that salvation could be achieved through an
individual’s work and actions and by following the eightfold path. He emphasised individual agency
and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and
nibbana and thus end the cycle of suffering. According to Buddha, prayers and sacrifices will not end the
 desire. So, unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in the Vedic religion, he emphasised the moral
life of an individual.
• Emphasis on non-violence: Buddha stressed the importance of love for all living beings, which could be
shown through 'ahimsa' (non-violence). However, the principle of ahimsa was not emphasised as
much as in Jainism.
• Emphasis on social inclusion: Buddha was against any social distinctions. The Buddhist order welcomed
people from all social groups, and both men and women could join.
• Use of Prakrit: Buddha taught in the Prakrit (the language of the ordinary people) so that everybody
could understand his message.

Arhat
• An arhat is someone who has attained enlightenment and gained insight into the true nature of
existence. Having freed himself from the bonds of desire, the arhat has been liberated from the endless
cycle of rebirth and will not be reborn.
• In early Buddhism, the state of an arhat is considered the ultimate goal of a Buddhist. Once the person
attained enlightenment and became an arhat, they lived in complete isolation and meditated in peace.
Except under extraordinary circumstances, a man or woman can become an arhat only while a monk or
nun.
• The understanding of the concept has changed over the centuries and varies between different schools
of Buddhism. Many Buddhist schools, including Mahasanghika and Mahayana, regarded arhats as
imperfect in their attainments and required salvation.

Sangha
• The Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. Hence,
they established sanghas where these people could live together.
• The monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) were organised into the Sangha to spread the message of
dhamma. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated most of the time and
went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours.
• Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later, women were also admitted. According to
Buddhist texts, Ananda, one of the Buddha's dearest disciples, persuaded Buddha to allow women into
the sangha. The Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained as
a bhikkhuni.
• There were separate branches for men and women. There was a special code for nuns restricting their
residence and movement.
• Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and became theris or respected
women who had attained liberation.
 ð In Buddhism, 'Theri' refers to senior Buddhist nuns or nuns who have attained liberation and 'theras'
refers to senior Buddhist monks or monks who have attained liberation.
• The membership of Sangh was open to all persons. Those who joined the sangha included Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. All men could join the sangha. However:
v Children had to get the permission of their parents
v Slaves had to obtain the permission of their masters.
v Those who worked for the king had to take his permission.
v Debtors had to obtain the permission of creditors.
v Women had to take their husbands' permission.
• The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka.
• The Sangha was governed democratically. Its internal functioning was based on the traditions of Ganas
and Sanghas, where consensus was reached through discussions. If that failed, decisions were taken by a
vote.

Disciples of Buddha

• Buddha had two kinds of disciples:

1. Monks and Nuns: Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks.
2. Lay worshippers (lay followers) (upasikas)
• Ananda was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Most of the
early Buddhist Sutta-Piṭaka texts are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during
the First Buddhist Council. For that reason, he is known as the Treasurer of the Dhamma, with
Dhamma referring to the Buddha's teaching.
• Sariputra and Moggallana are considered the two chief disciples of Buddha.

Vihara
• Vihara was a place of residence for monks.
• Buddhist and Jaina monks went from place to place, teaching the people about their philosophy
throughout the year, except during the rainy season when it was very difficult to travel. During this time,
supporters provided temporary shelters in gardens or natural caves in hilly areas.
• Over time, both monks and their supporters felt the need for permanent shelters, leading to the
construction of monasteries called viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood and then of brick.
Some were carved into caves, especially in western India.
• Rich merchants, landowners, or kings often donated land for viharas. Local people supported the monks
and nuns by providing food, clothing, and medicines in exchange for teachings.
ð Buddha, Dhamma (Teaching) and Sangha are three important pillars of Buddhism. Dhamma is the
Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term 'Dharma'.
Important Buddhist Sites
Place Events associated with Buddha's life
Lumbini Place of birth
Bodh Gaya Place of his enlightenment
Sarnath Place of Buddha's first sermon
Kushinagar Place of death and cremation

Symbols of Worship
• Early sculptors did not depict the Buddha in human form; instead, they showed his presence through
symbols.
Symbol Associated with
Lotus and Bull Birth
Horse Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana)
Empty seat Meditation of Buddha
Peepal tree (Bodhi tree) Enlightenment (Nirvana)
Wheel Dhammachakrapravartana (First sermon at Sarnath)
Stupa Mahaparinirvana (Death)

Buddhist Texts
Tripitaka Content Compilation
Sutta Pitaka Buddha's teachings In the first Buddhist council at Rajgir under the
direction of Ananda.
Vinaya Pitaka Rules and regulations for monks In the first Buddhist council at Rajgir under the
and nuns direction of Upali.
Abhidhamma Pitaka Philosophical text In the third Buddhist council at Patliputra under
the direction of Moggaliputta Tissa
• The Buddha taught orally ¾ through discussion and debate. None of his speeches were written down
during his lifetime. After he died in 483 BCE, his disciples compiled his teachings at a council of elders or
senior monks. These compilations were known as Tipitaka - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. They are written in the Pali language.
v The Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were compiled in the first Buddhist council, held at Rajgir in
483 BCE, immediately after Buddha's death. The text of Sutta Pitaka was established under the
leadership of Ananda, and that of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali.
v Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled in the third Buddhist council held at Patliputra in 250 BCE.
ð Some oldest Buddhist texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.
• As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (the chronicle
of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of
Buddhism.
• When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled from China to
India, searching for texts. They took back these texts to their own country, where they were translated by
scholars.
• Modern translations of Buddhist texts have been prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.

Abhidhamma Divas

• Traditionally, it is believed that Buddha first taught the Abhidhamma to the gods in
the Tavatimsa heaven, including his mother. Later, Buddha conveyed these teachings to his
disciple Sariputta, who codified them into Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Abhidhamma Divas, usually observed in October, Buddha's descent from Tavatimsa Heaven to the
human world after preaching the Abhidhamma.

Important Buddhist Pali Texts

1. Tripitaka: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
2. Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between Milinda (Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and
Buddhist saint Nagasena.
3. Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha

Tripitaka

• Sutta Pitaka: It includes religious discourses and Buddha's teachings.

v It consists of five nikayas (divisions) - Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka.
• Vinaya Pitaka: It includes rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the Buddha’s teachings, written in the form
of questions and answers. It comprises seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha,
Puggalapannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana.

Majjhima Nikaya

• Majjhima Nikaya, or Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, is a Buddhist text in Pali and the second
of the five Nikayas in the Sutta Piṭaka.
• Majjhima Nikaya is a collection of 152 suttas or discourses of middle length, distinguished as such from
the longer and shorter suttas of the other collections. It covers nearly all aspects of Buddhism, including
monastic life, the excesses of asceticism, the evils of caste, etc.
• Majjhima Nikaya depicts the Buddha engaging with people from all levels of ancient Indian society—
kings, priests, ascetics, villagers, and philosophers—using drama, reason, parables, and similes to convey
his wisdom, compassion, and humanity.

Dialogue between King Avantiputta and Buddha's disciple Kachchana

• This story from the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya is part of a dialogue between a king named
Avantiputta and a disciple of the Buddha named Kachchana. While it may not be literally true, it reflects
Buddhist views on the varna system.
• Avantiputta asked Kachchana what he thought about Brahmanas who held that they were the best caste
and that all other castes were low; that Brahmanas were a fair caste while all other castes were dark; that
only Brahmanas were pure, not non-Brahmanas; that Brahmanas were sons of Brahma, born of his mouth,
born of Brahma, formed by Brahma, heirs to Brahma.
• Kachchana replied: "What if a Shudra were wealthy would another Shudra ...or a Kshatriya or a Brahmana
or a Vaishya... speak politely to him?"
• Avantiputta replied that if a Shudra had wealth or corn or gold or silver, he could have as his obedient
servant another Shudra to get up earlier than he, to go to rest later, to carry out his orders, to speak
politely; or he could even have a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or a Vaishya as his obedient servant.
• Kachchana then concluded that the four varnas were essentially the same, and the king agreed.

Khuddaka Nikaya

• Khuddaka Nikaya is the last of the five nikayas (collections) in the Sutta Pitaka.
• The following books are part of Khuddaka Nikaya:
v Dhammapada: Collection of important religious and moral sayings of Buddha in verse form.
v Theragati: Collection of religious poems composed by Elder nuns.
v Theragatha: Collection of religious poems composed by Elder monks.
v Jataka: Collection of birth stories of Buddha describing his previous lives.
v Buddhavamsa: Collection of description of the life of Gautama Buddha and the twenty-four Buddhas
who preceded him.

Therigatha
• The Therigatha is the ninth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya. It is written in the Pali language.
• It is a unique Buddhist text composed of verses (short poems) by theris (bhikkhunis).
• It is considered the earliest known collection of women's literature in India, with some poems dating
as early as the late sixth century BCE.

Jataka
• The Jataka is the tenth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya. It is a collection of Buddhist stories that describe
the previous lives of Gautama Buddha. It is written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.
• Many of these stories originated as popular oral tales composed by ordinary people and then written
down by Buddhist monks. These stories were often depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas and
in paintings in places such as Ajanta.
ð Jataka is a Pali word and Sanskrit word that means “birth.”

Buddhavamsa (The Chronicle of Buddhas)

• Buddhavamsa is the fourteenth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya.
• Buddhavamsa describes the life of Gautama Buddha and the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded him in
the last twelve ages of the world (Kalpa). Among them, Dipankara Buddha was most remembered because
he predicted that a Brahmin youth named Sumedha (a previous life of Gotama Buddha) would become
Gautama Buddha in the future.
ð Dipankara was one of these previous Buddhas, while Gautama Buddha was the current and most
recent Enlightened one, and Maitreya will be the next Buddha in the distant future.

Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa

Dipavamsa
• The Dipavamsa (the chronicle of the island) is Sri Lanka's oldest extant historical record. It was com-
piled in Pali by an unknown author in the 4th century CE.
• The Dipavamsa provides detailed information about the spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and the estab-
lishment of the Sangha. It covers the period from the arrival of the Buddha's disciple, Mahinda, in Sri
Lanka to the third century CE.
• Compared to Mahavamsa, the Dipavamsa is a crude, unpolished work. It was likely the first Pali text com-
posed by the Sinhalese people. The Dipavamsa is also one of the sources for the more comprehensive
historical chronicle Mahavamsa.

Mahavamsa
• The Mahavamsa (The Great Chronicle or The Great Dynasty) is an important historical chronicle of Sri
Lanka, presenting its history chronologically from the sixth century BCE to 1815 CE. It is a work of Sri
Lankan origin, written in the style of an epic poem in the Pali language.
• The Mahavamsa was first composed by a Buddhist monk named Mahanama in the fifth or sixth century
CE and later updated by different writers.
• The Mahavamsa is an excellent source of information about:
v The lifetime of the Buddha
v The history of the Buddhist sangha
v The role of Ashoka in spreading Buddhism
v The rise of Buddhism as a world religion
v The genealogies and lineages of Sri Lankan kings
• In 2023, UNESCO included Mahavamsa as a documentary heritage item in the UNESCO's Memory of the
World International Register.

Buddhist Councils
Buddhist Place Patronage/Reign President/ Details
Councils Chairman
First Buddhist Rajgir King Ajatashatru Mahakassapa Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka
Council (483 BCE) (Haryanka Dynasty) were compiled under the
direction of Ananda and Upali,
respectively.
Second Buddhist Vaishali King Kalasoka Sabakami Division of Buddhism into
Council (383 BCE) (Shishunaga Sthavaravadins and
dynasty) Mahasangikas
Third Buddhist Patliputra King Ashoka Moggaliputta Abhidhamma Pitaka was
Council (250 BCE) (Mauryan Dynasty) Tissa compiled.
Fourth Buddhist Kashmir King Kanishka Vasumitra Division of Buddhism into
Council (72 CE) (Kushana Dynasty) Mahayana and Hinayana
Buddhism.
Compilation of the Vibhasha
Shastras, an authoritative
commentary on the Tripitakas,
by Vasumitra.

Different Schools of Buddhism

Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas
• In the second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali in 383 BCE, there was some disagreement over the
monastic rules. Some monks wanted to add extra rules to make the Vinaya more rigorous, while others
wanted some relaxation. This led to the division of the Buddhist order into two schools:
1. Sthaviravadins: They followed the strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws originally prescribed
in Vinaya Pitaka.
v They followed the original teachings of Buddha.
v Sammatiyas, Vibhajyavadins and Vatsiputriyas are prominent offshoots of the Sthaviravadins
school.
2. Mahasanghikas: They followed modified, more relaxed disciplinary rules.
v Lokottaravadins, Ekavyavaharikas, Kaukkutikas and Caitika are prominent offshoots of the
Mahasanghika school.
• This division was the first division in the Buddhist order. Though differences in the disciplinary code
caused the split, there were also doctrinal differences, especially in understanding the nature of the
Buddha and the arhat.
• Mahasanghika school advocated the divine nature of the Buddha, emphasising him as a transcendent
figure rather than a mere human figure. They were the first to attribute divinity to Buddha and represent
him in human form through statues. This idea of deification, emphasising the Buddha's transcendental
and god-like qualities, played a crucial role in fostering Mahayana Buddhism.
ð Deification means considering someone or something as a god.
• Mahasanghikas advocated the transcendental nature of bodhisattvas and the ideal of the bodhisattva
over that of the arhat. They viewed arhats as fallible, not free from flaws, and inferior to the Buddha.
Sthaviravadins Mahasanghikas
Buddha Buddha was regarded as a human The Mahasanghikas believed Buddha was divine and
being who attained enlightenment already enlightened before coming to Earth. They
and nibbana through his own efforts. saw his life as Gautama Buddha as an apparition.
They believed in multiple Buddhas and held that
there are Buddhas everywhere.
Arhat They equated the liberation of the They advocated the ideal of the bodhisattva over
arhat to that of the Buddha, differing that of the arhat.
only in teaching ability and historical They regarded arhats as imperfect in their
role, i.e. Buddha attains enlightenment attainments and inferior to Buddhas. They view
by himself, while the arhat does so by arhatship as a lesser kind of spiritual attainment
following the Buddha's teachings. which still has ignorance and desire.
ð Some scholars believe that the Sthaviravada school influenced the development of the Theravada
tradition, while the Mahasanghika school influenced Mahayana Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhism
• Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana. The Buddha was
regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts.
• By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Gradually, the idea
of a saviour emerged, and the concept of the Bodhisatta (Bodhisattva) also developed.
• Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who had attained enlightenment, but once
they attained enlightenment, instead of living in complete isolation and meditating in peace, they
remained in the world to teach and help other people to attain salvation. This new way of thinking was
called Mahayana - literally, the "great vehicle". Those who adopted these beliefs described the older
tradition as Hinayana or the "lesser vehicle".
• Mahayana Buddhism formally developed as a new form of Buddhism in the fourth Buddist council, which
was organised by King Kanishka in the first century CE. Kanishka is considered as the founder of the
Mahayana sect of Buddhism.

Birth of Mahayana Buddhism

• Mahayana Buddhism originated in about the first century BCE in the Andhra region. However, due
to the opposition from orthodox Buddhism, it could not make much headway in the beginning.
• With the advent of Nagarjuna, Mahayana's most outstanding exponent, it started gaining popularity.
It became a recognisable form of Buddhism at the time of Kanishka in the first century CE.

Two Distinct Features of Mahayana Buddhism

Image worship
• Buddha statues were made, and worshipping images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an
important part of the Mahayana tradition. This was in contrast to earlier tradition, where the Buddha's
presence was shown in sculpture through certain signs. For instance, sculptures of the peepal tree showed
his attainment of enlightenment.

A belief in Bodhisattvas
• In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas, after attaining enlightenment, dedicate themselves to helping
others achieve liberation. They believe in universal liberation from the suffering of all beings. This
contrasts with Arhatship, where the focus is on personal liberation without actively working for the welfare
of others. Mahayana Buddhists often criticise Arhatship as being self-centred.
• Mahayana Buddhists consider bodhisattva as a higher goal and urge followers to take up the path of a
bodhisattva and not fall back to the level of arhats.

Hinayana or Theravada?

• Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists as followers of Hinayana. However, followers of the
older tradition described themselves as theravadins, that is, those who followed the path of old, respected
teachers, the theras.
• According to some scholars, Theravada is a sub-sect of Hinayana Buddhism.
ð In Southeast Asia, Hinayana is often referred to as Theravada. Hence, Hinayana is almost nonexistent
today. Theravada, on the other hand, continues to thrive and is practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.

Bodhisattva

• According to Mahayana Buddhism, many noble individuals have walked the path of the Buddha. All of
them had to follow the stages of Boddhisattva before they could attain the status of Buddha. However,
 many Bodhisattvas chose to remain at this stage out of deep compassion for the suffering of the world,
dedicating themselves to helping others rather than taking the final step to becoming a Buddha.
• Bodhisattva believes in universal liberation and not individual liberation. Buddha, in his previous
births, was thought to be Bodhisattva.
• Prominent Boddhisattvas under Buddhism include:
Boddhisattva Associated with
Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani) Compassion or kind-hearted
Vajrapani Power and Energy
Manjushri Wisdom
Maitreya A future buddha
Samantabhadra Practice and meditation
Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin Purifies wrongdoing
Akashagarbha Great element of space
Kshitigarbha • Bodhisattva of hell-beings and the guardian of children
• Known for his vow:
ü To take responsibility to save the souls of all beings in the six
worlds between the death of Gautama Buddha and the rise of
Maitreya.
ü Not to achieve Buddhahood until all hells are emptied.

[UPSC CSE 2018] With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future
Buddha, yet to come to save the world?
a) Avalokiteshvara
b) Lokesvara
c) Maitreya
d) Padmapani
Ans: Maitreya

Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism

Buddhist Hinayana Mahayana
School
Teaching It is a more orthodox school and follows the It is a liberal school and believes in the
original preaching of Buddha. divinity of Buddha and Bodhisattva.
Buddha Buddha was regarded as a human teacher and Deification of the Buddha: Buddha was
enlightened being. considered a divine figure (god), and
started to worship the Buddha as a deity.
Idol Did not believe in idol or image worship. Believe in an idol or image worship.
Worship Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture Buddha statues were made.
through certain signs.
Liberation Individual Salvation: The ultimate goal is to Universal liberation: The Mahayana
attain personal salvation through own effort. concept of liberation is not merely for
Only monks and nuns can attain enlightenment. one but is meant for all. The ideal
Bodhisattva defers his own salvation to
work for the salvation of others.
Everyone could aspire to Buddhahood
and could attain it. He/she need not be
a monk.
Arhat/ The goal is to become Arhat, free from the cycle Consider bodhisattva as a higher goal
bodhisattva of rebirth. and urge followers to take the path of a
bodhisattva and not fall back to the level
of arhats.
Language Used Pali language. Mostly used Sanskrit language.
Literature The Pali Canon: The Tripitaka (Three Baskets), Developed its own canon of scriptures,
which consists of the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, incorporating many texts from the
and Abhidhamma Pitaka, is the Hinayana canon Theravada canon while adding
of sacred literature. Mahayana Sutras. These additional texts
form the foundation of Mahayana's
distinctive beliefs and practices.
Sub-sect According to some scholars, Theravada is a sub- Some scholars believe that one of the
sect of Hinayana Buddhism. sub-sects of Mahayana Buddhism later
developed into Vajrayana.
Support King Ashoka patronised Hinayana sect Kanishka is considered as founder of
(Mahayana was not existed during his time) Mahayana sect. He patronised the
Mahayana Buddhism.
Location In Southeast Asia, Hinayana is often referred to The Mahayana school is present in
as Theravada. Hence, it is almost nonexistent Nepal, Sikkim, China, Korea and Japan.
today. Theravada, on the other hand, continues
to thrive and is practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and other
Southeast Asian countries.
[UPSC CSE 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements:
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 2 and 3 only

[UPSC CSE 2019] Consider the following:

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the feature/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans 1, 2 and 3

[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements:
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment.
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 2 and 3 only
Important Buddhist Sanskrit Texts
Author Buddhist Sanskrit Text Content
Ashvaghosha Buddhacharita A poetic narrative of the life of the Buddha.
(Buddhist and philosopher (Biography of the Buddha)
in the court of King Mahalankara A Mahayana Buddhist text
Kanishka) (the Book of Glory)
Saundarananda A Sanskrit poem about the conversion of
Mahakavya Nanda (Buddha's half brother) to Buddhism.
Sariputraprakarana A Sanskrit drama about the life-histories of
two of the most celebrated disciples of Lord
Buddha — Sariputta and Maudgalana.
Vajrasuchi It criticises the caste system and inequity in
Vedic religion.
Sutralankara
Vasumitra Vibhasha Shastras An authoritative commentary on the
(Buddhist monk who Tripitakas.
presided over Fourth
Buddhist Council)
Nagarjuna Mulamadhyamakakarika Basic text of Madhyamika School
(Mahayana Buddhist (Madhyamika Karika)
philosopher of the second Prajnaparimita Karika
century CE)
Buddhaghosha Visuddhimagga It is a comprehensive summary of older
(Fifth century Sinhalese (path of Purification) Sinhala commentaries on the scriptural canon
Theravadin Buddhist) of the Theravada school.
Sumangalvasini
Atthakathayen

Spread of Buddhism
• Buddhism grew rapidly during the lifetime of the Buddha and even after his death.
v During the lifetime of Buddha:
ü Buddhism expanded rapidly, attracting followers from monarchies like Magadha, Koshala, and
Kausambi and republics like the Sakyas, Vajjis, and Mallas.
ü Contemporary rulers such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadh, Chanda Pradyota of Avanti,
Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala became his disciples.
 v After Buddha's death:
ü The spread of Buddhism continued under powerful patrons like King Ashoka and Kanishka.
• Over the centuries, Buddhism spread across the subcontinent and beyond:
v In Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia: It was mainly due to the contribution of Ashoka.
ü Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas
v In Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan: It was mainly due to the contribution of Kanishka.
ü Mahayana Buddhism was more popular in these areas.
• Although Buddhism has disappeared from India, it still holds ground in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet, China,
and Japan.
• Buddhism appealed to a large section of the population and spread to the subcontinent and beyond.
This was because of the following factors:
v Buddha's personality
v Buddha's teaching
v Rejection of Varna System
v Use of Pali language
v Patronage by Kings
v The institution of Sangha

Buddha's Personality
• The personality of the Buddha and the method adopted by him to preach his religion helped the spread
of Buddhism. He tried to fight evil with goodness and hatred with love. He refused to be provoked by
slander and abuse and maintained calm under difficult conditions.

Buddha's Teaching
• Buddha's teaching emphasised practical morality and focused on acceptable solutions to the problems
of mankind. This simple philosophy attracted the masses as opposed to Brahmanical philosophy, which
confused the people.
• The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on birth and
the emphasis placed on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) drew men and women to
Buddhist teachings.

Rejection of Varna System

• Buddhism attacked the varna system, and people from all castes were allowed in it. This helped it to
get the support of the lower orders. Merchants, like Anathapindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali,
accepted the faith because they got due respect in this religion.
• Compared with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and democratic. Women were also admitted to the
sangha and thus brought on par with men.
Use of Pali
• The use of the Pali language contributed to the spread of Buddhism. The Brahmanical religion limited
itself to using Sanskrit, which was not the language of the masses. In contrast, Buddhism used Pali, the
language of the people, which helped spread Buddhist doctrines among the common people.

Patronage by Rulers
• Patronage by rulers was an important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. King Ashoka and Kanishka
embraced Buddhism and made efforts to spread it.
• According to tradition, Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to preach
Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.

The institution of Sangha

• The organised preaching under the auspices of the sangha helped Buddhism to spread effectively.

Mudras of Buddha
• Mudra is a symbolic gesture of the hands and fingers used for nonverbal communication in Hinduism,
Jainism, and Buddhism. Each mudra conveys a specific message by itself or in combination with others.
Mudra Significant Information (Symbolic meaning)
Dhyana Mudra ü Signifies the attainment of spiritual perfection.
(Samadhi or Yoga Mudra) ü Buddha used this mudra when meditating under the pipal tree
(Gesture of meditation) before his Enlightenment.
Bhumisparsha Mudra ü It represents the moment of the Buddha’s enlightenment, and the
(Gesture of earth-touching or earth is a witness to this.
Buddha calling the earth to ü Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this
witness) mudra.
Dharmachakra Mudra ü It is a gesture exhibited by Buddha while preaching the first sermon
(Gesture of ‘Teaching of the in Sarnath.
Wheel of Dharma’) ü Vairochana, the first Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this mudra.
Vitarka Mudra ü It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the
(Gesture of discussion) Buddha.
ü This mudra has many variants in Mahayana Buddhism. In Tibetan
Buddhism, it is the mystic gesture of Taras and Bodhisattvas,
explaining the Buddha's teachings.
Abhaya Mudra ü It signifies protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of
(Gesture of fearlessness or fear.
blessing)
 Varada Mudra ü It signifies offering, welcome, charity and compassion.
(Gesture of charity or generosity) ü The five extended fingers in this mudra symbolise - Generosity,
Morality, Patience, Effort and Meditative concentration.
ü Ratnasambhava, the third Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this
mudra.
ü It is extensively used in the statues of Southeast Asia.
Anjali Mudra ü It represents the greeting, prayer, and adoration.
(Namaskar Mudra) ü This is the special gesture of Avalokiteshvara with more than two
(Gesture of Praying or greeting) arms.
Uttarabodhi Mudra ü It signifies supreme enlightenment.
(Gesture of Perfection)
Vajra Mudra ü It signifies the importance of knowledge.
(Gesture of knowledge)
Karana Mudra ü It signifies expelling demons and sickness or negative thoughts.
(Gesture of warding off evil)

Decline of Buddhism
• By the early twelfth century CE, Buddhism had practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.
The following factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
1. Shift Towards Rituals and Idol Worship: Buddhism initially focused on reform, but gradually adopted
rituals and ceremonies it once opposed. From the first century CE, large-scale idol worship became
common.
2. Abandonment of Pali: From the first century CE, Pali, the language of the masses, was abandoned as
the language of Buddhism. The Buddhists then began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite, which
led to the fall of the popularity of Buddhism.
3. Corruption and Degeneration in Monasteries: Gradually, Buddhist monks became detached from the
lives of ordinary people. From the first century CE onwards, they practised idol worship on a large scale
and received numerous offerings from devotees. The rich offerings and royal grants made monastic life
easy, leading to corruption and indulgence by the seventh century CE. The enormous wealth of the
monasteries with women living in them led to further degeneration.
ð The Buddha is reported to have said to his favourite disciple, Ananda: "If women were not admitted
into the monasteries, Buddhism would have continued for one thousand years, but because this
admission has been granted, it would last only five hundred years."
4. Persecution by Rulers: The Brahmana rulers such as Pashyamitra Shunga, the Huna king Mihirakula
(a worshipper of Shiva), and Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda are said to have persecuted the Buddhists.
Turkish and other invaders also targeted wealthy Buddhist monasteries.
 ð The Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodha Gaya, where the Buddha had attained
enlightenment.
ð Hsuan Tsang states that 1600 stupas and monasteries were destroyed, and thousands of monks and
lay followers were killed.
5. Revival of Brahmanism: Brahmanas reformed their religion to counter Buddhism by promoting cattle
preservation and assuring women and Shudras of admission to heaven.
6. Rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism: In early medieval times, the Shaivite and Vaishnavite movements
in south India attracted the common people as they were free from rituals and sacrifices. These sects
bitterly opposed Jainism and Buddhism, further weakening Buddhism’s influence.

Kapilvastu and Kapilvastu Relics

• In the 1890s, several monuments were discovered in northern India near the Nepalese border. In 1896,
an Ashokan stone pillar was discovered at Lumbini. After this, people became curious about the
different Buddhist mounds.
• In 1897, William Claxton Pepp, a British colonial engineer, started excavating one mound that was
particularly more prominent than the rest near the village of Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh. This led to the
discovery of one of the original eight stupas in 1898. The Stupa contained five vases containing
offerings, including beads, pearls, precious and semiprecious stones, bones and ash. Based on an
inscribed casket found in 1898 at the stupa site, the site is now believed to be the ancient city of
Kapilvastu.
• The Archaeological Survey of India (1971-77) further excavated the stupa and discovered two more
steatite relic caskets containing twenty-two sacred bone relics, known as the Kapilvastu Relics.
Currently, 20 sacred bone relics (bone fragments) are in the safe custody of the National Museum, New
Delhi, and the remaining two are with the Indian Museum, Kolkata.

Important Buddhist Scholars

Buddhist Scholar Important Points
Ananda • Primary attendant of the Buddha.
(6th – 5th century BCE) • Sutta Pitaka was compiled under his direction.
Kaundinya First disciple of Buddha.
(6th – 5th century BCE) First disciple of Buddha to become arahant (attained nirvana).
Sariputra and Moggallana Two chief disciples of Buddha
(Maudgalyayana)
(6th – 5th century BCE)
Upali • One of the ten chief disciples of the Buddha.
(6th – 5th century BCE) • Vinaya Pitaka was compiled under his direction.
Mahakassapa President of the First Buddhist Council held at Rajgir.
(6th – 5th century BCE)
Sabakami President of Second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali.
(4th century BCE)
Upagupta • Spiritual teacher of the Mauryan King Ashoka
rd
(3 century BCE) • Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Upagupta.
Moggaliputta Tissa President of Third Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra.
rd
(3 century BCE)
Mahendra • Son and daughter of King Ashoka.
and Sanghamitra • They planted the branch of the original Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka.
• They played an important role in spreading Buddhism in China.
Nagasena A Buddhist monk who converted Indo-Greek ruler Menander to Buddhism.
nd
(2 century BCE) He wrote a book, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda), a dialogue
between Milinda and Nagasena.
Ashvaghosha A Sanskrit poet and dramatist, a devout Buddhist and a philosopher in the
(1st century CE) court of King Kanishka.
Vasumitra President of Fourth Buddhist Council held at Kashmir.
(1st century CE)
Kashyapa Matanga and The first two Indian Buddhist monks who went to China on the invitation
Dharmaratna of Chinese Emperor Han Mingdi. They brought several Buddhist sutras on
st
(1 century CE) a white horse.
Nagarjuna • Founder of the Madhyamaka school (“Middle Way”) of Mahayana
(2nd century CE) Buddhist philosophy.
• He developed the doctrine of emptiness (shunyata) in his most famous
work, Mulamadhyamakakarika (“Fundamental Verses on the Middle
Way”).
Aryadeva A Madhyamaka philosopher and a disciple of Nagarjuna
(3rd century CE) Famous work: Four Hundred Stanzas of the Middle Way, a commentary on
Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Middle Way.
Maitreyanatha One of the three founders of the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school of
(3rd – 4th century CE) Mahayana Buddhism, along with Asanga and Vasubandhu.
Asanga and Vasubandhu Brothers and Mahayana Buddhist scholars from Peshawar, Pakistan.
th
(4 century CE)
Buddhaghosha Famous work:
th
(5 century Sinhalese
Theravadin Buddhist) 1. Visuddhimagga (path of Purification): It is a comprehensive
summary of older Sinhala commentaries on the scriptural canon of the
Theravada school (Tripitaka). Hence, it is also known as the Key of
Tripitaka.
2. Sumangalvasini (Commentary of the Digha Nikaya)
3. Atthakathayen
Buddhapalita A Mahayana Buddhist commentator on the works of Nagarjuna and
(5th – 6th century CE) Aryadeva.
Famous work:
Mulamadhyamaka-vrtti: Commentary on the Mulamadhyamakakarika.
Dignaga A Buddhist logician
(5th – 6th century CE) Major works:
1. Pramanasamuccaya (Compendium of the Means of True Knowledge)
2. Hetucakra (The Wheel of Reason)
3. Dignaga's thought influenced the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti.
Dharmakirti • Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician.
(7th century CE) • Key scholars of epistemology (pramana) in Buddhist philosophy.
• His works influenced scholars of Hindu philosophy, including Mimamsa,
Nyaya, and Shaivism, as well as Jain scholars.
• Major work: Pramanavarttika (Commentary on Epistemology).
Chandrakirti A Buddhist scholar of the Madhyamaka school
(7th century CE) Major works:
1. Prasannapada: Commentary on Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika
2. Madhyamakavatara
Diwakarmitra A Buddhist priest and hermit.
th
(7 century CE) He helped Harshavardhana find his sister, Rajyashree.
Shantarakshita Buddhist scholars of the Madhyamaka school. He visited Tibet at the
(8th century CE) invitation of the Buddhist king Khring Saung Lade Batsan and played an
important role in the development of Tibetan Buddhism.
Guru Padmasambhava Indian tantric Buddhist (Vajrayana Buddhist) who introduced Tantric
Buddhism to Tibet.
• One of the founding fathers of Tibetan Buddhism, along with
Shantarakshita and King Thisong Deotsen.
• He established the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet.
Atish Dipankar
Important Buddhist Architecture
Buddhist Caves
• Madhya Pradesh: Bagh caves
• Andhra Pradesh: Guntapalle rock-cut caves
• Maharashtra: Ajanta, Ellora, Pitalkhora, Bhaja, Thana-Nadsur, Karla, Kanheri, Patan, Bedse, Nasik
(Trirashmi caves or Pandavleni), Ganeshleni (Junnar cave), Kondane, Kondivite (Mahakali) caves.

Buddhist Stupas
• Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at:
v Bihar: Rajagraha, Vaishali, Vethadipa and Pava
v Nepal: Kapilavastu, Allakappa and Ramagrama
v Uttar Pradesh: Kushinagar and Pippalvina

Famous Stupas

• Bairat stupa (Rajasthan)

• Sanchi and Bharhut stupas (Madhya Pradesh)
• Devnimori stupa (Gujarat)
• Sarnath stupa (Uttar Pradesh)
• Sannati stupa (Karnataka)
• Rampaerrampallam or Anakapalle rock-cut stupa (Andhra Pradesh)
• Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli stupas (Andhra Pradesh)

Buddha Image
• Seated Buddha at Katra (Mathura)
• Buddha head from Taxila (Gandhara region)
• Seated Buddha at Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)
• Amaravati (Dhanyakataka), Nagarjunkonda and Guntapalle (Andhra Pradesh)
• Bronze image of Buddha, Sultanganj (Bihar)
• Bronze image of Buddha, Phophnar, Maharashtra

Other Famous Buddhist Structures

• Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya (Bihar)
• Nalanda University (Bihar)
• Buddhist chaitya halls, Aihole (Karnataka)
• Buddhist vihara at Sirpur (Chhattisgarh)
 ð Guntapalle in Eluru district of Andhra Pradesh is a unique site where the structured stupas, viharas and
the caves are excavated at one place.

Jainism

• According to Jaina traditions, the basic philosophy of the Jainas existed in north India before the birth of
Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira (great hero).
• Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara (teacher or one who led people to salvation). He was
preceded by 23 other Tirthankaras, including the first Tirthankara Rishabhadev and the 23rd Tirthankara
Parshvanatha.
• Of the 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism, the historicity of the first 22 is uncertain, as their origins are rooted in
mythology. However, historical evidence, including references in Buddhist texts, confirms the existence
of the last two Tirthankaras—Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
ð Tirthankaras literally means those who guide men and women across the river of existence.
• Mahavira was born Prince Vardhamana in 540 BCE in Kundagrama (modern day Kundalpur) near Vaishali
in Bihar. He was a Kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that belonged to the Vajji sangha. His
father, Siddhartha, was the chief of the Kshatriya clan Jnatrika. His mother, Trishala, was a Lichchavi
princess.
• At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. He became ascetic and, for the next twelve
years, practised severe hardship, including rigorous fasting, meditation and discomfort like not wearing
clothes.
• Finally, at the age of 42, Vardhamana attained the supreme knowledge (complete knowledge) called
Kaivalya (Gnan) under sal tree on the banks of the Rijupalika river in Jambhikagrama. Through kaivalya,
he conquered misery and happiness and hence called a conqueror, i.e. Jina.
• After attaining enlightenment, Vardhamana is known as Mahavira (great hero), or Jina (conqueror) or
Nirgranth (free from fetters). His followers are known as Jainas, and his religion is called Jainism.
• Mahavira delivered his first sermon at Pava to his 11 principal disciples, known as the Gandharas or
Gandharvas. subsequently he established a Jaina Sangha at the Pava.
• For the next thirty years Mahavira moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala,
Magadha and further east. He often visited the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He passed away at
the age of 72 in 468 BCE at Pavapuri near Rajgir.
ð According to some Jain traditions, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE and passed away in 527 BCE.
ð Important Ganadharas include Indrabhuti Gautama, Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti (three brothers) and
Sudharman. Nine of the eleven Ganadharas died within the life time of Mahavira and only two of them
Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman (Sudhamma) survived him.
 ð After Mahavira's death, Sudharman became the first president of the Jain Sangha. After him, Jambu
led the Sangha for 44 years. Bhadrabahu was the president during Chandragupta Maurya's time.
ð According to some Jain traditions, Jamali, Mahavira's nephew and son-in-law, was first disciple of
Mahavira.

Teachings of Jainism
• Jainism questioned the authorities of Veda and criticised the rituals.
• It recognised the existence of the soul. It recognised the existence of the gods but placed them lower
than the Jina.
• It did not condemn the varna system. People from all varna could enter Jainism, i.e. It did not accept
the varna system but did not condemn it either. According to Mahavira, a person is born in a high or
lower varna due to the sins or the virtues he acquired in the previous birth.
• Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers because they used Prakrit,
the language of common people.
ð Several forms of the Prakrit language were used in different parts of the country and named after the
regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi.
• Mahavira advocated severe asceticism and extreme penance to attain nirvana, the highest spiritual
state. He asked monks to give up everything, including their clothes. Parshvanatha, Mahavira's
predecessor, asked his followers to cover the upper and lower portions of their bodies. This implies that
Mahavira asked his followers to lead a more austere life.

Strict Rules of Ahimsa (non-violence)

• Jainism emphasises ahimsa, or non-injury, to living beings. This principle has left its mark on Indian
thinking. The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and
water have life (all objects have a soul). Non-injury to living beings, especially humans, animals, plants
and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.
• Jainism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture for its followers because both involve the
killing of living beings. Farmers who had to kill insects to protect their crops found it more difficult to
follow the rules. Hence, it was eventually confined to traders.

[UPSC CSE 2023] “Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks,
running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious
sects."
The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of
ancient India?
a) Buddhism
b) Jainism
 c) Shaivism
d) Vaishnavism
Ans: Jainism

Triratna (three jewels) of Jainism

• Both Jainism and Buddhism believed in human effort as a means to moksha. According to Jainism,
members of the lower castes can achieve liberation. No ritual is necessary for such liberation, and it can
be obtained through:
1. Samyak Darshana: Right faith
2. Samyak Gyana: Right knowledge
3. Samyak Charitra: Right action
These three are considered to be the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.

Monastic life: A Pre-condition for Salvation

• According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and
penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma, which can be achieved only by renouncing
the world. Therefore, monastic life is a necessary condition of salvation, and a householder cannot attain
it.
• Jaina monks and nuns had to observe certain strict rules. They had to lead very simple lives, begging for
food. They could walk only during the day, taking care that they do not kill or injure any being.
• They took five great vows:
1. Satya: To abstain from lying
2. Ahimsa: To abstain from killing
3. Asteya: To abstain from stealing
4. Aparigraha: To abstain from possessing property
5. Brahmacharya: To observe celibacy
• Mahavira added only the fifth doctrine (Brahmacharya); he took over the other four from previous
teachers.
ð Parshvanath was born in Varanasi (Kashi Mahajanpada). He gained complete knowledge (Kaivalya) in
Ashrampad Udyan near Varanasi and attained Parinirvana on the mount Sammed Shikhar on Parasnath
hill of Jharkhand.

Spread of Jainism
• Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the
Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The dedicated work of the members of the
Sangha helped in the spread of Jainism.
• Jainism used the Prakrit language for preaching, which also helped spread Jainism.
• Since Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from the Brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the
masses. However, Jainism gradually spread into south and west India, where the Brahmanical religion was
weak. The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is due to:
1. Efforts of Chandragupta Maurya: Chandragupta Maurya, the emperor, became a Jaina and gave up
his throne. He migrated with Bhadrabahu to the south and spread Jainism. He spent the last years of
his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic.
2. Great Famine of Magadh: A great famine occurred in Magadha 200 years after the death of
Mahavira. The famine lasted for twelve years, and to protect themselves, many a Jaina went to the
south (Shravanabelagola, Karnataka) under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, but the rest stayed back in
Magadha under the leadership of Sthalabahu. The emigrant Jainas spread Jainism in south India.
• In subsequent centuries, especially after the fifth century, numerous Jaina monastic establishments
called basadis sprang up in Karnataka and were granted land by the king for their support.
ð The epigraphic evidence for the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is not earlier than the third century CE.
• Jainism spread to the Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth and first centuries BCE, under the patronage of the
Kalinga king Kharavela.
• In the second and first centuries BCE, Jainism reached the southern districts of Tamil Nadu due to the
patronage of royal dynasties of south India, such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas.
• In later centuries, Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan, and even now, these areas have many
Jainas mainly engaged in trade and commerce.
• Although Jainism did not spread very fast in early times, it still retains its hold in the areas where it
spread. On the other hand, Buddhism practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.
• The following factors limited the spread of Jainism:
1. Strict rules for followers: Jainism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture. Hence, it
was eventually confined to traders.
2. Jainism did not clearly distinguish itself from the Brahmanical religion, such as not condemning the
varna system or recognising the existence of god and soul; hence, it failed to attract the masses.
3. Jainism did not win as much state patronage as Buddhism did.
ð Like the Buddhists, initially, the Jainas were not image worshippers. Later, they began to worship
Mahavira and the twenty-three Tirthankaras.

Different Schools of Jainism

• Over time, Jainism split into Digambars and Shvetambars. There are two different stories associated with
this division.
1. Differences in Clothing Practices: Mahavira's predecessor, Parshva, allowed followers to cover the
upper and lower parts of their bodies. However, Mahavira advocated complete renunciation of
 clothing. Over time, this led to the division between Shvetambaras (who wore white garments) and
Digambaras (who remained unclothed).
2. Post-Famine Conflict: After a 12-year famine in Magadha, Jainas who had migrated south under
Bhadrabahu returned and accused those who remained in Magadha under Sthalabahu of relaxing
their religious practices.
v The migrated Jainas claimed that they had strictly observed the religious rules even during the famine.
They alleged that the Jaina ascetics living in Magadha had violated those rules and had become lax.
v The southern group boycotted a council held in Pataliputra (modern Patna) to settle these disputes
and compile the principal teachings of Jainism. From now onwards, the southerns began to be called
Digambaras and the Magadhans Shvetambaras.
v However, the tradition that attributes the division to the drought and subsequent famine is from a
later period and is considered doubtful.
Digambara School Svetambara School
Follows the teachings of Mahavira and all the five Follows the teachings of Parshvanatha and four
constraints - Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and restraints (except Brahmacharya)
Brahmacharya.
Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect. Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this school.
Believe that women cannot be Tirthankaras. Believe that both men and women can be
Tirthankaras.
Monastic rules are more rigid. Monastic rules are not as rigid as Digambaras.
Monks do not wear clothes and believe in complete The monks of Svetambara School can have simple
nudity. white clothing.
Nuns wear unstitched, plain white sarees.

Sub-sects of Digambara sect

• Digambara sect has been divided into the following sub-sects:
v Major sub-sects
1. Bisapantha
2. Terapantha
3. Taranapantha or Samaiyapantha
v Minor sub-sects
1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha
Bisapantha Terapantha Taranapantha
 • Considered to be the original • Rejects the authority of the • They strong opposed idolatry.
form of the Digambara sect. Bhattarakas and their prac- They worship sacred books
• The Bisapanthas revere tices. (Sarnaya) rather than idols.
Dharma-gurus (Bhattarakas) • They worship only idols of • Three main traits of the Tarana-
and support their authority. Tirthankaras (no other deities panthis are:
• Worship includes idols of like Ksetrapala or Padmavati). 1. The aversion to idol worship
Tirthankaras, Ksetrapala, 2. The absence of outward reli-
Padmavati, and other deities. gious practices
3. The ban on caste distinctions

Sub-sects of Svetambara sect

• Svetambara sect has been divided into three main sub-sects:
1. Murtipujaka
2. Sthanakvasi
3. Terapanthi
Murtipujaka Sthanakvasi Terapanthi
• Idolatrous: Murtipujaka • Non-idolatrous: They do • Non-idolatrous: The terapanthi
Svetambaras are the original not believe in idol-wor- sub-sect is derived from the
Svetambaras. They worship ship. They do not have Sthanakvasi. They do not believe in
idols and offer flowers, fruits, temples instead they have idol-worship but are finely orga-
saffron, etc to idols. They stay prayer halls (sthanakas) nized under the complete direc-
in temples or in upasrayas where they carry on their tion of one Acharya, religious
(reserved buildings). religious fasts, prayers, head.
• They are also called Pujera festivals, practices, etc. • The Terapanthis are considered re-
(worshippers), Deravasi (tem- • They are also called formists as they emphasize sim-
ple residents), Chaityavasi Dhundhiya (searchers) plicity in religion. For example,
(temple residents) and Man- and Sadhumargi (follow- they do not build monasteries; in-
dira-margi (temple goers). ers of ascetics). stead, their monks live in parts of
houses provided by householders.

[UPSC CSE 2018] With reference to the religious practices in India, the "Sthanakvasi" sect
belongs to
a) Buddhism
b) Jainism
c) Vaishnavism
d) Shaivism
 Ans: Jainism

[UPSC CSE 2017] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements:
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary but existed
forever in a latent form.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans: 2 only

Ashtamangala (Eight Auspicious Symbols of Jainism)

• Ashtamangala are eight auspicious symbols of Jainism, which are an integral part of Jain culture. They are
depicted in Kalpasutra and revered in various religious rituals and ceremonies.
• In Jainism, it is customary to draw the swastika at the beginning of all religious ceremonies.
Symbol Represented by Significance
Swastika Swastika It signifies the well-being of humans.
Nandyavart A large swastika with nine corners It signifies the higher meditative attainment.
Shrivatsa A mark manifested on the heart of the It signifies compassionate, universal, eternal love
Jina for all living beings.
Vardhamanak A shallow earthen dish used for lamps It signifies the increase of wealth, fame, and merit
Bhadrasana The sacred seat sanctified by the feet It is considered the sacred seat for the ones who
(Sinhasana) of the blessed Lord Jina. have attained nirvana.
Kalash A holy pot filled with pure water It signifies the wisdom and abundance
Minyugal A pair of fish It signifies the flow of divine life in the cosmic
ocean.
Darpan Mirror Reflects one’s true self

Jaina Literature
• The earliest Jain texts were orally transmitted from acharyas (gurus) to their disciples. As monks strictly
followed the five great vows of Jainism and considered even religious scriptures as possessions, the
knowledge of the religion was never documented.
• Later, acharyas realized it was difficult to memorize the vast literature, much of which was already lost or
corrupted with modifications and errors. To document the Jain literature, a council was convened under
the presidentship of Sthalbhadra around 300 BCE in Pataliputra. The council compiled 12 Angas, which
were later recompiled at the second council by the Svetambara monks in Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 CE.

Cannon of the Shvetambaras

• Ganadharas, immediate disciples of Lord Mahavira, compiled the preaching of Mahavira into many
texts collectively known as Agam Literature (Agamas).
• Agamas are sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. Agam literature is
divided into two groups:
1. Ang-agams
2. Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang‑agams)

Anga-agamas

• Gautama and other Ganadharas orally compiled the original preaching of Mahavira into twelve Angas.
These are the oldest religious scriptures and the backbone of Jain literature.
• Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva texts is twelfth Anga‑agama. Purvas were the oldest sacred texts
of Jainas.
• Twelve Angas (Dwadashangi) have an important place in Jain Agam. These are Acharanga-Sutra,
Sutrakritang, Sthananga, Samavayanga, Vyakhya Pragnapti (Bhagavati Sutra), Jnatrdharmakatha,
Upasakadasah, Antakrddasah, Anuttaraupapatikadasah, Prasnavyakarana, Vipaksruta and Dristivada.

Purvas
• The Fourteen Purvas are ancient Jain scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras of Jainism.
• The monks having the knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Shrutakevali. Acharya
Bhadrabahu was the last person who had the knowledge of Purvas.
• All Jain sects believe that the knowledge of the Purvas were gradually lost starting two hundred years
after Lord Mahavir's nirvan (death).
• All Swetambar Jains believe that the proper meaning and the original intent of the eleven Anga-agamas
survived and were properly documented by elder monks at the second council in Vallabhi (Gujarat) in
512 CE. However, Digambaras believe that the Purvas and remaining original eleven Agamas were lost.
Therefore, they did not consider the Agamas compiled by the Svetambara monks as the original
teachings of Mahavira.

Anga-bahya-agamas

• Ang-bahya-agams or non-agam literature consists of commentaries and explanations of Agam literature,

along with separate works created by others. These writings are found in various languages such as
 Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Maharashtri, etc. The different Jain sects accept different numbers of
Ang‑bahya texts.
• Anga-bahya-agamas are clssified into:
v 12 Upangas: There is an Upanga (sub-section) for each of the Angas. They provide further explanation
of Angas.
v 10 Parikarnas: Parikarnas are supplement to 12 Angas. They describe independent or miscellaneous
subjects of the Jain religion.
v 6 Chhedasutras: Chheda-sutras describe the rules that monks and nuns should follow in monastic
life. These texts are only for ascetics not for lay people.
v 4 Mulasutras: Mulasutras are essential scriptures for monks and nuns to study in the earlier stages
of their monkhood
v Individual texts (Sutra-Granthas) such as Nandi Sutra and Anuyogadvara
• The Digambars believes that all Ang-bahya-agams were also lost gradually. Hence they did not accept
complete Jain agam literature.

Digambara Jain Literature

• Digambaras believe that the original 11 Agamas and 14 Purvas containing original preaching of Lord
Mahavira were gradually lost starting about two hundred years after Lord Mahavir's nirvana. Hence, they
did not accept Agamas which are accepted by the Swetambars.
• There is no strict distinction between the canonical and non-canonical texts in the Digambara-tradition.
However two main texts, Satkhandagama (Scripture of Six Parts) by Puspadanta and Bhutabali and
Kasaya-pahuda (Kasaya-prabhrta) by Gunadharacharya are most revered.
• Along with two main texts, Digambaras follow four Anuyogs written in Sauraseni or in Sanskrit by great
Acharyas (scholars) from second to elevanth century CE as the basis for their religious philosophy and
practices. Four Anuyoga (Expositions) includes:
1. Pratham‑anuyoga (Dharma‑kath‑anuyoga) – Religious Stories
2. Charn‑anuyoga – Conduct
3. Karan‑anuyoga (Ganit‑anuyog) – Mathematics
4. Dravy‑anuyog – Philosophy

Some important Jaina Texts

ü Pravachanasara: It provides the essence of Jaina scriptures. It is composed by Jain monk Kundakunda
in the second century CE or later.
ü Brihat (Vrihat ) Katha: It is composed by Harisen, scholar and court poet of King Samudragupta
ü Jain Puranas: These texts are hagiographies that glorify the lives and deeds of the Jain Tirthankaras.

Mahapurana or Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana

• Mahapurana is a Jain text composed by Acharya Jinasena and Gunabhadra in the 9th century CE.
• Mahapurana consists of two parts:
1. Adi Purana: It is the first part written by Acharya Jinasena in Sanskrit. It praises the life of first
Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha.
2. Uttarapurana: It is the second part written by Gunabhadra in Apabhramsa.
ð The sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit includes - 12 Angas, 12 Upan-
gas, 10 Parikarnas, 6 Chhedasutras, 4 Mulasutras and 2 Sutra-Granthas.

Jaina Councils
Jaina Council Year Place President Jaina Texts
First 300 Pataliputra Sthalbhadra Initial compilation of 12 angas
BCE (present day Patna) replacing lost 14 purvas
Second 512 Vallabhi Devarddhi Final compilations of 12 angas and 12
CE (Gujarat) Kshamashramana upangas

Important Jaina Scholars

Jaina Scholar Important Points
Indrabhuti Gautama • Senior-most of eleven Ganadharas
th th
(6 -5 Century BCE) • Gained Kevala Jnana immediately after the death of Mahavira
Sudharma • One of the eleven Ganadharas
th th
(6 -5 Century BCE) • President of the Jain after Mahavira's death
Bhadrabahu • Founder of Digambara Sect of Jainism
(4th century BCE) • Spiritul guru of Chandragupta Maurya
Major work:
• Kalpa Suta: Contains biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably
Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
• Bhadrabahu Sanhita or Charita,
• Vasudev Charit
• Niryuktis (short commentaries on 10 of the 12 Agamas)
Sthulbhadra • A disciple of Bhadrabahu
rd
(3 century BCE) • Founder of Shvetambar sect
Siddhasena Divakara • Jain monk of the Shvetambara sect
(Kumudachandra) Major work:
(5th century CE) • Nyayvatara
• Sanmati-tarka-prakaraṇa
 • Kalyana-mandira-stotra: 44-verse poem in praise of Parshvanatha.
Haribhadra Suri Major work:
(8th century CE) • Dhurtakhyan
• Samaraichcha
• Shad Darshan Samucchaya: Based on six philosophical systems of India
Somadeva Suri Upasakadhyayana: It contains ideals, norms, and rules of proper conduct for
th
(10 century CE) sravakas, Jain lay followers.
Nitivakyamrita: It deals with ethics and ethical values. It is a work on ethics,
politics, and social norms (work on political science).
Yashastilaka: It is a sanskrit text that promotes the Jaina doctrine using the story
of king Yashodhara.
Hemachandra Suri • Jain acharya of the Shvetambara sect
(11th -12th century) • A courtier of Solanki Kings of Gujarat - Siddharaja Jayasimha and Kumarapala
Major work:
• Trishashti Shalaka Purusha-charitra: A Sanskrit epic poem describing the
lives of 63 Jain saints
• Parisishta Parvan: This book is an appendix to the Trishashtisalaka Purusha
Charita and provides additional information about Jaina teachers.
• Siddha Hemachandra Shabdanushan: A book on grammars of Sanskrit,
Prakrit and Apabhramsa
• Kumarpal Charita: A biography of Kumarapala, the Solanki king of Gujarat
Merutunga Prabandha-Chintamani
(14th century CE)
Hiravijaya Suri • Jain scholar of Shvetambara tradition.
(16th century CE) • Known for propounding the Jain philosophy to Mughal Emperor Akbar and
turning him towards vegetarianism.
• Emperor Akbar invited him to explain to him the principles of Jainism in
religious conference held at Ibadatgarh in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar bestowed on him the title of Jagatguru (World Teacher)

[UPSC CSE 2023] With reference to ancient Indian History, consider the following pairs:
Literary work: Author
1. Devichandragupta: Bilhana
2. Hammira-Mahakavya: Nayachandra Suri
3. Milinda-panha: Nagarjuna
 4. Nitivakyamrita: Somadeva Suri
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only three
d) All four
Ans: Only two

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts:
1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
Which of the above are Jaina texts?
a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 2, 3 and 4
Ans: 2 and 4 only

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs:
Historical person: Known as
1. Aryadeva: Jaina scholar
2. Dignaga: Buddhist scholar
3. Nathamuni: Vaishnava scholar
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
a) None of the pairs
b) Only one pair
c) Only two pairs
d) All three pairs
Ans: Only two pairs

List of 24 Jaina Tirthankaras

Tirthankara Symbol
1 Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) Bull
2 Ajitanatha Elephant
 3 Sambhavanatha Horse
4 Abhinandananatha Monkey
5 Sumatinatha Red Goose
6 Padmaprabha Red lotus
7 Suparshvanatha Swastika
8 Chandraprabha Crescent moon
9 Pushpadanta (Suvidhinatha) Crocodile
10 Shitalanatha Shrivatsa
11 Shreyansanatha Rhinoceros
12 Vasupujya Buffalo
13 Vimalanatha Boar
14 Anantnatha Falcon
15 Dharmanatha Thunderbolt (Vajra)
16 Shantinatha Deer
17 Kunthunatha Goat
18 Aranatha Fish
19 Mallinatha Water pot
20 Munisuvrata Tortoise
21 Naminatha Blue lotus
22 Neminatha (Arishtanemi) Conch shell
23 Parshvanatha Snake (serpant)
24 Mahavira Lion

Important Jain Heritage Sites and Jain Architecture

Jaina Caves
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves (Odisha): Hathigumpha, Ranigumpha, Baghagumpha
• Ellora caves (Maharashtra)
• Sittanvasal cave (Tamil Nadu): Sittanvasal rock-cut monastery or temple.
• Badami cave temple (Karnataka)
ð Ellora caves belong to three different religious creeds, Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism.
ð Aihole has Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments.
ð The temples at Khajuraho belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism.
ð Badami cave temples belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism.

Jaina Temples
• Deogarh temples (Uttar Pradesh)
• Pavapuri and Rajagriha temples (Bihar)
• Khajuraho, Gwalior and Chanderi temples (Madhya Pradesh)
• Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan)
• Aihole Temples (Karnataka)
• Palitana temples (Shatrunjaya hills, Gujarat)

Jaina Bronze Sculptures

• Most of the Bronze images represent the Jain tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parshvanath or Adinath. A hoard
of Jain bronzes were found at many sites, including:
v Aluara, Bokaro (Jharkhand)
v Chausa and Buxar (Bihar)
v Akota (outskirts of Baroda, Gujarat)
v Hansi (Haryana)

Statue
• Bahubali or Gomateshwara statue (Shravanabelagola, Karnataka)

Bahubali or Gomateshwara

• Bahubali or Gomateshwara was son of the Rishabhadeva, first Tirthankara of Jainism.

• 57-foot monolithic statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali of Shravanabelagola (Hassan district of
Karnataka) is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage destinations) for Jains. It was built by
Chamundaraya or Chavundaraya, Commander-in-Chief of King Rachamalla of the Ganga dynasty around
983 CE (10th century CE).
• There are five monolithic statues of Bahubali in Karnataka - Shravanabelagola, Karakala, Dharamasthala,
Venur and Gommatagiri.
• The Mahamastakabhisheka festival is held every 12 years when the Gommateshwara statue is anointed
with milk, saffron, ghee, etc. to propagate the idelas upheld by Bahubali.

[UPSC CSE 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished
as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?
a) Andhra
b) Gandhara
c) Kalinga
d) Magadha
Ans: Andhra

[UPSC CSE 2023] Consider the following pairs:

 Site: Well known for
1. Besnagar: Shaivite cave shrine
2. Bhaja: Buddhist cave shrine
3. Sittanavasal: Jain cave shrine
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All three
d) None
Ans: Only two

Contribution of Jainism
• Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna order and the ritualistic Vedic
religion.
• The early Jainas discarded the Sanskrit language, mainly patronised by the Brahmanas. They adopted
Prakrit, the language of the common people, to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature, agamas,
was written in Ardhamagadhi. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language
and its literature.
• Jaina wrote extensively in Kannada and contributed to its growth.
• The Jainas composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammar.
• Although Jaina art in ancient times was not as rich as Buddhist art, Jainism contributed substantially to
art and architecture in medieval times.

Buddhism and Jainism

Similarities Differences
Buddhism Jainism
Both Mahavira and Buddha hailed Followed the middle path Followed the extreme path.
from royal families.
Rejected the authority of Vedas Did not recognise the existence of Recognised the existence of god
god and soul. and soul.
Rejected rituals and sacrifices Condemned the varna system. Did not condemn the varna
system.
Opposed the cruelties of animal Won more state patronage than Did not win as much state
sacrifice Jainism. patronage as Buddhism did.
 No caste and varna system Spread very fast in the early times. Did not spread very fast in the
early times.
Absence of worship of gods Spread in many parts of the world. Remained in India only.
Monasteries for monks and nuns Virtually disappeared from the Still retains its hold in the areas
Indian subcontinent. where it spread.
Emphasis is placed on human
effort to attain liberation
(moksha) instead of performing
religious ceremonies and rituals
as the means to achieve it.

Other Heterodox Ideas

• Around the 5th-6th century BCE, other heterodox beliefs also existed apart from Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Samannaphala Sutta of the Digha Nikaya mentions six teachers who were contemporaries of
Gautama Buddha. They were called the six heretical teachers. Except for Nigantha Nataputta or
Vardhamana Mahavira, the other five heretical teachers were regarded as the holders of some or other
form of Akiriyavada views.
ð According to Akriyavada, moral acts do not have any consequences.

Purana Kassapa
• Purana Kassapa preached the doctrine of Akriya or non-action. According to him, everything was
preordained, and hence, action did not lead to either merit or demerit. A man would not incur any sin for
his wrongdoing, and he would not earn any merit through good deeds.

Makkhali Goshala
• Makkhali Goshala, the founder of the Ajivika sect, put forward the materialistic view of life. He
prescribed the Niyati doctrine, where everything is determined by fate (niyati) and human action has no
consequence. Actions cannot affect destiny or decide future birth.
• Along with Buddhism and Jainism, the Ajivika sect was popular till the Maryan period. King Ashoka was
an Ajivika for most of his life.

Lomas Rishi Cave

• Lomas Rishi Cave is a rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar.
• The cave was built during the Ashokan period of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE. It was donated
by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
• The facade of the cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant frieze
carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable movement. The interior hall of this cave is
rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The entrance is located on the side wall of the hall.

Ajita Kesakambala
• Ajita Kesakambala is considered the forerunner of the Charvaka school (Lokayata school). He denied
the soul, rebirth, salvation and existence of God. He rejected rejected rites and rituals. He considered
pursuing happiness in this life as the only goal.

Lokayata (Charvaka) School

• Charvaka philosophy is a fully materialistic philosophy. This philosophy was prevalent among the people
and derived from them, hence known as Lokayata philosophy.
• Brihaspati is considered the founder of the Lokayata philosophy. Charvaka is credited with many of its
teachings.
• The Charvaka philosophy accepted the existence of only those things that could be experienced by
human senses and organs. Hence, it rejected metaphysical concepts like the soul, karma, afterlife, and
salvation. It also rejected rituals, as it believed that Brahmanas manufactured rituals to acquire gifts
(Dakshina).
• According to this philosophy, enjoyment is the ultimate end; hence, it insists on joyful living.

Pakudha Kachchayana
• Pakudha Kachchayana believed that the world was made up of seven eternal and unchanging elements:
earth, fire, air, water, pleasure, pain, and the soul. All actions, including death, just rearranged these
elements.

Sanjaya Belatthiputta
• Sanjaya Belatthiputta was agnostic. He did not provide a clear answer to any metaphysical question.
• Sanjaya said, "If you asked me, 'Is there another world?' and if I believed there was, I would say so. But I
don’t claim that it exists, nor do I deny it. I don’t say it isn’t so, and I don’t say it is neither so nor not so."
• Sanjaya had the same answer for every question: "I do not say it is true. I do not say it is not true."

Nigantha Nataputta
• Nigantha can be identified with Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th tirthankara of Jainism.

Shramana Tradition
• Shramanas, meaning seekers or ascetics, rejected the authority of the Brahmanas and the Vedas,
advocating a more austere path to spiritual liberation. Around the 8th-6th century BCE, they initiated
 various religious movements (the Shramana tradition) with diverse beliefs and practices which disagree
with each other. The most famous shramana tradition includes Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, Lokayata,
Ajana etc (Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy).

Classical Indian languages

• Indian classical languages are those which have a deep historical background, vast literary traditions
and significant contributions to the nation’s cultural heritage. These languages have been essential in
preserving and transmitting India's ancient knowledge systems, philosophies, and values across
generations for thousands of years.
• In October 2024, the Central government granted classical language status to five more languages:
Bengali, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, and Assamese. This brings the total number of classical Indian languages
to 11, including Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia
(2014), which had previously received the status.

Change in the Criteria for conferring Classical Language

Criteria in 2005 Criteria in 2024
High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history High antiquity of (its) is early texts/recorded history
over a period of 1500-2000 years. over a period of 1500- 2000 years.
A body of ancient literature/texts, which is A body of ancient literature/texts, which is
considered a valuable heritage by generations of considered a heritage by generations of speakers.
speakers.
The classical language and literature being distinct The Classical Languages and literature could be
from modern, there may also be a discontinuity distinct from its current form or could be
between the classical language and its later forms or discontinuous with later forms of its offshoots.
its offshoots.
The literary tradition be original and not borrowed Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in addition
from another speech community. to poetry, epigraphical and inscriptional evidence.

Prakrit: The language of the people

• The term 'Prakrit' comes from 'Prakriti,' meaning source or origin. Scholars believe Prakrit languages
evolved from Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas.
• There is no single Prakrit language. Instead, the term refers to a group of closely related Indo-Aryan
languages. They were much simpler than Sanskrit and, thus, the language used by the masses, as
opposed to Sanskrit, which was restricted to the elites and high literature.
ð In Kalidasa's plays, kings and most Brahmins speak Sanskrit, while women and common men use
Prakrit.
• Most Prakrit languages were named after the regions where they were spoken. For example, the Prakrit
spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Prakrit is said to have been spoken between 500 BCE and
500 CE.
• Being vernacular languages, Prakrits were also the language of heterodox religions like Jainism and
Buddhism. Both religions spread their teachings through Prakrit.
• Unlike Sanskrit texts, inscriptions and edicts were intended for the general public rather than an elite
intelligentsia. Hence, most pre-Gupta inscriptions were written in various forms of Prakrit.
• Some notable Prakrits include Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Shauraseni, Paisaci, Maharashtri, and Avanti.
1. Magadhi: Magadhi was the official language of the Mauryan court and the language of the people
of Magadha (present-day Bihar).
ü According to Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa, Buddha preached in Magadhi and Pali is considered
to be based on it.
ü The Ashokan edicts were composed in Magadhi.
ü Magadhi later evolved into modern-day languages such as Bengali, Assamese, Odia, and the
Bihari languages (Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili).
2. Ardhamagadhi: This was a later variation of the Magadhi language and was prominently used by
Jain scholars. Jain agamas are written in Ardhamagadhi.
3. Shauraseni: It was used in North and Central India and later evolved into Hindustani, Punjabi, and
other Hindi languages. The speech of women and people from the lower classes in Sanskrit plays was
often denoted in Shauraseni Prakrit.
4. Maharashtri: Gathasaptashati was written in Maharashtri Prakrit by King Hala.
v The use of Maharashtri Prakrit is also seen in Kalidas's famous drama Abhijnana Shakuntalam.

Pali
• Pali has traditionally been identified with Magadhi Prakrit and considered a form of somewhat
Sanskritised Magadhi Prakrit. However, some modern scholars believe Pali to be a mix of several Prakrit
languages (including more Western dialects), which were combined and partially Sanskritised.
• Pali is the language of the Theravada Buddhist Canon, the Tipitakas, and is considered to be the
language of the Buddha himself.
ð According to Buddhaghosa, Lord Buddha preached in Magadhi, and Pali is believed to have been
derived from it.
• After Theravada Buddhism declined in India, Pali also declined. It is survived in places like Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where the Theravada school continued to prosper.

Important Pali texts of Buddhism

• Tipitaka (Pali Canon): Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Milinda Panha: A dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander (Milinda) and the Buddhist sage
Nagasena. It was written by Nagasena.
• Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification): It is a manual of meditation and a comprehensive treatise on
Theravada Buddhist doctrine.
v It is the most important Pali work in the Theravada after the Pali canon.
v It was written by Buddhaghosa in the fifth century in Sri Lanka.