PSYCHOLOGY

MODULE 1: INTELLIGENCE
Definition, nature and meaning of intelligence, Determinants of intelligence – Role of
heredity and environment.
Theories of intelligence- Spearman-Two factor, Cattel- Fluid and crystallized intelligence,
Guilford’s structure of intellect model, Thurston’s –primary mental abilities, Sternberg-
Triarchic approach, Gardner-Multiple intelligence theory, Goleman’s emotional
intelligence theory.

MODULE 2: ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT

Assessment of intellectual abilities-history of assessment- Sir Francis Galton, Alfred Binet,
Lewis Terman – concept of IQ, intelligence Tests-Stanford-Binet intelligence scale,
Wechsler scale, Kaufman’s Scale, Raven’s Progressive Matrices, Bhatia’s Test of
Intelligence, Seguin-Form Board Test, Extremes of intelligence.
Define Aptitude and Achievement, Distinction Between Aptitude Test and Achievement
Test, Uses of Achievement Tests, Types of Aptitude Test- DAT, GATB, Sensory Tests, Motor
Dexterity Test.

MODULE 3: PERSONALITY
Concept of Personality, Psychodynamic approaches. Freud’s theory: instinct theory,
Levels of consciousness, structure of personality, defense mechanisms, psychosexual
stages of development. Jung: Structure of personality, Basic concepts in Individual
Psychology. Horney: Basic anxiety, styles, feminist turn in psychoanalysis. Trait and Type
theories: general approach. All port: traits. Cattell: source and surface traits, Eysenck:
dimensions of personality. Introduction to Humanistic perspective: Rogers, Maslow.

MODULE 4: ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY

Meaning and purpose of personality assessment. Tools of personality assessment -Self
report inventories, Strength and weakness of self-report inventories, 16PF, MMPI, EPQ:
General outline about these tests. Questionnaires and Inventories, Projective measures of
personality – Strengths and weakness of projective tests, TAT, Other measures: Behavioral
Observation and Interviews, situational tests. Measurement of interest- types of interest
tests, Strong Interest Inventory.
 MODULE 1: INTELLIGENCE
“Intelligence is the ability for Judgement or common sense.” - Alfred Binet

“Ones capacity to deal effectively with situation.” - Thorndike

“Intelligence is the ability to adapt to ones’ surroundings.” - Jean Piaget

Intelligence is defined as the mental capability that involves the ability to reason, to plan, to solve
problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend complex ideas, to learn quickly and to learn from
experience. Intelligence is nothing but thinking skills and the ability to adapt to and to learn from
life's everyday experience.

NATURE AND MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labor but a gift from nature. It is not memory (an
intelligent person may have poor memory). To understand the nature of intelligence we need to
know the classification intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndike and Garret:
• Concrete intelligence: It is the ability of an individual to comprehend actual situations and
to react to them adequately. e.g.: Engineers, mechanics and architects.
• Abstract intelligence: It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and symbols. Abstract
intelligence is required in the ordinary academic subjects in the school. This is acquired
after an intensive study of books and literature. e.g.: Good teachers, lawyers, doctors,
philosophers etc.
• Social intelligence: The ability of an individual to react to social situations of daily life.
Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of social intelligence. Persons having
this type of intelligence know the art of winning friends and influencing them. e.g.: Leaders,
ministers, members of diplomatic sources and social workers have it.
Thus we see the nature of intelligence as the ability for adjustment to environment, ability to
perceive relationship between various objects and methods, ability to solve problems, ability to
think independently.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLIGENCE
→ Intelligence is an innate natural endowment of the child.
→ It helps the child in maximum learning in minimum period of time.
→ The child is able to foresee the future and plan accordingly.
→ The child is able to take advantages of his previous experiences.
→ He develops a sense of discrimination between right and wrong.
→ The developmental period of intelligence is from birth to adolescence.
→ There is a minor difference in the development of intelligence between boys and girls.

DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE – ROLE OF HEREDITY AND

ENVIRONMENT
Today, researchers generally agree that heredity and environment have an interactive influence
on intelligence. Many researchers believe that there is a Reaction Range to IQ, which refers to the
limits placed on IQ by heredity. Heredity places an upper and lower limit on the IQ that can be
attained by a given person. The environment determines where within these limits the person’s IQ
will lie.
EVIDENCE OF HEREDITARY INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE:
Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ are more similar than those of fraternal twins. Siblings
reared together in the same home have same IQ that are more similar than those of adopted
children raised together in the same environment.
In addition to inherited characteristics, other biological factors such as maternal age, prenatal
exposure to harmful substances, and prenatal malnutrition may also influence intelligence
Studies have found that people with lower intelligence are more likely to report criminal
victimization, which can have serious consequences including physical injury, loss of property, and
psychological and emotional trauma.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE:
Identical twins reared apart have IQ that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same
environment
School attendance has an impact on IQ score
Children who breastfed for 12 months or longer had high IQ at age 30
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE:
Intelligence is correlated with a larger brain volume, more neurons, and thicker cortex. Brain
function also predict the intellectual ability.
The brain of people with a higher intelligence level operates more efficiently.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. SPEARMAN-TWO FACTOR
Advocated by Charles E. Spearman, an American psychologist. According to Spearman, every
different intellectual activity involves a general factor ‘g’ which is shared with all the intellectual
activities and a specific factor ‘s’ which it shares with none.
He suggested that there is something which might be called ‘general intelligence’. It’s a sort of
general mental energy running through all the different tasks. In addition to this general factor,
there are specific abilities to deal with particular kinds of problems. E.g. an individual’s
performance in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence and partly some kind of specific
ability in language,
i.e. g + s1

Hindi g + s1
Math g + s2
Drawing g + s3
English g + s4
The factor ‘g’ will enter in all specific activities.
The total ability/intelligence of an individual (A) = G + S1 + S2 + S3 + …. = A
‘g’ factor
→ Universal inborn ability
→ General mental energy
→ Amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
→ It is used in every life activity.
→ The greater the ‘g’ in individual, the greater the success.
‘s’ factor
→ Learned and acquired in environment.
→ It varies from activity to activity in same individual.
→ Individuals differ in amount of ‘s’.
CONCLUSION
→ Intelligence consist of only two factors - General factor(g) and specific factor(s).
→ ‘g’ factor is general mental ability towards different tasks.
→ ‘s’ factor is specific capacity that helps the person to deal with specific problems.
→ ‘g’ factor remains constant while ‘s’ factor varies with intellectual activity.
→ Different activity requires different combinations of ‘g’ & ‘s’.

2. CATTEL – FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

In the 1960s, American Psychologists, Raymond Cattell and John Horn, applied new methods of
factor analysis and concluded there are two kinds of general intelligence: Fluid intelligence (gf)
and crystallized intelligence (gc).
Raymond Cattell first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and further
developed the theory with John Horn. The Cattell – Horn theory of fluid and crystallized
intelligence suggests that intelligence is composed of a number different abilities that interact
and work together to produce overall individual intelligence.
• FLUID INTELLIGENCE:
Represents the biological basis of intelligence. Measures of fluid intelligence, such as speed of
reasoning and memory, increase into adulthood and then decline due to the ageing process. It
involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. It is considered
independent of learning, experience and education. e.g. solving puzzles and coming up with
problem solving strategies.
• CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE:
The knowledge and skills obtained through learning and experience. As long as opportunities for
learning are available, crystallized intelligence can increase indefinitely during a person’s life. E.g.
Vocabulary knowledge is known to increase in college professors throughout their life span. It
involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences. This type of intelligence
is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. Crystallized intelligence becomes stronger as we
age. E.g. reading comprehension and vocabulary exams.

3. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL

J.P. Guilford was a US psychologist, best remembered for his psychometric study of human
intelligence, including the distinction between convergent
and divergent production. Guilford has suggested that
there are three basic categories or faces of intellect:
• Operations- The process of thinking
• Contents- What we think about
• Products- The end results of our thinking
J.P. Guilford developed the idea of specific intelligence
factors into a very detailed model beginning in the 1950s.
Guilford conceives of intelligence as being a combination of three dimensions, shown in the
model:
▪ OPERATIONS DIMENSION
SI includes six operations or general intellectual processes:
1. Cognition – The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware of
information. Involves immediate discovery, rediscovery, awareness, comprehension and
understanding.
2. Memory recording – The ability to encode information. Fundamental operation. Refers to
the retention of what is recognized for a short duration.
3. Memory retention - The ability to recall information. It means the retention of what is
recognized for a long period of time.
 4. Divergent production – The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem; creativity. It
refers to the generation of information from the given data where the emphasis is on
conventionally accepted best outcomes.
5. Convergent production – The ability to deduce a single solution to a problem; rule-
following or problem-solving. It involves thinking in different directions, searching and
seeking some different variety and novelty. It is closely related with creativity. It simply
means thinking out of the box. Many facts, one right answer.
6. Evaluation – The ability to judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent, or valid.
It refers to the reaching of conclusion and decision as the goodness, correctness,
adequacy and desirability of information.
▪ CONTENT DIMENSION
SI includes four broad areas of information to which the human intellect applies the six operations:
1. Figural - Concrete, real world information, tangible objects, things in the environment – It
includes:
i. visual: information perceived through sight, i.e. shape, color.
ii. auditory: information perceived through hearing, i.e. spoken words, music.
iii. kinesthetic: information perceived through one's own physical actions
2. Symbolic - Information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for something else.
3. Semantic - Concerned with words and ideas which evoke a mental image when
presented as a stimuli. e.g. sun, car, white, moon, etc. are words which evoke images in
people’s minds when they hear or read them.
4. Behavioral – Information regarding people’s behavior and actions. Ability to understand
the mental state and behavior of other people.
▪ PRODUCT DIMENSION
As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying particular operations to
specific contents. The SI model includes six products in increasing complexity:
1. Units - Single items of knowledge. E.g. one number, one word etc.
2. Classes - Sets of units sharing common attributes. E.g. two words or two sentence
combined.
3. Relations - Units linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies. E.g.
musicians use knowledge of different notes to create harmonies.
4. Systems - Multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or networks. E.g. three or
more items forming a whole, such as a full song or a melody.
5. Transformations - Changes, perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge
6. Implications - Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge

4. THURSTONE’S –PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES

Certain mental operations have in common a “primary” factor that gives them psychological and
functional unity and that differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental
operations constitute a group. There are a number of groups of mental abilities, each of which
has its own primary factor, giving the group a functional unity and cohesiveness. Each of these
primary factors is said to be relatively independent of others.
SIX PRIMARY FACTORS
1. The number factor (N): ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and accurately.
2. The verbal factor (V): found in tests involving verbal comprehension.
3. The space factor(S): involved in any task in which the subject manipulates the imaginary
object in space.
4. Memory(M): involving ability to memorize quickly
5. The word fluency factor(w): involved whenever the subject is asked to think of isolated words
at a rapid rate.
6. The reasoning factor(R): found in tasks that require a subject to discover a rule or principle
involved in a series or groups of letters.
Based on these factors Thurston constructed a new test of intelligence known as “test of primary
mental abilities (PMA).”

5. STERNBERG- TRIARCHIC APPROACH

Sternberg describes three different kinds of intelligence in his model:

→ Analytical thinking (componential): Focuses on planning, monitoring, reflection, and
transfer.
→ Creative thinking (experimental): Focuses on developing, applying new ideas, and
creating solutions.
→ Practical thinking (contextual): Focuses on selecting and shaping real – world
environments and experiences.
Analytical Creative Practical
Analyse Create Apply
Critique Invent Use
Judge Discover Put into practice
Compare/Contrast Imagine if… Implement
Evaluate Suppose that… Employ
Assess Predict Render practical

TYPOLOGY OF PEOPLE BASED ON THE TRIARCHIC INTELLIGENCE:

1. The analyzer: Fares well in academic environments, but isn’t likely to make a creative
contribution to the field.
2. The creator: Generates ideas easily, but is unable to analyze these ideas or to put them into
practice.
3. The practitioner: Is persuasive and maybe entertaining, but lacks substance in thinking.
4. The Analytical Creator: Is able to analyze created ideas, but doesn’t easily communicate
these ideas to others.
5. The Analytical Practitioner: Succeeds in conventional terms because high IQ is translated into
practical work, but he is unlikely to make a lasting contribution.
6. The Creative Practitioner: Has the ability to come up with new ideas and can persuade other
people of the value of these ideas, regardless whether those ideas are worth it or not.
7. The Consummate Balancer: Is able to apply all of the three intelligences as needed, and is
therefore in the best position to make a valuable contribution to society.

6. GARDNER-MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

The theory of multiple intelligences was created by Dr. Howard Gardner. Gardner’s theory places
an emphasis on the idea that the traditional understanding of intelligence by means of IQ testing
is far too limited. To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types
of intelligences consisting of: Logical/Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily –
Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal.
Intelligence is the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are valuable in one or more
cultural setting, as defined by Gardner. Every person may have different multiple intelligence.
Even everyone can possess more than one of it as Gardner divided the multiple intelligence into 8
kinds.
TYPES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE:
1. Naturalistic: Abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions in the natural world,
to understand systems and define categories. If you have strong naturalistic intelligence, you
might learn better by studying outside, learning in the presence of plants and pets, relating
environmental issues to topics, smelling, seeing touching, tasting, observing natural
phenomenon.
2. Bodily kinesthetic: Ability to control body movements and handle objects skillfully.
These learners express themselves through movement. They have a good sense of balance
and eye –hand –coordination. Through interacting with the space around them, they are able
to remember and process information. If you have strong bodily –kinesthetic intelligence, you
might learn better by doing role plays, asking logical questions, using the internet.
3. Musical: Ability to produce and appreciate music.
These musically inclined learners think in sounds, rhythms and patterns. They immediately
respond to music, either appreciating or criticizing what they hear. Many of these learners are
extremely sensitive to environmental sounds (e.g. crickets, bells).
If you have strong musical intelligence, you may learn better by listening to recordings, talking
to yourself, and making up songs, mentally repeating information, reading aloud, and
changing tempo.
4. Spatial: Ability to perceive visuals.
These learners tend to think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain
information. They enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos and movies. If you have strong
visual intelligence you might learn better by studying pictures, watching videos, using visual –
tangible aids, doing mazes and puzzles, making predictions, using the internet.
5. Verbal/linguistic: Ability to use words and language.
These learners have highly developed auditory skills and are generally elegant speakers. They
think in words rather than pictures. If you have strong linguistic intelligence, you might learn
better by Reading, Memorizing, playing words games, using the internet.
6. Logical/mathematical: Ability to use reason, logic and numbers.
These learners think conceptually in logical and numerical patterns making connections
between pieces of information. Always curious about the world around them, these learners
ask lots of questions and like to do experiments. If you have strong logical-mathematical
intelligence, you might learn better by Recording information systematically, playing strategy
games, analyzing data, asking logical questions, using the internet.
7. Interpersonal: Ability to relate and understand others.
These learners try to see things from other people’s point of view in order to understand how
they think and feel. They often have an uncanny ability to sense feelings, intentions and
motivations. They are great organizers. Generally, they try to maintain peace in group settings
and encourage co-operation. They use both verbal (e.g. speaking) and non-verbal language
(e.g. eye contact, body language) to open communication channels with others.
If you have strong interpersonal intelligence, you might learn better by studying in groups,
comparing information with others, interviewing experts, relating personal experiences, doing
cooperative projects.
8. Intrapersonal: Ability to self-reflect and be aware of one’s inner state of being.
These learners try to understand their inner feelings, dreams, relationships with others, and
strengths and weaknesses. If you have strong intrapersonal intelligence, you might learn better
by avoiding distractions, establishing personal goals, working alone, relating personal
experiences.
7. GOLEMAN’S EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY
“The capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating
ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”.

Daniel Jay Goleman, psychologist and science journalist. The early Emotional Intelligence
Theory was originally by the work and writings of psychologists Howard Gardner, Peter Salovey
and John Mayer.
Emotional Intelligence is increasingly relevant to organizational development and developing
people, because the EQ principles provide a new way to understand and assess people’s
behaviors, management styles, attitudes, interpersonal skills, and potential. EI is an important
consideration in many aspects, education, personal, life and social.
It links strongly with concepts of love and spirituality – bringing compassion and humanity to work,
and also to ‘Multiple Intelligence’ theory which illustrates and measures the range of capabilities
people possess, and the fact that everybody has a value.
The EQ concept argues that IQ, or conventional intelligence, is too narrow; that there are
wide areas of Emotional Intelligence that dictate and enable how successful we are. Success
requires more than IQ, which has tended to be the traditional measure of intelligence, ignoring
essential behavioral and character elements. We’ve all met people who are academically
brilliant and yet are socially and inter-personally inept. And we know that despite possessing a
high IQ rating, success does not automatically follow.
Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the individual the ability to
monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to
guide his thinking and actions.

THREE COMPONENTS OF EQ (Emotional Quotient)

→ The awareness of one’s emotions.
→ The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately.
→ The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives
MAJOR QUALITIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
1. Self-Awareness
Recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and behavior.
• Emotional Self-awareness
• Accurate Self-assessment
• Self Confidence

2. Self-Management
Control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your emotions in healthy ways.
• Emotional Self Control
• Transparency
• Adaptability
• Achievement orientation
• Initiative/optimism

3. Social Awareness
Can understand the emotions, needs and concerns of other people.
• Empathy
• Organizational awareness
• Service orientation

4. Relationship Management
Know how to develop and maintain good relationships.
• Influence/developing others
• Team work/collaboration
• Conflict management
• Inspirational leadership
 MODULE 2: ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE,
APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT
“A test may be defined simply as a measuring device or procedure.”
The term psychological test refers to a measuring device or procedure designed to
measure variables related to psychology (for example, intelligence, personality, aptitude,
interests, attitudes, and values).
Although the use of elaborate tests for selection purposes dates back to the Chinese Imperial
examinations begun over 1400 years ago. The first modern psychological tests were invented only
a little over a hundred years ago.
Among the ancient Greeks, testing was an established related to the educational process. Tests
were used to assess the mastery of physical as well as intellectual skills.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES

Intelligence Tests are used in the evaluation of exceptional children, especially in the cases of
mental retardation, learning disabilities, and intellectual giftedness. There are Individual as well as
Group Tests of intelligence.
• Individual intelligence test is one which is administered to one person at a time. The first
individual intelligence was Binet – Simon test. Individual tests of intelligence are costly.
• Group intelligence test can be administered to more than one person at a time. First group
test was army alpha test and army beta test.
Measuring intellectual ability has long been a major activity and interest of clinical psychologists.
The goals of intellectual testing during the earliest years of the field were to evaluate children in
order to help them maximize their educational experience and to assist teachers in developing
curricula for children with special needs. Intelligence testing was also used to screen military
recruits.
Today, it is also employed for vocational planning, assessing learning disabilities, determining
eligibility for gifted and special education programs, and examining brain-behavior relationships
following head injuries, strokes, or other medical conditions. Intellectual testing is used not only to
measure intelligence (IQ) but to assess cognitive functioning (Strengths and weak-nesses) in
general.

HISTORY OF ASSESSMENT
GALTON’S STUDIES OF HEREDITARY GENIUS
→ Sir Francis Galton pioneered the new experimental psychology in nineteenth-century Great
Britain.
→ Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin’s, studied family trees and found that success and
eminence appeared consistently in some families over generations.
→ For the most part, these families were much like Galton’s: well-bred, upper-class families with
access to superior schooling. Yet Galton discounted the advantages of such an upbringing.
→ In his book Hereditary Genius, Galton (1869) concluded that success runs in families because
great intelligence is passed from generation to generation through genetic inheritance.
→ To better demonstrate that intelligence is governed by heredity, Galton needed an objective
measure of intelligence. He hypothesized that exceptionally bright people should exhibit
exceptional sensory acuity.
→ Working from this premise, he tried to assess innate mental ability by measuring simple sensory
processes. Among other things, he measured sensitivity to high-pitched sounds, color
perception, and reaction time (the speed of one’s response to a stimulus).
→ His efforts met with little success. Research eventually showed that the sensory processes he
measured were largely unrelated to the criteria of mental ability that he was trying to predict,
such as success in school or in professional life.
→ In pursuing this line of investigation, Galton coined the phrase nature versus nurture to refer to
the heredity-environment issue.
→ A further contribution of Galton is to be found in his development of statistical methods for
the analysis of data on individual differences. He invented the concepts of correlation and
percentile test scores. This phase of Galton’s work has been carried forward by many of his
students, the most eminent of whom was Karl Pearson.
→ Although Galton’s mental tests were a failure, his work created an interest in the
measurement of mental ability.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF ALFRED BINET

→ In 1904 the Minister of Education in France asked Alfred Binet to devise a test to identify
mentally subnormal children who could benefit from special education programs.
→ The commission was motivated by admirable goals. It wanted to avoid complete reliance on
teachers’ evaluations, which might often be subjective and biased.
→ In response to this need, Binet and a colleague, Theodore Simon, published the first useful test
of general mental ability in 1905.
→ They had the insight to load it with items that required abstract reasoning skills, rather than the
sensory skills Galton had measured.
→ Their scale was a success. It was inexpensive, easy to administer, objective, and capable of
predicting children’s performance in school fairly well.
→ The Binet-Simon scale expressed a child’s score in terms of “mental level” or “mental age.” A
child’s mental age indicated that he or she displayed the mental performance typical of a
child of that chronological (actual) age.
→ Binet revised his scale in 1908 and again in 1911, the same year he died. Other psychologists
then continued to build on Binet’s work.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF LEWIS TERMAN

→ In America, Lewis Terman and his colleagues at Stanford University soon went to work on a
major expansion and revision of Binet’s test.
→ Their work led to the 1916 publication of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
→ This revision was quite loyal to Binet’s original conceptions. However, it incorporated a new
scoring scheme based on William Stern’s (1914) “intelligence quotient”.
→ An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a child’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied
by 100. Mental Age
IQ = ×100
Chronological Age

→ The ratio of mental age to chronological age made it possible to compare children of
different ages.
→ Using the IQ ratio, all children (regardless of age) were placed on the same scale, which was
centered at 100 if their mental age corresponded to their chronological age.
→ The Stanford-Binet quickly became the world’s foremost intelligence test and the standard of
comparison for virtually all intelligence tests that followed. Since its publication in 1916, the
Stanford-Binet has been updated periodically, but the modern version remains true to the
conception of intelligence originally put forth by Binet and Terman.
IQ CONCEPT
The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the psychologist William Stern. Binet and Simon introduced
the concept of mental age. The second big change occurred when in 1916 when Lewis Terman
and his colleagues at Stanford University in California came up with a new and better method to
compute the final score. Improving on the concept of expressing the test results in terms of mental
age, Terman devised a formula to calculate an intelligence quotient (IQ) score. An IQ score
computed in this traditional way is called a ratio IQ because the score represents a ratio of
mental to chronological age. Today the ratio IQ has been replaced by the deviation IQ. The
reason for the switch from ratio IQ to deviation IQ is that deviation IQ scores more accurately
reflect test performance as children get older. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests attempt to measure
an individual’s probable performance in school and similar settings. The term quotient dates from
when IQ was determined by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multi- plying by
100. Mental age is the average age of children who perform as well as this child. Chronological
age is actual age, or time since birth. For example, an 8-year-old who performs like an average
10-year-old has a mental age of 10, a chronological age of 8, and an IQ of 108 100 125. The
shortcoming of intelligence quotient. It is known fact that after 18 or 19 the mental age of a
person tends to stabilize with rare exceptions. The chronological age continues to increase and
the mental age remains more or less static. The variability in IQ score from one test to another is
not the same. The variability in IQ scores for different age levels on the same test is not the same.
Standard deviation of the IQ score is not the same for different age levels on the same test. The IQ
ratio is now replaced by the concept of Deviation IQ or DIQ so that the above shortcomings are
resolved. IQ ratio is converted to normalized standard score with a fixed mean of 100 and fixed SD
of 15/16.Such converted IQ score is known as the deviation IQ.

INTELLIGENCE TESTS
1. STANFORD – BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
The Stanford-Binet is a revised version of the first standardized intelligence test, developed by
Alfred Binet in 1905. The test has been revised many times. The current version of the test is called
the Stanford-Binet-Fifth Edition. The Stanford-Binet typically takes 45 to 75 minutes to administer
and covers a wide age range (2 to 85 years). The Full-Scale IQ score is based on the
administration of 10 subtests and provides a global measure of cognitive ability.
The test battery includes two index scores: Verbal and Nonverbal IQ.
• The Verbal index requires the examinee to speak, read, and comprehend age-appropriate
language.
• The Nonverbal index requires minimal language and, instead, emphasizes the use of fine
motor coordination to maneuver toys and puzzle pieces and point to correct answers.
The subtests on the Stanford-Binet measure concepts of fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative
reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory.
• Fluid Reasoning—the ability to solve novel problems, Fluid Reasoning subtests include
Object Series/Matrices, Early Reasoning, Verbal Absurdities, and Verbal Analogies.
• Knowledge—general information accumulated over time via personal experiences
including education, home, and environment. Knowledge subtests includes Vocabulary,
Procedural Knowledge, and Picture Absurdities
• Quantitative Reasoning—the ability to solve numerical problems. Quantitative Reasoning
sub- tests include one subtest called Quantitative Reasoning
• Visual - Spatial Processing—the ability to analyze visually presented information, including
relationships between objects, spatial orientation, assembling pieces to make a whole, and
 detecting visual patterns. Visual- Spatial processing subtest include Form Board, Form
Patterns, Position and Direction.
• Working Memory—the ability to hold and transform information in short-term memory The
Working Memory subtests include Block Span, Memory for Sentences, and Last Word.
The age of the subject determines which subtests are used in any given evaluation. Scores from all
subtest categories are used to derive IQ scores based on a mean of 100 and a standard deviation
of 15.
(+) Stanford-Binet has satisfactory reliability, validity, and stability.
(+) It has an expansive age range (2 to 85) and can be used in assessing a variety of disorders
where verbal ability is limited (e.g., autism, hearing impairments, limited English-speaking skills).
(-) Stanford- Binet has been criticized for being racially and culturally biased,

2. WECHSLER SCALE
David Wechsler designed intelligence tests made up of items that are appropriate for a wide
range of ages. There are three main types of Wechsler intelligence tests:
• Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence
• (WPPSI) - 3-7 years
• Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC) - 7-16 years
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 16 years and over
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
The first was the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, replaced by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS). The 1981 revision is referred to as the WAIS-R. A subsequent revision was conducted
in the US and the present scale is the 3rd edition, known as the WAIS-III. The revised version has
almost 80 per cent of the original form.
• WAIS-III
The WAIS-III consists of seven individual verbal subtests (Information, Similarities, Arithmetic,
Vocabulary, Comprehension, Digit Span, and Letter-Numbering Sequencing) and seven
Performance (or non- verbal) subtests (Picture Completion, Picture Arrangement, Block Design,
Object Assembly, Matrix Reasoning, Digit Symbol, and Symbol Search).
A person taking the test receives a full-scale IQ score, a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score,
as well as scaled scores on each of the subtests. The WAIS(R) was standardized on a sample of
1,800 U.S. subjects, ranging from 16 to 74 years of age. It was a highly stratified sample, broken
down into 9 different age groups. Equal numbers of men and women were used, as were white
and nonwhite subjects. The mean I.Q. for each age group on this test is 100, with a standard
deviation of 15.
The WAIS scales have impressive reliability and validity.
Following are brief descriptions of the WAIS-III subtests.
• Verbal—Vocabulary, similarity, arithmetic, digit span, comprehension, letter number
sequencing.
• Nonverbal—picture completion, digit symbol coding, block design, matrix reasoning,
picture arrangement, symbol search, object assembly.
• Obtaining IQ Scores and Index Scores. Raw scores from each subtest are converted to
scaled scores—standardized scores for a given age group. A number of IQ and Index scores
are then computed by adding together scaled scores from select subtests and converting
these sums to IQ equivalents.
The WAIS-III subtests that are used to calculate each of the seven major IQ and Index scores:
Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Full Scale IQ, Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization,
Working Memory, and Processing Speed.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
The latest edition of the WAIS, the WAIS-IV, was released in 2008. This version includes extensive
changes over previous versions: some new subtests were added and some long- standing subtests
were eliminated, changes were made to the items in many of the subtests that were retained, the
age range was enlarged to include 16- to 90-year-olds, and, for the first time, the use of index
scores replaced the use of verbal and performance intelligence quotients.
Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC)
WISC-IV- It has both verbal and nonverbal subscales similar to those used in the WAIS-III. However,
WISC-IV questions are generally simpler. They are clustered in four categories that represent
different areas of intellectual functioning. These include Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual
Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed.
• The Verbal Comprehension category consists of three core subtests including Similarities,
Vocabulary, and Comprehension as well as two supplementary subtests that include
Information and Word Reasoning.
• The Perceptual Reasoning category also consists of three core subtests, including Block Design,
Picture Concepts, and Matrix Reasoning as well as one supplementary subtest called Picture
Completion.
• The Working memory category consists of two core subtests including Digit Span and Letter-
Number Sequencing as well as one supplementary subtest entitled Arithmetic.
• The Processing Speed category consists of two core subtests including Coding and Symbol
Search as well as one supplementary subtest entitled Cancellation.

3. KAUFMAN’S SCALE
Individually administered test designed for many different uses. There are three types of
intelligence test included in Kaufman's scales
KAUFMAN ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN (K-ABC)
Used for children between 2 ½ and 12 ½ yrs. of age. The test consists of 16 subtest combined into
five global scale called sequential processing, simultaneous processing, mental processing
achievement and non-verbal. The K-ABC measures intelligence through sequential processing,
simultaneous processing and mental processing. Sequential processing refers to the children's
ability to solve problems by mentally analyzing input into a serial order or sequential order as we
find in case of number and word – order recall. Simultaneous processing; child ability to synthesize
and integrate information 'for solving a problem. Main purpose is to identify the child’s unique
strength and problem- solving strategies that can help others develop remedial intervention
strategies for a child. The K-ABC also provides for an independent achievement score. In addition,
K –ABC also includes a non-verbal scale which provides a measure of ability of children who are
linguistically different and handicapped. Obtained raw score on each of 16 subtests are
converted to standard scores with a mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3. Reliabilities and
validities are also sufficient.
KAUFMAN ADOLESCENT AND ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE (KAIT)
The KAIT was constructed as a measure of intelligence of persons whose ages are ranged from 11
to 85 years or older. This test is composed of a crystalized scale and fluid scale. The former
measures concepts acquired from schooling and acculturation whereas the latter measures the
ability to solve new problems. The KAIT also includes a brief mental status test meant for assessing
attention and orientation in those persons who are cognitively too impaired to take the full
battery.
KAUFMAN BRIEF INTELLIGENCE TEST (K-BIT)
It covers the age range of 4 to 10 years. Individually administered test but is not a shortened
version of either the K-ABC or the KAIT. It consists of verbal scale, non-verbal scale and a
composite. The verbal scale consists of one verbal subtest of expressive vocabulary items and 37
definitions and one nonverbal scale of 48 matrices. The 3 scores, namely, verbal score, nonverbal
score and the composite score are expressed in deviation IQ units. It has a higher reliability
coefficient.

4. RAVEN’S PROGRESSIVE MATRICES

Raven's Progressive Matrices are non-verbal multiple choice measures of the reasoning
component of Spearman's g factor, which is often referred to as general intelligence. The tests
were originally developed by John C Raven. Because these scales minimize the impact of
language skills and cultural bias, they are particularly well suited to measuring the intelligence of
individuals with reading problems or hearing impairment, as well as those whose native language
is not English.
Appropriate for both children and adults, Raven's Progressive Matrices measure two
complementary components of general intelligence:
→ The capacity to think clearly and make sense of complex data (educative ability); and
the capacity to store and reproduce information (reproductive ability).
→ The test offers three progressively more difficult forms intended for different populations
and items of all form.
Items on all forms ask the examinee to identify the missing component in a
series of figural patterns. Grouped in sets, the items require increasingly
greater skill in encoding and analyzing information. In each test item, the
subject is asked to identify the missing item that completes a pattern.
Many patterns are presented in the form of a 4x4, 3x3, or 2x2 matrix, giving
the test its name. The matrices are posed in three different forms for
participants of different ability.
STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES
These were the original form of the matrices, first published in 1938. All items are presented in black
ink on a white background. SPM is a test of a person’s capacity at the time of the test to
apprehend meaningless figures presented for his observation, see the relations between them,
conceive the nature of the figure completing each system of relations presented and, by doing
so, and develop a systematic method of reasoning. SPM, examinees must identify a recurring
pattern or relationship between figural stimuli organized in a 3x3 matrix. This scale consists of 60
problems divided into 5 sets (A, B, C, D and E) of 12 questions each. In each set the first problem is
self-evident. The problems which follow become progressively more difficult. Hence the reference
to progressive matrices. The order of the items provides the standard training in the method of
working. The five sets provide five opportunities for grasping the method and 5 progressive
assessments of a person’s capacity for intellectual activity. SPM was designed to cover the widest
possible range of mental ability and to be equally useful with persons of all ages, whatever their
education, nationality or physical condition. SPM was originally designed as a measure of
Spearman’s g factor. Spearman defined g as the “education of correlates”. The term education
refers to the process of figuring out relationships based on the perceived fundamental similarities
between stimuli. This scale was also designed to provide a reliable estimate of a person’s capacity
to think clearly when he was allowed to work steadily at his own speed from the beginning to the
end without interruption. SPM is normed for examinees from 6 years and up, although most of the
items are so difficult that the test is best suited for adults. Young children, mentally defective
persons and very old people are not expected to solve more than the problems in sets A and B of
the scale and the easier problems of sets C and D where reasoning by analogy is not essential. For
SPM, a typical split-half reliability is .86.
COLORED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES
CPM is available for children from the age group of 5 ½ to 11 ½ and for non retarded persons
aged 60 to 89 years and for mentally retarded adults- the ones who can’t be tested adequately
with SPM. CPM has three subtests- A, A and B each having 12 problems. It is a valuable test for
young children and old people for anthropological studies and for clinical work. It can be used
satisfactorily with people who for any reason can’t understand or speak English or suffer from
physical disabilities. Designed for younger children, the elderly, and people with moderate or
severe learning difficulties, most items are presented on a colored background to make the test
visually stimulating for participants. However, the very last few items in set B are presented as
black-on-white. Before the capacity to make comparisons and reason by analogy has matured
or in cases where this capacity has become impaired, subsets A, Ab and B can be used to assess
the degree to which a person’s capacity for observation and clear thinking has developed or
level to which it has deteriorated.
ADVANCED PROGRESSIVE MATRICES
APM was developed for above average adolescents and adults. It can be used with people who
are above 11 years of age having average or above average intellectual ability. APM has 2
subsets. Set I has 12 problems designed to introduce a person to the method of working and set II
has 48 problems. In presentation and arrangement, these problems are similar to problems in sets
C, D, E in SPM. Items are again presented in black ink on a white background, and become
increasingly difficult as progress is made through each set. Therefore, they are advanced.

5. BHATIA’S TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

Bhatia's Battery of Performance Test of Intelligence was constructed by C. M. Bhatia to test the
Intelligence of Indian Population. He published his manual in 1955. The Bhatia’s Battery of
Intelligence Tests is an Indian performance scale. This test takes into consideration the
background of Indian social and cultural patterns, and the most characteristic feature of Indian
life, which is the existence of two clearly marked groups, the urban and the rural.
Since verbal tests would not be understood by a large amount of population, performance test
was developed. Performance is based not just on the accuracy but also on the examiner's
observation of behavior during the test, including such factors as attention level, self-criticism and
adaptive behavior (such as self-help, communication, and social skills). The main objective of the
test is to measure the intelligence of children and less educated or illiterate Indians. The norms for
the test have been obtained for the boys of 11 and 16 years. Later, the norms for girls have also
been obtained.
Standardized sample for the illiterate group consisted of 512 subjects. The geographical
distribution consisted of eleven rural districts of UP. The literate group consisted of 642 subjects.
They came from 3 schools in Allahabad city, and 4 schools from other urban areas. The
occupations of the sample were professionals, lawyers, doctors, etc.

Bhatia has given his own classification of intelligence as follows:

70 and below Very Inferior
69 – 89 Inferior
90 – 109 Average
110 – 129 Superior
130 and above Very Superior
Bhatia test It includes following 5 sub tests:
• Koh's Block Design Test: This battery includes 10 designs from the original 17 designs from the
Koh's test. The time for first five designs is 2 min. and for the remaining five is 3 min. The cards
with a variety of colored designs are shown to the test taker and he is asked to reproduce
them using a set of color blocks. This test measures the analytical synthetic ability. It is the best
measure of ‘g’. Visual motor coordination is essential for performance on this test.

• Alexander Pass-along Test: All the designs of the original test are included in this battery. The
first four of these have to be completed in 2 min. and the rest of the four have to be
completed in 3 minutes. This test requires planning ability. Behavioral observations in
performance give an opportunity to study the subject’s learning capacity.

• Pattern Drawing Test: This test was constructed by Bhatia. This test includes eight cards. Every
card has a pattern and the subject is required to draw these patterns in one go without lifting
the pencil. The time for the first four cards in 2 min. and for the rest of the four cards it is 3 min.
This test measures spatial ability. It is the ability to mentally manipulate 2D & 3D figures.

• Immediate Memory: This test has two parts: digit span forward and digit span backward. The
test taker is required to repeat the numbers the examiner says. The number of digit is
increased on every trial. The test is continued till the subject repeats it successfully in the same
order. This is digit span forward.
In the backward recall, the numbers are repeated in the backward position, from the last to
the first. This recall is also continued till the subject successfully repeats the sequence. It
measures immediate memory. Attention and concentration is required to perform well on this
test. For illiterates, sounds may be used instead of digits. This involves planning, visual motor
coordination, and familiarity with drawing.

• Picture Construction Test: This test requires the subject to construct a picture that is given in
parts. The parts are to be meaningfully combined to construct the picture. The time for first
two pictures is 2 minutes and the rest of the three pictures it is 3 minutes. This test determines
part whole relationships and the ability to form a gestalt. The content of the test is concrete
and meaningful. Visual organization plays a key role in performance on this subtest.
Individual administration of this test takes less than one hour. Maximum 95 marks can be obtained
in the complete test. Maximum marks for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th test are 25, 20, 20, 15, and
15 respectively. The total raw score is obtained by adding up the raw scores of all five subtests.
The total raw score is referred to the appropriate table (Literate/Illiterate) and the I.Q is obtained.
Bhatia has provided a short scale, which is used extensively in clinics. A measure of Performance
Quotient can be obtained from 2 subtests: Pass-Along and Koh’s Block design. The instructions,
administration, and scoring are similar to the full scale. The scores obtained from these 2 subtests
are pro-rated (obtained scores * 2), and the PQ is obtained. Except for digit span, the test is
essentially a performance test. A performance quotient can be obtained by considering the
scores on the other subtests, Pass-Along, Block Design, Picture Construction, and Pattern Drawing.

6. SEGUIN FORM BOARD

Seguin, a French physician passed his work on developing a senses in. he opened a school for
retarded children in Paris, the first of its kind. He called his teaching 'psychological Method' which
is the whole training of the whole children. Seguin's hope was to cure mental disease. He was a
first person to point out that the brain of the mentally deficient children will not always be
diseased or abnormal but were often simply arrested in development. Seguin s influence was
enormous. He lectured widely and wrote many books.
O. Edouard Seguin and J.E.D. Esquirol were two French physicians who revolutionized thinking
about persons with mental retardation. They lay the foundation for later development of Binet
tests. In those days, mental retardation was called ‘idiocy’ and mental illness was referred as
‘dementia’.
Seguin established a new humanism toward mental retardation in the late 1800s. Seguin
constructed a teaching aid under ‘physiological method’ for children with mental retardation.
In 1916, Seguin, Goddard and Sylvester developed the nonverbal test of intelligence called SFB.
The first effective use of SFB to assess general intelligence covering mental functions like form
perception, visual matching and discrimination, eye-hand or psychomotor coordination and
cognitive perceptual abilities in children was followed (Spearman, 1927). This test is used to assess
the IQ of the children below 11 years of age and adult feeble minded.
It also becomes a test which shows the subject's manipulating skills, ability to respond to pressure
for speed and performance when faced with difficulty.
The norms were taken as given by R.B. Cattle in 1953 in his book ‘A guide to mental testing’. It is
the most commonly used test for measuring psychomotor and perceptual ability of children.
The S.F.B. was used as a guide for further testing as it has been found to be a good test in the
diagnosis of mental retardation. The test was also useful in helping the child to adjust himself to the
testing situation.
ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING
Ten shapes need to be negotiated by children on the SFB. The test task involves matching and
placing them on an achromatic wooden board following an instruction to ‘Start! Do it as quickly
as you can’ by the examiner, who times each trial of performance in seconds without knowledge
of the child.
The recommended arrangement of blocks in three piles is on right side of the child adjacent to
the board placed at a reachable height as per the following acronym: OTR PHS2. SCD -This is
expanded as ‘star-circle-diamond; oval- triangle-rectangle; and plus-hexagon-semi circle-
square’.
There are three options for interpretation of test scores. It may be the shortest time taken by the
subject across three trials, or the total score over the three trials, and/or the average score of the
three trials. In doing so, there have been instances wherein children are bound to get different
mental ages for the different yardsticks.

EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence varies in a very predictable way, which is most easily seen in the frequency of
different IQ scores in the population. When one plots the scores on a
graph, one sees a very clear bell curve, with most people falling in the
middle and a few people at the high and low ends of the curve.
This shape is referred to as a bell curve because it is shaped like a bell.
Looking at the bell curve for IQ scores, we can see that 68% of test-
takers will score between 85 and 115 and almost all—99.7%—will score
between 55 and 145. It is at the two ends of the curve, or distribution,
that we find “extremes of intelligence”— specifically, mental retardation and giftedness.

o The Low Extreme: At one extreme of the normal curve are those whose intelligence test scores
fall at 70 or below. To be labeled as having an intellectual disability (formerly referred to as
mental retardation), a child must have both a low test score on intelligence test and difficulty
adapting to the normal demands of independent living. Only about 1 percent of the
population meets both criteria, with males out numbering females by 50 percent (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994). Intellectual disabilities sometimes have a known physical cause.
Down syndrome, for example, is a disorder of varying severity caused by an extra chromosome
21 in the person’s genetic makeup.
DEGREES OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
Children with mild disabilities are educated in less
restrictive environments, and many are integrated, or
mainstreamed, into regular classrooms. Most grow up
with their own families, then move into a protected living
arrangement, such as a group home.
o The High Extreme: Giftedness lies at the high end of
the intelligence spectrum. Starting in about the third
grade in the, students who do very well in school and
also do well on standardized tests of intelligence are sometimes placed in “gifted” programs. In
most schools, children are admitted to such a program if they score 130–140 or above on a
standardized IQ test like the WISC or Stanford-Binet. Extreme giftedness takes various forms, two of
which are prodigies and savants.
A prodigy is a young person who is extremely gifted and precocious in one area, such as math,
music, art, or chess, and is at least average in intelligence. Most often, prodigies are people under
the age of 20. Sometimes they possess extreme talent in more than one domain, such as math
and language.
Savants: Since at least the 1700s, there have been reports of people with savant syndrome, a very
rare condition characterized by serious mental handicaps and isolated areas of ability or
remarkable giftedness (Treffert, 2006). Savants have low overall intelligence, typically with an IQ
below 70, and an incredible ability for calculating numbers, recalling events, playing music, or
drawing. Often these individuals cannot speak at all or speak poorly. In one famous project
begun in 1921, Lewis Terman studied more than 1500 California school children with IQ scores over
135.
Contrary to the popular notion that intellectually gifted children are frequently maladjusted
because they are “in a different world” from their non-gifted peers, Terman’s high-scoring
children, like those in later studies, were healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful
academically. When restudied over the next seven decades, most people in Terman’s group had
attained high levels of education. They included many doctors, lawyers, professors, scientists, and
writers, but no Nobel Prize winners.
Children with extraordinary academic gifts are sometimes more isolated, introverted, and in their
own worlds (Winner, 2000). But most thrive. Critics and proponents of gifted education do,
however, agree on this: Children have differing gifts. Some are especially good at math, others at
verbal reasoning, others at art, still others at social leadership. One need not hang labels on
children to affirm their special talents and to challenge them all at the frontiers of their own ability
and understanding. By providing appropriate developmental placement suited to each child’s
talents, we can promote both equity and excellence for all.

APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT TEST

“Aptitude test is designed to measure a person’s potential ability in an activity of
a specialized kind and within a restricted range.” –Freeman

“It refers to what a person has acquired or achieved after the specific training or
instruction has been imparted.”
DISTINCTION BETWEEN APTITUDE TEST AND ACHIEVEMENT TEST
APTITUDE TEST ACHIEVEMENT TEST
It refers to a person’s ability, acquired or It refers to what a person has acquired or
innate to learn or develop knowledge of achieved after the specific training or
a skill in some specific area. instruction has been imparted.
Aptitude tests are future oriented. Achievement test are present and post –
oriented.
They are psychometric tests - what a They are Edu metric test – what a person
person can learn. has learned.
Defined as "designed to measure a Measures the extent to which a person
person’s potential ability in an activity of a has acquired or achieved certain
specialized kind and within a restricted information as a function of instruction or
Range”- Freeman. training.
Examples – GATB, DAT ASVAB, Complex Example-ABLE, STEP, Stanford Diagnostic
Coordination test etc. Arithmetic test etc.

TYPES OF APTITUDE TEST

Grouped into two categories:
1. Multiple aptitude test: Multiple aptitude tests are those which intend to measure several
aptitudes each by an independent test. Multiple aptitude tests are not tests but rather
batteries of tests.
2. Special aptitude test: Special aptitude tests are those which intend to measure only one
aptitude. The earliest special aptitude test was the mechanical aptitude test.
Other aptitude tests include:
1. DIFFERENTIAL APTITUDE TEST (DAT)
Most common multiple aptitude test published in 1947. Bennett, seashore and Wesman-
developed the test. 8 subtests – verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning,
mechanical reasoning, clerical and speed and accuracy, space relations, spelling, and
language usage.
Battery is mainly meant for educational and vocational counseling of students from grade 8
through 12. The whole battery has two equivalent forms, S and T. It takes 3 hours to administer.
Score on each subtest are converted into the percentile ranks for their proper interpretation.
2. GENERAL APTITUDE TEST BATTERY (GATB)
Developed by the US employment service in 1962 for use primarily in the armed services.
Battery was constructed as a function of extensive factor analysis in which 59 test were
correlated. On the basis of factor analysis, 10 factors were chosen which, in a subsequent
revision of the GATB were reduced to nine to be measured by 12 tests. Nine factor of the GATB
are: Intelligence (G), numerical aptitude (N), verbal aptitude (V), spatial aptitude (S), form
perception (p), clerical perception (Q), motor coordination (K), finger dexterity (F), and
manual dexterity (M). Of the 12 test is developed for measuring these 9 factors, eight are
verbal tests and four test developed for measuring F and M are non-verbal tests requiring
simple apparatus for subjects. The test intended to measure factor G through Q are available
in alternate forms. The score obtained on the nine tests of the GATB can be converted into a
standard score with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 20 for their interpretation. The
whole battery takes about 2 hours and 30 seconds in its complete administration. GATB has
been widely used in employment services, too.
Limitation: all its test is highly speeded and some important aptitude have not been included.
3. SENSORY TEST
Among the early psychological tests, sensory tests devised by Galton and others to measure
intelligence were first in vogue, but these tests could not gain prominence due to their failure
to predict intellectual accomplishment. Researches on the sensory continued since that time
and now there are sophisticated techniques for measuring visual and auditory sensitivity. Vision
is not a unitary capacity. It has several dimensions and a person who is normal in one
dimension, may be impaired in another. For example, a person may be colour blind but his
vision may be perfectly normal otherwise. Among the visual dimensions are the visual near
acuity activity (reading distance of 15 to 18 inches) and far acuity (distance of 20 feet), the
visual distance or depth perception, the colour discrimination and the phobia (muscular
control of eyes). The most common method of measuring far acuity is the wall chart. One such
chart is known as the Snellen chart, which consists of rows of letters of gradually decreasing
size. The Snellen chart is usually placed at a distance of 20 feet and the person is asked to read
the letters. The three important instruments for measuring each of the above remaining
dimensions are the Ortho-Rater, the American Optical Sight Screener, and the Keystone
Telebinocular- they are the most common measures in the selection of personnel in industry
and are also used for screening purposes in schools.
4. MOTOR DEXTERITY TEST
Tests which measure the co – ordination of hand, arm and/or leg movement in performing a
task. There are several such tests that have been frequently used. The Crawford Small Parts
Dexterity Test, the Stomberg Dexterity Test, the Purdue Regboard, the Benett Hand Tool
Dexterity Test and the Complex Co – ordination test are some of the examples of motor
dexterity tests.
5. FLANAGAN APTITUDE CLASSIFICATION TESTS (FACT)
FACT – battery of multiple aptitude test. Developed for vocational counseling and employee
selection. Flanagan, who did the job analysis of several occupations, which led to the
emergence of 21 job elements or abilities that that discriminated between successful and un
successful workers on each job. For measuring 19 job elements out of 21, verbal test has been
developed and for the remaining two, performance test has been developed. Whole battery
requires three testing sessions and more than 10 and half hours are required in its complete
administration.
6. ARMED SERVICE VOCATIONAL APTITUDE BATTERY (ASVAB)
ASVAB- multiple aptitude battery. Designed for students in grades 11 and 12 as well as for
postsecondary schools. Scores used in both educational and military settings. Military setting -
help –identify- fitness for various type of military occupational programs. 10 subtests; general
science, paragraph comprehension, arithmetic reasoning, work knowledge, numerical
operations, coding speed, auto and shop formation, mathematics knowledge, mechanical
comprehension and electronics information. Ten subtest are grouped into various composites.
Three type of academic composite; academic, verbal and mathematical ability. Four
occupational composite: mechanical and craft, business and clerical, electronic and
electrical, health and social.
 MODULE 3: PERSONALITY
“Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations
over a long enough period of time to give reliable information” - J.B Watson

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
The word personality come from the Latin root persona, meaning “mask”. According to this root,
personality is the impression we make on others; the mask we present to the world.
Personality is defined as “a unique set of traits and characteristic, relatively stable over time”. The
definition further suggests that personality does not change from day to day. Over the short –
term, our personalities are relatively set or stable. However, definition does not suggest that
personality is definition does not suggest that personality is somehow rigid, unchangeable, and
cast in concrete. Definition recognizes that, over a longer term, personality may change.

CHARACTERSITICS
→ Personality is an internal process that guides behavior.
→ Gordon Allport makes the point that personality is psychophysical, which means both physical
and psychological.
→ Biological and genetic phenomena do have an impact on personality.
→ Child makes the point that personality is stable or at least relatively stable.
→ Child includes consistency (within an individual) and difference (between individuals) in his
definition.
→ Allport refers to characteristic patterns of behavior within an individual.

NATURE OF PERSONALITY
→ It is relatively stable but dynamic in nature.
→ Helps in adjusting the individual with the environment.
→ It is consistent.
→ It is unique.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Classification of determinants of personality:
1. Personal factors such as physique, sex, nervous system.
2. Environmental factors such as home and family, school, society etc.
3. Biological factors: heredity influences, nervous system, body chemistry.
4. Psychological factors: Intelligence and mental functioning, level of aspiration and
achievement motivation, will power.
5. Social and cultural: home and family- parents and parental attitude, school environment,
cultural environments.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
TYPE THEORY: JUNG THEORY
▪ Extraversion – It is the tendency to look to the outside world, especially people, for one’s
pleasures. Extraverts are usually outgoing and they enjoy social activities but, they are
uncomfortable when they are alone.
▪ Introversion – Refers to a tendency to prefer the world inside oneself. The more obvious aspects
of introversion are shyness, a distaste for social functions, and a love of privacy.
TRAIT THEORY:
ALLPORT THEORY
He identified 17953 terms to define personality. After careful analysis he found 4541 terms to define
an individual. Classification:
▪ Cardinal traits: the traits ruling the personality of the individual e.g. sense of humour
▪ Central traits: easily detected traits that all people have a certain number. e.g. shyness,
timidity, honesty
▪ Secondary traits: Less important, style of walking, etc.
CATTELL 16 PF THEORY
171 basic traits.
▪ Common traits: it is found widely distributed in general population. E.g. Honesty, cooperation.
▪ Unique traits: these traits are possessed aby particular persons. E.g. emotional stability.
▪ Surface traits: easily recognized. E.g. Curiosity.
▪ Source traits: it determines the behavior.

TYPE CUM TRAIT/ SUPER TRAITS APPROACH

Traits are combines to form super traits. E.g. Introversion, Persistence, Rigidity, Subjectivity, Shyness
etc.
BIG FIVE THEORY
▪ Extraversion – First factor. Also called dominance – submissiveness and “surgency”. Energy,
surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
Extraversion has an interpersonal component and is
strongly related to positive affect such as being
enthusiastic, energetic, interested and friendly.
Extraverts show less anxiety over negative feedback. It
has long been noted that extraversion is associated
with leadership.
Ask an extravert what he or she values in life, and the
answer will often be cheerfulness and an exciting life. They interacted with more people than
did those low in extraversion; they also reported having more control and intimacy in those
interactions. Their peers consider extraverted people to be friendly, fun – loving, affectionate
and talkative. So extraverts are highly motivated to seek social situations and to be dominant
in those situations. Extraverts are motivated by change, variety in their lives, challenge, and are
easily bored.

▪ Agreeableness – A tendency to be compassionate

and cooperative rather than suspicious and
antagonistic towards others. Agreeableness, which is
sometimes called Social adaptability or likability,
indicates a friendly, compliant personality, one who avoids hostility and tends to go along with
others. The agreeableness scale is linked to altruism, nurturance, caring and emotional support
versus competitiveness, hostility, indifference, self – centeredness, spitefulness and jealousy.
Agreeable people can be described as altruistic, gentle, kind, sympathetic, soft – hearted and
warm.
They value being helpful, forgiving and loving. They report little conflict in their interpersonal
relationships, when conflict occurs, it reduces their self – esteem. Agreeable individuals tend
towards conformity in groups, towards modesty, towards not being demanding, and towards
being sympathetic. These individuals might be motivated towards helping others and towards
pro – social behaviour in general.
▪ Conscientiousness – A tendency to show
self–discipline, act dutifully and aim for
achievement. Conscientiousness, also called
Dependability, Impulse Control and Will to
Achieve. Conscientiousness is a measure of
goal – directed behavior and amount of control over impulses. Conscientious people value
cleanliness and ambitiousness.
It has been linked to educational achievement and particularly to the will to achieve. The
focused person concentrates on limited number of goals but strives hard to reach them, while
the flexible person is more impulsive and easier to persuade from one task to another.
Described by their peers as well organized, punctual and ambitious. The student who has a
neat notebook and list of assignments and who keeps up with reading and completes work on
time would score high on conscientiousness. Conscientious students are generally motivated
to achieve; they achieve high grade point averages. School and any other settings reward
conscientious individuals, contributing to their generally high self-esteem. Conscientiousness
also relates to family relationships and health behavior. Young married people who score high
on Conscientiousness are less susceptible to sexual infidelity than those who score low. The
more conscientious a person is, the more competent, dutiful, orderly, responsible and thorough
and more satisfied with their lives.

▪ Neuroticism – A tendency to be
compassionate and cooperative rather than
suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Neuroticism describes people who frequently
are troubled by negative emotions such as
worry and insecurity. Emotionally, they are
liable instead of stable, like their low – scoring peers; thus, the factor, turning attention to its
opposite pole – low neuroticism – has also been called Emotional Stability, Emotional Control
and Ego strength. Lower scores on neuroticism also are associated with fewer health
complaints, are happier and more satisfied with life than those who score high, and they are
more satisfied with their marriage. In marriage, high neurotics are unhappy and dissatisfied with
life. Besides difficulties in relationships and commitment, they often suffer low self – esteem. It is
associated with negative emotionally, such as feeling anxious, nervous, sad, and tense.
Neuroticism tends to be viewed negatively and is associated with negative effect, being tense
and nervous. Keep in mind that neuroticism is only one trait that and individual has. A person
could be neurotic and conscientious which may have negative health effects but may
motivate an individual towards success in school and work situations.

▪ Openness – Experts have given this factor

various names: Culture, Intellect, and
Intellectual interests, Intelligence and
Imagination. Lay people recognize it by the
terms artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful,
original and wide interests. Literal values often go along with this factor. They value
imaginativeness, broadmindedness and a world of beauty. People low in openness, in
contrast, value cleanliness, obedience and national security.
The factor Openness to experience is perhaps the most difficult to describe, since it doesn’t
correspond to everyday language as well as the other factors. It is a measure of depth,
breadth and variability in a person’s imagination and urge for experiences. The factor relates
to intellect, openness to new ideas, cultural interests, educational aptitude and creativity as
well as an interest in varied sensory and cognitive experiences. People with a high openness to
 experience have broad interests, are liberal and like
Consciencetiousness
novelty. The preservers with low openness to
experience are conventional, conservative and
prefer familiarity.
The big 5 model is based on common language openness to
extroversion
descriptors of personality. Many similar habits taken experiences
together forms a trait. Again many similar traits when
taken together forms a factor or a type. The big five
factor model describes personality in terms of five
factors. These factors lead to an individual to act in a
certain way in a given situation.
neuroticism agreebleness

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
FREUD’S THEORIES – INSTINCT THEORY
A class of drives known as the life instincts and believed that these drives were responsible for
much of our behavior. He came to believe that life instinct alone could not explain all human
behavior. Book – beyond the pleasure principal. Instincts fall into one of two major classes; life
instincts or death instincts.
LIFE INSTINCTS (Eros)
Sometimes referred to as sexual instincts. Life instincts are those which deal with basic survival,
pleasure, and reproduction. These instincts are essential for sustaining the lie of the individual as
well as the continuation of species. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido. Life
instincts were opposed by the self – destructive death instincts, known as Thanatos. Positive
emotions such as love, affection, pro – social actions, and social cooperation are also associated
with the life instincts. These behaviors support both individual well – being and the harmonious
existence of a cooperative and a healthy society.
DEATH INSTINCTS (Thanatos)
The concept of death instincts was initially described in “beyond the pleasure principle”, in which
Freud proposed that “the goal of life is death”. Freud believed that people typically channel their
death instincts outwards. Aggression, for example, arises from the death instincts. Sometimes these
instincts towards destruction can be directed inwards, however, which can result in self-harm or
suicide.
In support of his theory, Freud noted that people who experience a traumatic event would often
reenact that experience. From this, he concluded that people hold an unconscious desire to die
but that the life instincts largely temper this wish.
FREUD THEORY
Sigmund Freud born in Vienna was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding
father of psychoanalysis. He developed the best – known theory of personality focused upon
internal growth or psychodynamics. The theory stresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires
and motivation on thoughts and behavior. Freud psychoanalysis became both a theory of
personality and a method of psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic theory has three major parts:
• A theory of the structure of personality, in which the id, ego. and superego are the
principal parts.
• A theory of personality dynamics, in which conscious and unconscious motivation and
ego defense mechanisms play a major role.
• A theory of psychosexual development, in which different motives and body regions
influence the child at different stages of growth, with effects persisting in the form of adult
personality traits.
LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
o Conscious level – Relates to the awareness of an individual to his environment. It functions
when the individual is awake. The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations,
perceptions, memories, feeling, and fantasies inside of our current
awareness. Through attention, person becomes conscious of
perceptual stimuli from the outside world within the organism. Only
elements in pre – conscious enter consciousness. It is a one – way
traffic to unconscious mind. Conscious part of mind is aware of
here and now as it relates individual and his environment.

o Pre – conscious level – described as that part of mind in which

ideas and reactions are stored and partially forgotten. It also acts
as a watchman because it prevents certain painful, unpleasant,
unacceptable, distributing unconscious memories from reaching
the conscious mind. Slip of tongue, slip of pen. Preconscious
region of mind is not present at birth but develops in childhood. It
is accessible to both unconscious and conscious mind. Elements of
unconscious mind are accessible to conscious through
preconscious. So it works as censor for a person’s wishes and desires. It is associated with
mental activity i.e. secondary process of thinking. Aims of secondary thinking are to avoid
unpleasantness and delaying instinctual discharge. It respects logical connection. Associated
with reality principle. It works accordingly demands of external reality and person's moral
values etc.

o Unconscious part – Unconscious part is the largest part of mind. It is hidden part of iceberg that
floats under water. It contains repressed ideas and affects. Elements of unconscious mind are
accessible to consciousness. They become conscious only through preconscious mind.
Repressed ideas may reach to consciousness when censor is over powered or relaxed (dream
state). It is a storehouse for all the memories, feelings and responses experienced by the
individual during his entire life. Unconscious part is associated with a particular form of mental
activities that is primary process with fulfilment and instinctual discharge. It is associated with
pleasure principle. Primary process thinking has no conception of time, logic, circumstances
and needs immediate gratification of their desires, which is very common in infancy. Memories
in unconscious mind lose their connection with verbal expressions. They can reach
consciousness once words are reapplied to forgotten memory.

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Freud thought of personality as being based upon a structure of three parts:
1. ID-Pleasure (primitive, instinctive component of personality)
Latin word of ID is 'It'. It consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality
present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. The ID, the most primitive part, which responds directly and
immediately to basic urges: to eat, drink, eliminate, and especially, to be sexually stimulated. The
sexual energy that underlies these urges is called the libido. ID is present in the deepest level of the
unconscious part of the mind and represents the inner world of subjective experience. It is
unconcerned with objective reality and is unaffected by the environment. ID is completely selfish
and wishful in nature; concerned with immediate gratification of instinctual needs, and the
biological drives, like hunger, sex. The ID operates according to the pleasure principle, seeking to
reduce tension, avoid pain, and obtain pleasure. In a formal gathering, if a person is feeling very
hungry and may start eating without the formal invitation for starting the meal or a student may
start eating his lunch in the class when the teacher is teaching disregarding his classroom, is an
act of lD. The pleasure principle attempts to reduce tension by wish fulfilment. In other words, it is
referred to as primary process thinking. Whatever comes first in the person's mind, he or she wants
to satisfy that desire immediately. If the demands of ID are blocked for a longer time, frustrations
occur. ID is chaotic and unreasonable.

2. EGO-Reality (the decision-making component) - The Latin word of ego is 'T' which means 'self.
The ego is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external
world.' The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is
the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the ID is
chaotic and unreasonable. The ego acts as a mediator or balancer between the demands of ID
and superego. Ego is based on Reality Principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s
demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of
society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to
behave. This adaptive measure of Ego is referred as secondary process thinking, which is rational,
realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. If a plan of action does not work, then it is
thought through again until a solution is found. Like the ID, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension
reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the ID, the ego is concerned with devising a realistic
strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if
it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the ID.

FUNCTIONS OF EGO -
• Control and regulation of instinctual derives.
• Relation to reality – Sense of reality, reality testing,
adaptation to reality
• Primary autonomous function – Perception, thinking,
speaking, IQ, memory, intuition

3. SUPEREGO – For perfection/ideal (the moral component) - The superego incorporates the values
and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the
age of 3 – 5 years during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. It is ideal rather than
real. The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids,
such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic
goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection. The superego's function is to
control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It
also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic
ones and to strive for perfection. The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary picture of how you
ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave
as a member of society. If a person’s ideal self is too high a standard, then whatever the person
does will represent failure. The ideal self and conscience are largely determined
in childhood from parental values and how you were brought up.

DEFENSE MECHANISM
Defense mechanism are invented by the ego in an attempt to resolve the conflict between ID
and superego – so that personality can operate in a healthy manner. All defense mechanism has
2 properties → it denies or distort reality in some way.
→ Operate in unconscious level to protest against anxiety.
To safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind
to cope with.
Denial
DESCRIPTIONS EXAMPLE
Reality is distorted to make it suit to the An alcoholic fails to acknowledge that he
individual’s wishes. is addicted to alcohol.
When you use denial, you simply refuse to Heavy smokers may refuse to admit that
accept the truth or reality of a fact or smoking is bad for their health.
experience.

Repression
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Unpleasant experiences are stored deep in An accident victim nearly dies but
the subconscious mind and can’t be remembers none of the details of the
accessed by the conscious mind. accident
Thoughts that are often repressed are A person who has repressed memories of
those that would result in the feelings of abuse suffered as a child may later have
guilt from the superego. difficulty forming relationships.

Rationalization
DESCRIPTIONS EXAMPLE
Providing a reasonable explanation to A student who fails a test because she did
make unreasonable behaviour appear not study hard enough blames her failure
logical and justify their action. on the teacher for using a ‘tricky’ question.
To protest our sense of self – esteem.

Sublimation
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Productive defence mechanism. A person experiencing extreme anger
might take up kick – boxing as a means of
venting frustration.
It transforms unacceptable impulse into Many great artists have had unhappy lives
socially accepted behaviour. and have used the medium of art of music
to express themselves.

Displacement
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Redirecting the feelings of hostility and Angered by a neighbour’s hateful
violent action from self to someone that is comment, a mother punishes her child for
less threatening instead of expressing to accidentally spilling her drinks. The mother
the real target. redirects the anger towards the neighbour
to her child.

Regression
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Returning to a behaviour pattern An individual fixated at the oral stage
characteristic of an earlier stage of might begin eating or smoking excessively,
development. or might become very verbally aggressive
People act out behaviours from the stage after going through divorce.
of psychosexual development in which
they are fixated.

Reaction formation
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Thinking or behaving in a way that is the A woman who loves an unobtainable man
extreme opposite to those that are of real and behaves as though she hates him
intention
 Reaction formation means expressing the
opposite of your inner feelings in your
outward behaviour.

Projection
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
You might hate someone, but your
This involves individuals attributing their own superego tells you that such hatred is
unacceptable thoughts, feelings and unacceptable. You can ‘solve’ the
motives to another person. problem by believing that they hate you.

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Freud believed that personality develops through a
series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the ID become focused on
certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or
libido, was described as the driving force behind
behaviour. If these psychosexual stages are
completed successfully, the result is a healthy
personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the
appropriate stage, fixation can occur. According
Freud, all human being pass through a series of five
psychosexual stages:
• Oral stage 0 to 2 years – During the first year of
life the mouth is the principal organ. Gratification is by sucking the breast of mother and
bottle.
• Anal stage 2 to 3 years – Membranes of the anal region provide pleasure. Not passing fecal
matter also gives pleasure to the child.
• Phallic stage 3 to 6 years – self-manipulation of the genital organs; the child also identifies
group to which he belongs; what is the difference between him and his younger sister.
• Latency stage of 6 to 12 years – this is a stage of psychosexual development when overt
sexual interest is repressed and sublimated. The child's attention is focused on learning skills
and other peer activities.
• Genital Stage – This is the final stage of psychosexual development reached in puberty
when the deepest feelings of pleasure are said to come from heterosexual relations.

Freud believed that gratification during each stage is important if the individual is not to be
fixated at that level. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this
conflict is resolved, the individual will remain ‘stuck’ in this stage. For example, a person who is
fixated at the oral stage may be over – dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking or eating. A person fixated at the anal stage may be abnormally
concerned with cleanliness and orderliness.

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY:
First 6 years in a child’s life contribute the most to personality development. These years provide
the foundation for future patterns of behaviour.
o Infancy [0 – 18 months] – Freud called it as oral stage because child’s libidinal energy is
focused on his oral cavity. Infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so
the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. Singular focus on self is referred as
primary narcissism means self – love. First few months’ infant is not able to differentiate
between him and environment. He feels that he causes all that happens to him. This feeling of
being all – powerful is Omnipotence. He is a bundle of ID impulses. When need arises, tension is
raised and he gets relief from this tension by using his mouth, lips and tongue to cry, suck and
swallow. These activities give him pleasures. Infant is depended on mother that meets his need
for sucking and gets milk to swallow so his raised tension, which was caused by hunger, is over.
 Accidentally, he finds his thumb and discovers that he can meet his need of sucking himself.
Sucking his own thumb gives him pleasure but it also gives experience that it is different from
mother. Through this simple realization, infant differentiate himself from the environment. So,
ego develops.
With weaning, child is forced to recognize reality and its demands. When weaning start, infant
receives less oral satisfaction. When cup or solid food is substituted for the breast or bottle,
infant feels frustration. He reacts to it in an aggressive, destructive way and begins to bite. He
may seek symbolic oral gratification by sucking and biting others, teeth provides too for oral
aggression because love and food are given simultaneously during oral period. Oral needs
become synonyms with protective love and security by closed mother child relationship. When
child gets love and food by loving mother unconditionally, he learns to trust her. Basic sense of
trust in a mother starts which is a basis for future trusting relationship. If a child’s experience with
the mother is anxious and conditional, he learns to mistrust her. So this basic mistrust gives a
paranoid idea in adulthood. Maternal depression causes a personality disorder. Mask
mothering or rejection cause schizophrenia in later life. Oral fixation personality relieves their
tension by excessive eating or drinking alcohol so they become drunk. Mistrust case suspicious
nature and paranoid personality disorder.

o Early Childhood – Anal phase [1 – 3 years] – Freud called it as anal phase because libidinal
energy shifts from oral cavity to anus and urethra. Child gratifies his love of self with the
pleasure sensation involved in evacuation of bladder and bowel without restriction. He drives
his greatest pleasure from anus to urethra. Superego develops when mother begins to insist
that a child should have certain control regarding toileting. He faces his 1st major frustration of
his ID drives. To retain the love of his mother the child must learn to post – pone the immediate
pleasure of urinating or evacuation until appropriate time and place are available. A child
starts having ambivalent feelings towards her. If his toilet training is very strict and mother insists
him to be clean, he may grow up to be compulsive or dissolve his anxiety by reaction
formation and become very untidy and unconcerned about cleanliness in his adult life.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. Rigid
toilet training includes stubbornness, excessive concern with bowel function. Strict toilet training
gives rise to perfectionist, stubborn, sadistic etc. If parents take an approach that is too lenient,
Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has
a messy wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is
stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.

o Later childhood -Phallic stage [3 – 6years] – Freud called this period the phallic stage.
Pleasurable sensations shifted from mouth and excretory organs to the genitalia and child
begins to identify with parents of same sex and wishes to replace that parent in a family
situation. They begin to examine their own bodies and others. They get pleasure sensation from
manipulation of penis or clitoris. Difference between sexual structure of men and woman is of
great interest to them. They feel that girl has lost that organ. Anxiety about loss of sex organs
developed. It is called Castration anxiety. A little girl notice that she has no penis and
concludes that she has lost it or it has been taken away. This attitude is called penis envy. It is
sometime basic to the problems of sibling rivalry. Little boy begins to feel very possessive
towards mother. He wants her for himself and resents the close tie that he feels exists between
his mother and father. He develops competitive feeling towards his father and tries to become
a rival with him for his mother's love. But father figure is great opponent and child has fear of
him. This situation is called Oedipus complex. He fears that his father may punish him. He
resolves this anxiety by becoming like his father, so he can get his mother's love and attention.
He begins to take on a masculine behaviour of his father. This is called identification. Similarly, a
little girl begins to identify with a more feminine role. If there is an arrival of another child it
increases their problems. Sibling rivalry usually develops. Super ego development also
develops at its height.
o Latency Stage [6 years – puberty] – Further development of previous characteristics, essentially
a transition stage. Delayed gratification – must seek pleasure in school, friends, and sports. Ego
choosing morally acceptable activities because ID has been repressed → playing with
members of the same sex.

o Genital Stage – Puberty – death; erogenous zone – genitals. Focusing on members of the
opposite sex. Using the ego, not just primal immediate gratification (ID) but also development
of friendships, relationships, family and the seeking of love.

JUNG: STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Archetypes are universal, inborn models of people, behaviours, or personalities that play a role in
influencing human behaviour. They were introduced by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, who
suggested that these archetypes were archaic forms of innate human knowledge passed down
from our ancestors.
Personal Vs Collective Unconscious – Jung was originally a supporter of his mentor Freud.
The relationship eventually fractured over Jung’s criticism of Freud’s emphasis on sexuality during
development, which led Jung to develop his own psychoanalytic approach known as analytical
psychology. While Jung agreed with Freud that the unconscious played an important role in
personality and behaviour, he expanded on Freud’s idea of the personal unconscious to include
what Jung called the collective unconscious.
Jung believed that the human psyche was composed of 3 components:
• The ego
• The personal unconscious
• The collective conscious
According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind while the personal unconscious
contains memories including those that have been suppressed. The collective unconscious is a
unique component in that Jung believed that this part of the psyche served as a form of
psychological inheritance. It contained all of the knowledge and experiences that humans share
as a species.

THE ORIGINS OF JUNG’S ARCHETYPES

He suggested that these models are innate, universal, and hereditary. Archetypes are unlearned
and function to organize how we experience certain things. "All the most powerful ideas in history
go back to archetypes," Jung explained in his book "The Structure of the Psyche. Jung rejected
the concept of tabula rasa or the notion that the human mind is a blank slate at birth to be
written on solely by experience. He believed that the human mind retains fundamental,
unconscious, biological aspects of our ancestors. These "primordial images," as he initially dubbed
them, serve as a basic foundation of how to be human.

THE FOUR MAIN ARCHETYPES

o The Persona – The persona is how we present ourselves to the world. The word "persona" is
derived from a Latin word that literally means "mask." It is not a literal mask, however. The
persona represents all of the different social masks that we wear among various groups and
situations. It acts to shield the ego from negative images. According to Jung, the persona may
appear in dreams and take different forms. Over the course of development, children learn
that they must behave in certain ways in order to fit in with society's expectations and norms.
The persona develops as a social mask to contain all of the primitive urges, impulses, and
emotions that are not considered socially acceptable. The persona archetype allows people
to adapt to the world around them and fit in with the society in which they live. However,
becoming too closely identified with this archetype can lead people to lose sight of their true
selves.

o The Shadow – The shadow is an archetype that consists of the sex and life instincts. The shadow
exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of repressed ideas, weaknesses,
 desires, instincts, and shortcomings. The shadow forms out of our attempts to adapt to cultural
norms and expectations. It is this archetype that contains all of the things that are
unacceptable not only to society, but also to one's own personal morals and values. It might
include things such as envy, greed, prejudice, hate, and aggression. Jung suggested that the
shadow can appear in dreams or visions and may take a variety of forms. It might appear as a
snake, a monster, a demon, a dragon, or some other dark, wild, or exotic figure.

o The Anima and Animus – The anima is a feminine image in the male psyche. Animus is a male
image in the female psyche. Anima and animus represent the “true self” rather than the
image we present to others and serve as the primary source of communication with the
collective unconscious. Jung believed that physiological changes as well as social influences
contributed to the development of sex roles and gender identities. Jung suggested the
influence of the animus and anima archetypes were also involved in this process. According to
Jung, the animus represents the masculine aspect in women while the anima represented the
feminine aspect in men. These archetypal images are based upon both what is found in the
collective and personal unconscious. The collective unconscious may contain notions about
how women should behave while personal experience with wives, girlfriends, sisters, and
mothers contribute to more personal images of women.

o The self – The self is an archetype that represent the unified unconsciousness and
consciousness of an individual. Jung often represented the self as a circle, square or mandala.
Creating the self occurs through a process known as individuation, in which the various
aspects of personality are integrated. Jung believed that disharmony between the conscious
and unconscious mind lead to psychological problems. Bringing these conflicts into awareness
and accommodating them in conscious awareness was an important part of the individuation
process. Jung suggested that there were two different centers of personality:
▪ The ego makes up the center of consciousness, but it is the self that lies at the center of
personality.
▪ Personality encompasses not only consciousness but also the ego and the unconscious mind.
OTHER ARCHETYPES
The following are just a few of the various archetypes that Jung described:
• The father: Authority figure; stern; powerful
• The mother: Nurturing; comforting
• The child: Longing for innocence; rebirth; salvation
• The wise old man: Guidance; knowledge; wisdom
• The hero: Champion; defender; rescuer
• The maiden: Innocence; desire; purity
• The trickster: Deceiver; liar; trouble-maker

ATTITUDE: TWO TYPES OF PERSONALITIES

o Extraverts: The extraversion attitude orients a person toward the external world outward
turning of “goal – directed energy”. Extraverted people channel their life energy into
activities and social involvement.
o Introverts: The introversion attitude drives a person toward the inner, subjective world.
Introverts, by contrast, are turned inward, more interested in life of the mind than the events
of the outside world.
The rational or judging type – Some people seem to use their minds all the time, making conscious
value judgements about which way to direct themselves.
The feeling type – Makes decisions according to emotional evaluations.
The thinking type – The thinking type makes decisions based on conscious calculations (for
example, marrying somebody who will someday be rich).
BASIC CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
ALFRED ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Used this term for his conception of personality because he was interested in investigating the
uniqueness of the person.
▪ Intrapsychic (within the psyche)
▪ Interpsychic (interpersonal)
SOCIAL INTEREST
Refers to urge in human nature to adapt oneself to the conditions of the social environment. It
expresses itself subjectively in one’s consciousness of having something in common with other
people and of being one of them. Leading concept of Adler’s individual psychology is his
emphasis on the importance of human culture and society. Human beings, like all living creatures
are driven by certain innate instincts, drives or needs.

FINALISM
Adler agreed with Jung that teleology is necessary for a full understanding of personality. For
Adler, the goal that the individual pursues the decisive factor and he called this Finalism. Many of
our guiding goals are fictions. Adler did not equate fiction with falseness; rather he indicated that
we cannot know whether or not our goals are true or false because there is no way to
scientifically test them. We are unable to have a complete understanding of things as they really
are, so we structure our own idea of reality. “Fictions” are an individual’s or group’s interpretations
of the events of the world. They are philosophical assumptions. We may assume that it’s best to tell
the truth, that all people are basically good, or that hard work will eventually pay off. Such basic
concepts are fictional finalisms.

STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY

Adler suggested that the psyche has as its primary objective the goal of superiority. This is the
ultimate fictional finalism for which all human beings strive, and it gives unity and coherence to
the personality. Initially. Adler conceived of the primary motivating force as aggression. Later he
identified the primary drives as a “will to power”. He refined the concept of a drive toward power
and suggested that the essential dynamic of human nature lies in its striving for superiority. Finally,
he changed from striving for individual superiority to striving for a superior society. The drive for
superiority involves the desire to be competent and effective in whether one strives to do. Similar
to Jung’s idea of self – realization. Adler frequently use the term perfection, as a synonym for
“superiority” which also means “completed” or “made whole”. The striving for superiority may take
the form of an exaggerated lust for power. An individual may seek to exercise control over
objects and people and to play god. Life is encouraged by the desire to move from below to
above.

INFERIORITY FEELINGS
The striving for superiority arises because as human beings we feel inferior. Inferiority feelings have
their origin in our encounter as infants in the environment. As human infants, unlike other animals,
we are born immature, incomplete to satisfy even our basic needs. There is a protected period
during which we are almost totally dependent on other people for our survival. Feelings of
inferiority thus reflect a fact of existence. Such feelings are inescapable, but also invaluable, as
they provide the major motivating force that leads to growth. Our efforts and success at growth
and development may be seen as attempts to compensate for and overcome our imagines or
real inferiorities and weaknesses.

STYLE OF LIFE
Each individual seeks to cope with the environment and develop superiority in a unique way.
Each of us shares the common goal of striving for superiority, even though there are many
different ways by which we may achieve this goal. One individual may try to develop
competence and superiority through intellectual skills. Another may seek self – perfection by
capitalizing on physical strength. Style of life acts in part as a perpetual filter, influencing the ways
in which we view the world. It results from 2 factors –
→ Inner goal orientation of the individual and its particular fictional finalisms
→ The forces of the environment that assist, impede or alter the direction of the individual.
Each individual’s style of life is unique because of the different influences of our inner self and its
constructs. No two individuals ever had or could have the very same style of life.
4 primary styles of life -
• The ruling type - Aggressive dominating people who have little social interest or cultural
perception.
• The getting type - Dependent people who take rather than give.
• The avoiding type - People who try to escape life's problems and engaged in little socially
constructive activity.
• The socially useful type - People with a great deal of social interest and activity.

BIRTH ORDER
Among the factors that lead to different life-styles are the ordinal position of birth and different
experiences in childhood.
FAMILY CONSTELLATION
Refers to one's position within the family in terms of birth order among siblings and the presence or
absence of parents and other Caregivers. Adler emphasized that the personalities of oldest,
middle and the youngest children in a family are apt to be quite dissimilar simply by virtue of the
different experiences that each child has as that particular member of the family group.
• OLDEST CHILDREN: Tend to be more intelligent, achievement oriented, conforming and
affiliative. They often try to regain the glory that was theirs before they were dethroned by
younger siblings. Desire to exercise authority, lead or protect and help others.
• SECOND CHILD: May feel the need to accelerate and catch up with the first child. While oldest
children often dream of falling from places (dethronement), second children are apt to be
competitive and ambitious and often surpass as the firstborn in achievement and orientation.
• LASTBORN CHILDREN: Are more sociable and dependent, having been the "baby" of the
family. They may also strive for excellence and superiority in an effort to surpass the older
siblings.
• ONLY CHILDREN: Tend to be more like older children in that they enjoy being the centre of
attention. Because they spend more time to the company of adults, rather than siblings, they
tend to mature sooner and to adopt adult-like behaviours earlier in life.

FAMILY ATMOSPHERE
The quality of emotional relationships among members of the family reflects the family
atmosphere, which assists in determining whether or not the child will react actively or passively,
constructively or destructively in the quiet toward superiority. Adler thought children who are
pampered or neglected are particularly predisposed to as faulty style of life. The pampered child
is one who is excessively spoiled and protected from life's inevitable frustrations. Such a child is
being deprived of the right to become independent and learn the requirements of living within
the social order. Parents who pamper a child make it difficult for the child to develop social
feelings and become a useful member of society and culture, the neglected child is one who
feels unwanted and rejected. Such a child is virtually denied the right to a place in social order
Rejection arouses resistance in the child, feelings of inferiority and a tendency to withdraw from
the implications of social life.

THE CREATIVE SELF

Adler considered this concept the climax of his theory. It is the self in its creative aspects that
interprets and makes meaningful the experiences of the organism and that searches for
experiences to fulfil the person's unique style of life. The creative self establishes, maintains and
pursues the goals of the individual. The concept of the creative self also reinforces Adler's
affirmation that individuals make their own personalities from the raw materials of their heredity
and environment Adler believed that we are aware of everything we do and that, through self-
examination, we can understand why we behaved in a certain way.

Compensation entails making up for overcoming a weakness.

Overcompensation refers to an exaggerated effort to cover up a weakness that entails a denial
rather than an acceptance of the real situation.
Inferiority complex -individuals who feel highly inadequate may be suffering from this.
Superiority complex -individuals who exaggerate their own importance may be suffering from this.

HORNEY: BASIC ANXIETY, STYLES, FEMINIST TURN IN PSYCHOANALYSIS

Karen Horney was not a student of Freud, she indirectly studied Freud’s work. She taught
psychoanalysis at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the New York Psychoanalytic institute.
She agreed with Freud regarding ▪The unconscious ▪The importance of dreams ▪Attention to
childhood and disagreed with his view’s concerning women – misleading, insulting. She
considered cultural and social influences on personality. Resigned the NYPI and founded her own
American Institute for Psychoanalysis.
CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOANALYSIS
o Neurosis – The internal process (unconscious conflict) that triggers anxiety.
Freud → Fixated energy, unconscious battles between various personality aspects.
Adler → Feelings of inferiority
Horney →Role of disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood.
Parents not providing proper environment → feelings of anxiety (the feeling a child has of being
isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world)
Horney’s beliefs – All neurosis is culture dependent: the norms for behaviour are defined by the
particular culture. e.g. Among Native Americans, being extremely passive or aggressive can be
considered abnormal or desirable depending on the tribe. Contrasts with Freudian view: neurotic
behaviour described in terms of innate inter psychic connections independent of social setting.

BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY

Parents often neglect, dominate, reject, or overindulge their children, conditions that lead to the
child’s feelings of basic hostility toward parents.
If children repress basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of
apprehension called basic anxiety. 4 general ways that people can protect themselves from
basic anxiety: ▪ Affection ▪ Submissiveness ▪Power or Prestige ▪ Withdrawal
Neurotic Needs
Horney identified 10 neurotic needs that mark neurotic people in their attempt to reduce basic
anxiety – 1. Needs for affection and approval
2. Needs for a partner
3. Needs to restrict one’s life within narrow borders
4. Needs for power
5. Needs to exploit others
6. Needs for social recognition or prestige
7. Needs for social recognition or prestige
8. Needs for personal admiration
9. Needs for self-sufficiency and independence
10. Needs for perfection and unassailability

THE 3 STYLES
Moving toward people – “needs to be liked, wanted, desired, loved; to feel accepted,
welcomed, approved of, appreciated; to be needed, to be of importance to others, especially
to one particular person; to be helped, protected, taken care of, guided” Emphasize one’s
helplessness. Extremely dependent on others. Compulsively seeking affection and acceptance.
Claims a need for love but incapable of genuine love or of a deep, rewarding relationship. Clingy;
no give, all take.
Moving against people – Fight! Aggression and hostility to deal with poor home environment. In
adults, hostility aimed at people in general. Need to exploit others, take advantage of
weaknesses in others. Need to be in control and to be powerful. Love is silly and sentimental.
Characterized by externalization (similar to Freud’s projection). Belief that all people are hostile
and get what they can. Relationships are necessarily shallow, unfulfilling, and painful.
Moving away from people – Tuning out of the outside world. Striving for self-sufficiency and
independence. Strong desire for privacy. Job with little interaction. Avoid affection, love,
sympathy and friendship. Emotional attachment → pain; avoid involvement → avoid anxiety.

Feminine Psychology
One of the first female psychiatrist, she was the first known woman to present a paper regarding
feminine psychiatry. The fourteen papers she wrote were amalgamated into a single volume titled
Feminine Psychology.
In her essay entitled “The Problem of Feminine Masochism”. Horney felt she proved that cultures
and societies worldwide encouraged women to be dependent on men for their love, prestige,
wealth, care and protection. Horney believed that both men and women have a drive to be
ingenious and productive. Women are able to satisfy this need normally and internally – to do this
they become pregnant and give birth. Men please this need only through external ways.
certain way in a given situation.

TRAIT AND TYPE THEORIES: GENERAL APPROACH.

Personality trait refers to psychological classification of different levels or degrees.

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of

people.

Personality trait examines behavioral characteristics whereas

personality type examines specific psychological attributes.
For example, according to type theories, there are two types of
people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories,
introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension, with
many people in the middle.
On the playground, 6-year-old Sam pushes little Samantha off her
tricycle and rides away on it. Why?
Trait approach: Sam is aggressive, hot tempered, undisciplined.
Type approach: Sam is choleric, mesomorph.

Personality traits are “enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and

thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a
wide range of social and personal contexts.”
A trait is what we call a characteristic way in which an individual
perceives, feels, believes, or acts. Traits are relatively stable over time.
Traits differ among individuals. Traits are also bipolar. Traits influence
behaviour.

ALL PORT: TRAITS

The adjectives and characteristics of one behaviour is known as trait, these traits are helpful in
describing one’s personality and also distinguish a man’s personality from other’s personality. Traits
represent attributes and properties of human personality like: color, height, health etc. Traits of
one’s personality can be known by observation method. We must be able to understand the trait
demonstrated by individuals and situations in which it is being demonstrated.
Gordon W. Allport, an American psychologist, was one of the first psychologists to focus on the
study of personality traits. He focused on the uniqueness of each individual and importance of the
present context and opposed to past history. He developed a list of 4500 traits like words.

COMMON TRAITS – Characteristics which are more general than habits and attitudes in respect to
which people in a population can be profitably compared.
INDIVIDUAL TRAITS – These are behavioral characteristic that are not found in all persons and may
not even exist more than a specific individual.

ALLPORT’S TRAIT LEVELS

o Cardinal Trait – The trait that dominates and shapes a person’s behaviour that they colour
every aspect of one’s behaviour. These are also called primary traits. These are limited in
number to just one or two. For example, if a person is humorous in nature. Abraham Lincoln
(Honest), Mother Theresa (Religious Service).

o Central Trait – This is general characteristic found in some degree in every person. These are
the basic building blocks that shape most of our behaviour. There are 5 – 10 central traits in an
individual’s personality. For example, honesty, kindness, etc.

o Secondary Trait – Characteristics seen only in certain circumstances. They must be included to
provide a complete picture of human complexity. These are not considered enough and not
dominant characteristics. Preferences, attitudes, situational traits are all secondary traits. For
example, stage fear before speaking in public.

CATTELL: SOURCE AND SURFACE TRAITS

Raymond Bernard Cattell (1905- 1998) was a British-American psychologist who is well known for
his exploration of many areas in psychology. He attended London University where he was drawn
to the burgeoning field of chemistry. In 1997, he was awarded a lifetime achievement award from
the American Psychological Foundation.

CATTELL’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY TRAITS

According to Cattell, trait is a relatively permanent reaction tendency that are the basic structural
units of the personality. He classified traits into several way
▪ Common Traits ▪ Dynamic Traits
▪ Unique Traits ▪ Surface Traits
▪ Ability Traits ▪ Constitutional Traits
▪ Temperament Traits ▪ Environmental-mold Traits

COMMON TRAITS AND UNIQUE TRAITS

Cattell distinguished between common traits and unique traits.
COMMON TRAITS UNIQUE TRAITS
Possessed by everyone to some degree. Specific to one person.
Everyone has these traits, but some people These traits are particularly apparent in our
have them to a greater extent than others. interests and attitudes.
E.g.: intelligence, extraversion E.g.: interest in baseball

SURFACE TRAITS AND UNIQUE TRAITS

Distinguished according to stability and performance.
SURFACE TRAITS SOURCE TRAITS
These are personality characteristics that Single, stable, permanent elements of our
correlate with one another but do not behaviour. Each source trait gives rise to some
constitute a factor because they are not aspect of behaviour.
determined by a single source.
 They are composed of several elements but All have same source traits in differing degrees.
they are less stable and permanent, therefore,
less important in describing personality.

CONSTITUTIONAL TRAITS AND ENVIRONMENTAL-MOLD TRAITS

Source traits are further classified by their origin as constitutional traits or environmental-mold traits.
CONSTITUTIONAL TRAITS ENVIRONMENTAL-MOLD TRAITS
Source traits that have biological origin, such Source traits that have environmental origins,
as the behaviours that result from drinking too such as behaviour that result from the
much alcohol like carelessness, talkativeness. influence of our friends, work environment, or
neighborhood.

SOURCE TRAITS: BASIC FACTORS OF PERSONALITY

After more than two decades of intensive factor-analytic research, Cattell identified 16 source
traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are known as Sixteen Personality Factor (16
PF) Questionnaire. In Cattell’s system, source traits are the basic elements of personality just as
atoms are the basic units of physical world. Cattell represented the traits in bipolar form and the
personality characters are associated with words which we are likely to use everyday
conversation when describing our friends and ourselves. Cattel later identified additional factors
he designated temperament traits because they relate to the general style and emotional tone
of behaviour. E.g.: excitability, zest, politeness, etc. Eysenck: Dimensions of Personality

EYSENCK: DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY

“Personality is the sum total of the actual or potential
behavior patterns of the organism, as determined by
heredity and environment. It originates and develops
through the functional interactions of the four main
sectors into which these behavior patterns are
organized -The cognitive sectors (Intelligence),
conative sector (character) affective sector
(temperament) and the somatic sector
(constitution).” – Hans J. Eysenck (1947)

He argues that much of personality is genetically determined

•Personality: a person’s internally based characteristics way
of thinking and acting
•Character: personal characteristics that have been judged
or evaluated
•Temperament: hereditary aspects of personality, including
sensitivity, moods, irritability and distractibility
•Traits: stable qualities that a person shows in most situations

Three dimensions of personality

Eysenck’s model is strongly rooted in biology and he believed
that traits are heritable.
1. Extraversion vs Introversion
2. Emotional Stability VS Neuroticism
3. Impulse Control VS Psychoticism
 EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION
Traits such as sociability, impulsivity, activity, Tender mindedness, introspectiveness,
carelessness, liveliness, jocularity, tough seriousness, performance interfered by
mindedness, thrill seeking, desire for novelty, excitement, inhibited, easily aroused,
preference for vocations involving preference for solitary vocations, sensitivity to
interactions with others, tolerance for pain pain.
define this factor.

NEUROTICISM (N)
Neuroticism is conceived as strong, prone to anxiety in case of excessive stress. Below average
emotional control, low will power, slowness in thought and actions, lack of persistence, below
average sensory acuity but high level of activation.
PSYCHOTICISM (P)
Poor concentration, poor memory, insensitivity, lack of care for others, cruelty, disregard for danger,
original minded, creative, like unusual things, considered peculiar by others, being solitary,
troublesome,
not fitting anywhere, lack empathy, hostile, aggressive to loved ones.

4 BASIC TEMPERAMENTS
First two factors create 4 combinations, related to the four basic temperaments recognized by
Greeks:
1. Melancholic (introverted + unstable) = sad, gloomy
2. Choleric (extroverted + unstable) = hot-tempered, irritable
3. Phlegmatic (introverted + stable) = sluggish, calm
4. Sanguine (extroverted + stable) = cheerful, hopeful
HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE
Eysenck conceptualized each of these three traits –P, N AND E as sitting on top of their own
hierarchy. E.g.: the top level is the super trait of psychoticism followed by second level narrow trait
of aggressiveness and third level habitual act of attacking
•Specific response – Biting, hitting
e.g.: TYPE EXTRAVERSION
Trait Sociability
Habitual response Parties
Specific response Inviting others

BIOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS
Eysenck’s personality system has a biological foundation which has two aspects:
1.HERITABILITY 2. IDENTIFIABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSTRATES
Central nervous system is responsible for personality traits.

•EXTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION is linked with chronic levels of excitation in the cortex

→ Introverts are over aroused and easy to stimulate whereas extraverts are under aroused and
thus difficult to stimulate so they seek out exciting situations. Introverts less tolerant of painful
electric shocks (Bartol and Costello, 1976)
→ Corr et al. (1995): after high dose of caffeine: introverts did poorly on a task as they got
over-stimulated; extroverts perform better when over stimulated. Frontal lobes of introverts
are more active than extroverts (PET scan) (Johnson et al. 1999).
•NEUROTICISM reflects the degree to which Autonomic Nervous System reacts to stimuli. The more
reactive a person, the more neurotic he/she is. High visceral brain activation makes a person
emotionally reactive or neurotic. Visceral brain system consists of limbic system and
hypothalamus. It mediates emotional activation. Low VB activation makes a person emotionally
non-reactive.
•PSYCHOTICISM is linked with high levels of testosterone and low level of MAO, a neurotransmitter
that inhibits impulses.

ROGERS, MASLOW: INTRODUCTION TO HUMANISTIC

PERSPECTIVE
HUMANISTIC THEORY
Humanism is a system of thought in which human interests and values are of key importance.
Humanistic theory objects psychoanalysis and behaviourism arguing that they presented too
limited findings that too only of overt behaviour. Humanistic theory focuses on the conscious
rather than the unconscious behaviour. It says that people are inherently good and that we are
self-motivated to improve and we want to improve because we want to reach self-actualization.
They reasoned how we can never learn about positive human characteristics and qualities if we
limit our focus to only neurosis and psychosis. The humanistic approach emphasizes human
strength and aspirations, conscious free will, and the fulfillment of human potential at its fullest.
They believe in an optimistic image of human nature and describes humans as active, creative
beings concerned with growth and self-development. The humanistic approach to personality is
represented by the works of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

ABRAHAM MASLOW
Abraham Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1908 and in considered to be the founder and
spiritual leader of the humanistic psychology movement. According to Maslow each person has
an essential nature that “presses” to emerge and that the human nature is far higher and
transcendent in nature. His theories are based on the research of the creative, independent, self-
sufficient, fulfilled adults. He also believes that each person is born with the same set of instinctive
needs that enables us to grow, develop, and fulfill our potential.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow proposed a hierarchy of 5 innate needs that activate or direct human behaviour. These
needs can be affected or overridden by learning, social experiences, expectations and fear.
The major assumptions of the Hierarchy of Needs theory are when one need is satisfied, another
need emerges to be satisfied. Lower order needs must be satisfied before a higher order need
begins to control a person’s behaviour. Once a need is satisfied, it ceases to motivate.
1. Physiological Needs: air, food water and physical needs. When people have adequate food
and shelter and when rest of the lower needs are satisfied, they are motivated by needs that
rank higher in the hierarchy.
2. Safety needs: protection from physiological danger. It also includes economic security.
3. Belongingness and Love Needs: is a reflection of the fact that people are social beings
needing the company or companionship of others.
4. Self-esteem Needs: seeking of our own self-respect. Seeking recognition from others.
5. Self-actualization Needs: self-actualization is the desire to reach one’s full potential.
Conditions necessary in order for us to satisfy the self-actualization needs are:
• We must be free of constraints imposed by society and by ourselves.
• We must not be distracted by the lower order needs.
• We must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people; we must be
able to love and be loved in return.
• We must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths and weaknesses, virtues and vices.
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
•They perceive reality efficiently and can • Accept themselves and others for what
tolerate uncertainty. they are.
• Spontaneous, simplicity and naturalness in • Problem centered (not self-centered).
thoughts and actions.
• Need for detachment and sense of privacy • A freshness of appreciation.
• Mystical or peak experiences. • Social interest.
• Profound interpersonal relations. • A democratic character structure.
• Creativeness. • Resistance to enculturation.
Self-actualization takes courage, effort, discipline, and self-control. Thus, self-actualizers will
constantly test themselves by abandoning secure routines, familiar behaviours and attitudes.
Maslow has proposed second set of two additional levels of innate needs namely:
Cognitive Needs: to know, to understand, to explore- the need to know is stronger than the need
to understand.
Aesthetic Needs: Symmetry order and beauty- aesthetic needs are the need to express oneself in
pleasing ways.
In conclusion, the hierarchy of needs model is dynamic. It presents motivation as a constantly
changing force, expressing itself through the constant striving for fulfillment of new and higher
level of needs. Instead of resting on their laurels, when one goal is reached or a need is satisfied,
individuals typically redirect their efforts and capabilities toward the attainment of still higher
goals.

CARL ROGERS
Carl Rogers was an American psychologist known for his influential psychotherapy method known
as client centered therapy. It involves the therapist acting as a facilitator rather than a director of
the therapy session. He was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize. He continued his work with client-
centered therapy until his death in 1987.
SELF ACTUALIZATION THEORY
Rogers believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize, maintain and
enhance the self. i.e., to fulfil one’s potential and achieve the highest level of “human-beingness”
that we can.
The actualization tendency is responsible for maturation- the genetically determined
development of the body’s parts and process- ranging from the growth of the foetus to the
appearance of the secondary sex characteristics at puberty. Even though such changes are
genetically determined, progress towards full human development is neither automatic nor
effortless, rather it involves struggle and pain. Individuals persevere, despite the pain and struggles,
because the tendency to actualize is stronger than the urge to regress because of the struggles,
in the growth process.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF
“The organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself”
This separate part, defined by the words “I, me, and myself”, is the self or the self-concept. The
self-concept is also our image of what we are, what we should be, and what we would like to be.
• Positive regard is a need for acceptance, love and approval from other people, most notable
from the mother during infancy.
• Unconditional regard is the approval granted regardless of a person’s behaviour.
• When love and approval are conditional, a state of conditional positive regard exists.
• Positive regard comes from ourselves, that is, in time positive regard will come more from within
us than from other people. This is called as positive self-regard.
Roger personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. Self is composed of three
components:
1. Self-worth/ Self-esteem: what we think about ourselves. It is developed in early childhood,
formed from the interaction of the child with their parents.
2. Self-image: how we see ourselves. This is important to good psychological health. It includes
the influence of our body image on inner personality. We might perceive ourselves as good or
bad, beautiful or ugly. SI has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
3. Ideal self: this is who the person would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life. It is
dynamic and forever changing. Ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late
20s.
FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON
They are people who are able to be self-actualized. Fully functioning person is one who is in touch
with their deepest and innermost feelings and desires. These individuals understand their own
emotion and place deep trust in their own instinct and urges.
5 characteristics of fully functioning person are:
1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions are accepted. Negative
emotions are not denied by rather they work through it.
2. Existential living: living in the present and in the moment. They avoid prejudice and fully
appreciate the present by not looking back to the past or forward to the future.
3. Trust feeling: feelings, instinct and gut reactions are paid attention to. They trust themselves
to make the right choice and their own decisions are perceived as the right ones.
4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of the person’s life. They do not
play all the time and are able to adjust and change to new experiences.
5. Fulfilled Life: Person’s happy and satisfied with life. They are always looking for new
challenges and experiences.
CONGRUENCE
The difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual
experience is called incongruence.
Ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar is called
state of congruence. Development of congruence depends on
unconditional positive regard. Roger believed that for a person to
achieve self-actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.
TECHNIQUES USED FOR PERSON CENTERED CONSELLING
There are 3 core conditions:
1. Unconditional positive regard: showing complete support and
acceptance of a person no matter what they say or do.
2. Empathy: sometimes referred to as a frame of reference. They try to
understand the thoughts and feelings the way the client experienced
them.
3. Congruence: genuine and real. This allows the client to build a trusting relationship with the
counselor.
 MODULE 4: ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY
MEANING AND PURPOSE OF PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT
“The term personality refers to the total functions of an individual who interact
with its environment”

The purpose of measurement of personality is to describe a person in terms of traits.

Traits as the main themes of the personality. Traits is nothing but observable consistency of
behavior of a person. They are not directly observed but inferred from the consistent behavior of
an individual. The most general cues to traits are what the person does, how he does it and how
well he does it.
Nunnaly has opined that personality measurement aims at studying four board types of traits:
1. Social traits: social traits are those traits which determine how persons interact with other
persons in the society. E.g.: friendliness, honesty shyness etc. thus with social traits include traits
of temperament and character
2. Motives: these are non-biological drives such as need to earn money and prestige need for
academic achievement, affiliation, aggression etc. These often said to constitute the
personality dynamics
3. Personal conceptions: these include those methods which determine peoples’ attitude
towards self and others, a person’s values interest etc
4. Adjustment: It includes traits like the freedom from emotional worries or instability or disruptive
behavior. Maladjustment is the opposite and includes traits like hallucination psychoses etc.

TOOLS OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

SELF REPORT INVENTORIES
Self-report inventories also known as personality inventories are the self-rating questionnaires
where the individual describe his own feelings, environment and reactions of others towards
himself. In a self-report inventories a person reports about himself in the light of the questions put
therein hence the method is known as self-report inventory.
Classification of Self Report Inventories:
1. Inventories that attempt to measure social and certain other specified traits such as self-
confidence, dominance, ego, strength, extroversion, responsibility etc. E.g.: Eysenck Personality
Inventory.
2. Inventories that evaluate the adjustment of persons to different aspects of its environment such
as school, home etc. E.g.: Bells’ adjustment inventory.
3. Inventories that evaluate pathological traits e.g.: Minnesota Multiphasic personality inventory
4. Inventories that help to screen individuals into two to three groups. It divides the people into
those having psychosomatic difficulties and those not having it. E.g.: The Cornell index.
5. Inventories that attempt to measure attitude, interests and values of person’s. E.g.: The Kuder
inventories, the Strong Vocational Interest Blank
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SELF REPORT INVENTORIES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• They are useful because they allow • They often contain transparent questions,
psychologists to get precise answers to which means subjects can figure out what
standardized questions. In other words, all a psychologist wants to measure.
subjects who take a test answer the same Therefore, subjects can lie intentionally and
questions, and all subjects have to select fake personality traits they don’t really
answers from the same range of options. have.
• They are objective, which means that • The social desirability bias can affect
different people scoring the same test responses on self-report inventories. In other
would score them in the same way. words, when filling out an inventory, people
However, these scores might be might state what they wish were true,
interpreted differently by different people. rather than what is true.
• Inexpensive and require less time and • People sometimes don’t understand the
energy to collect data from large samples. questions on the test.
• Allows for complete anonymity. • People sometimes don’t remember
aspects of the experience they are asked
about.

SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE (16 PF)

The 16 PF is meant for the assessment of personality for ages 16+. It is a forced-choice test which is
available in five separate forms. Each form consists of declarative stems that force the testee to
respond to a specific situation by choosing from among 2 or 3 forced-choice options. It yields 16
scores separately on 16 traits of personality, each of which is bipolar. Each of these 16 factors has
been given a letter symbol or letter number combination. For example,
Low Factors High Letter Symbol
Reserved Warmth Outgoing A
Less intelligent Intelligence More intelligent B
Stable ego strength Ego strength Emotionability/Neuroticism C
16 PF also includes a lot of problem solving questions which contains 15 items presented
contiguously at the end of the inventory. These items comprise the reasoning scale which is
basically intended to act as a quick measure of mental ability.

MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)

It is a standardized psychometric test of adult personality and psychopathology. The inventory
was developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is a very important means for detecting disabling
psychological abnormalities. It is called multiphasic because it was designed to detect several
psychiatric and psychological problems. Originally it consisted of 550 items where each item had
three options: ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Cannot say’.
There were 10 clinical scales:
1. HS: Hypochondriasis 2. D: Depression
3. Hy: Hysteria 4. Pd: Psychopathic deviate
5. Mf: Masculinity – femininity 6. Pa: Paranoia
7. Pt: Psychosthenia 8. Sc: Schizophrenia
9. Ma: Mania 10. Si: Social Introversion
and 4 validity scales:
o Lie Sclae(L) o Infrequency Sclae(F) o Correction Scale(K) o Cannot Say(or?)
The clinical scales were designed to identify pathological disorders like hysteria, depression, etc.
and the validity scales were used to measure test – taking aptitude and to assess whether the
subject was demonstrating a normal, honest approach to the test. The MMPI should only be
administered by a trained test administrator, but the test results are sometimes used in other
settings. MMPI evaluations are sometimes used in child custody disputes, substance abuse
programs, educational settings, and even employment screenings. Recently revised and
reconstructed into two: MMPI -2 and MMPI –A.
EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (EPQ)
Eysenck developed a series of tests designed to measure normal and abnormal dimensions of
personality. He identified 3 major dimensions of personality: Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), and
Neuroticism (N). The EPQ consists of 90 statements to be answered in terms of either ‘yes’ or ‘no’
and is suited for persons aged 16+. It also incorporates a Lie (L) scale to assess the validity of the
examiner’s responses.
1. P Scale: It assesses traits like poor concentration, poor memory, insensitivity, cruelty,
disregard for danger and convention, etc. Those who score high on P scale indicates
impulsivity, aggressive and hostile traits, empathy defects and a preference for liking odd
things (e.g. antisocial or schizoid personalities).
2. E Scale: assesses the dimension of extraversion and its polar opposite introversion. High
scores on E scale indicates tendency to be outgoing, preference for activities involving
contact with other people, etc. Low scores indicate preference for solitude and quiet
activities.
3. N Scale: assesses traits like slowness in thoughts and actions, suggestibility, tendency to
repress unpleasant facts, lack of sociability, below avg. will power, etc. High score indicates
that the person is nervous, over emotional, etc. Low score indicates that the person is stable
and confident.

QUESTIONNAIRE
A paper-pencil self-report instrument, which contains questions that respondents are asked to
answer in writing. Usually used to measure knowledge levels, opinion, attitude, belief, ideas,
feeling, and perception as well as to gather other factual information about the respondents
TYPES:
1. Open ended questions: Requires respondents to write essay type report to the questions asked.
(Here the subjects use their own language to respond the question). E. g., ‘what were the
problem you faced after ECT?’
2. Closed ended questions: Most structured type of questions in which respondents are asked to
choose from given alternatives (here subjects are forced to choose any one of the given
alternative)
e.g. how satisfied are you with your current position? Very satisfied, moderately satisfied,
moderately dissatisfied, very dissatisfied.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Inexpensive and require less time and • Respondent may fail to answer some of the
energy to collect data from large samples items as there is no opportunity to clarify
any items that may be misunderstood by
subjects
• Allows for complete anonymity • Social desirability
• Easiest research instruments to test reliability • The subject who respond may not
and validity represent the population

INVENTORIES
A Personality Inventory is a self-report questionnaire (a survey filled out by the client) that asks a
series of questions about thoughts, interests, feelings, and behaviors that is aimed at developing a
general profile about a person’s personality and lifestyle. Inventory is typically used to refer to a
single comprehensive questionnaire. It has the connotation of incorporating all aspects of a
certain concept.
INTERVIEWS
A face-to-face structured or unstructured verbal communication between the researcher and
subject during which information is obtained. Usually used in obtaining factual data about people
experience, perception, preferences, problems, feelings, attitude etc.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
1. Structured Interviews: Use of strategies that provide an increasing amount of control by the
researcher over the content of the interview. Wordings of questions, the sequence in which
they are asked and the possible responses are planned by developing an interview schedule.
2. Unstructured Interviews: Initiated with a broad question, and subjects are usually encouraged
to further elaborate on particular dimensions.
3. Semi-structured Interviews: Interviewer are generally required to ask a certain number of
specific structured question, but both the interviewer and the subject are free to deviate from
the prepared agenda.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• The response rate is always higher. • Time consuming and expensive
• Allows to clarify responses made. • May require hiring and training of
interviewers
• Allows observation of verbal and non- • Subjects may become self-conscious or
verbal behaviour. unwilling or omit responses
• Allow for richer and more complex data.

PROJECTIVE TESTS
Projective tests are a type of personality test in which the individual must respond
to ambiguous scenes, words or images or in some cases even draw.

Projective tests are indirect measures of personality. In projective tests, the individual is given an
unstructured situation to which he responds. Meaning and interpretation of the situation vary from
individual to individual so there are no right or wrong answers. An individual projects his own
feelings, needs and emotions, motives etc.

CLASSIFICATION
Projective tests are classified into 5;
1. Constitutive: All those test situations in which the examinee constitutes or frames structures
upon materials, which are yet unstructured. E.g. finger painting, drawing completion.
Rorschach also fall in this category in the sense that here the examinee imposes his own
structure upon unstructured inkblot situations.
2. Constructive: Here the examinee is required to construct a specific task. Examinees own wish
or desire is done. E.g. asked to draw a male or female this would be included in the
constructive category
3. Interpretative: Where the examinee is required to add a comprehensive meaning to the
situation. E.g. TAT, Word association test
4. Refractive: An opportunity to express his personality in the form of painting, drawing,
handwriting, etc. E.g. Graphology
5. Cathartic: Examinee is given an opportunity through some manipulative tasks for the release of
his conflicts, wish etc. E.g. play techniques
The known projective test, introduced in 1921 by Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, is based
on the use of inkblots.
Projective techniques such as the Rorschach test were originally based on psychodynamic
assumptions about the nature of personality and psychopathology. Considerable emphasis was
placed on the importance of unconscious motivations —conflicts and impulses of which the
person is largely unaware.
Projective tests provide the subject with a stimulus situation to impose upon it one’s own personal
needs and his own specific perceptions and interpretations. Various projective tests are intended
to elicit responses. Those will reveal the individuals’ personality in the form of feelings, values,
motives, complexes, and adjustment. Through the projective tests, the individual projects the inner
aspects of his personality through his creations (stories) and interpretations.
Through this process of projection, the individual involuntarily brings out or reveal traits which are
below the surface which cannot be brought out by questionnaires.
Personality questionnaires are designed to elicit feelings or behaviors in a variety of representative
situations.
Whereas projective tests are mostly unstructured and instructions are given generally. It permits
flexibility and variety of responses. The responses need not be right or wrong ones.
The subject is expected to give responses (interpretation) spontaneously.
Projective tests in contrast to questionnaires evaluates trait, provides opportunity to understand
personality as a whole. It provides holistic conception of personality.
TYPES OF PROJECTIVE TESTS
1) Association to inkblots or words (Structural)
i. Rorschach inkblot test
ii. Holtzman inkblot technique
iii. Word Association Test
2) Construction of stories or sequences (Thematic)
i. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
ii. Picture Projective Test (PPT)
iii. Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
iv. Blacky Pictures
3) Expression with drawing or play (Expressive)
i. Draw a Person test
ii. House Person Tree test
4) Arrangement/ selection of pictures or verbal choice
i. Szondi Test
5) Completions of sentences or stories
i. Sentence Completion Test (SCT)
ii. Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB)
iii. Rosenzwig Picture Frustration Study

EVALUATION OF PROJECTIVE TESTS

• Fake ability • Objectivity
• Standardization • Reliability
• Validity • Situational Variables
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PROJECTIVE TESTS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
It is more comfortable than structured Lack of standardization in administration and
interviews or other methods scoring is a serious problem. The reliability of
scoring and interpretation tends to be low
Projective tests can provide an interesting Little information is available on which to base
source of information regarding the person’s comparisons to normal adults or children.
unique view of the world, and they can be a
useful supplement to information obtained
with other assessment tools.
To whatever extent a person’s relationships Some projective procedures, such as the
with other people are governed by Rorschach, can be very time-consuming.
unconscious cognitive and emotional events,
projective tests may provide information that
cannot be obtained through direct
interviewing methods or observational
procedures.
Faking is greatly minimized Validity is less
Minimal language skills, cross-cultural utility Less objective (bias)
Tap unconscious as well as conscious material Influenced by situational variable. Requires
which the subject would be unwilling or highly trained administrators.
unable to give if they knew the purpose of the
assessment

THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT)

Originally published by Murray and his colleagues at the Harvard Psychological Clinic in 1938
Description: The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is, along with the Rorschach, among the most
widely used, researched, and taught projective tests in existence. It consists of a series of pictures
of relatively ambiguous scenes to which subjects are requested to make up stories or fantasies
concerning what is, has, and is going to happen, along with a description of the thoughts and
feelings of the various characters depicted. The test protocol thus provides the examiner with a
rich source of data, based on the subject's perceptions and imagination, for use in the
understanding of the subject's current needs, motives, emotions, and conflicts, both conscious
and unconscious. Its use in clinical assessment is generally part of a larger battery of tests and
interview data.
Commonly referred to as the TAT, this projective method consists of thirty pictures plus one blank
card. (31 cards). The cards are used in various combinations, depending upon sex and age. Some
are used with all subjects, while others are used with only one sex group or age group. The
maximum number of pictures used with any subject is twenty, usually administered in two sessions,
ten each time. In actual clinical practice, however, examiners frequently use only ten cards,
selected for the particular case.

Theoretical basis for TAT

i. Personology (Needs/ Press theory): Needs as the basic elements of personality
ii. Murray’s concepts of personality
TAT measures:
• How individuals interact with their environments
• How people are affected by external forces
• How their unique sets of needs, attitudes, and values influence their reaction to the world
around them
• Means of measuring the strengths of various needs as expressed by the designated hero in the
story.
 1. PERSONOLOGY
Needs are provoked by internal processes and environmental forces. They are largely
unconscious. There are 28 needs and 24 presses.
Instruction:
This is a test of imagination, that he is to make up stories to suit himself, and that there is no right or
wrong response. The pictures are shown one at a time. The subject is informed that each card
shows a scene. He is asked (1) to tell what he thinks led up to the scene; how it came about; (2)
what is happening and the feelings of the characters in the picture; (3) what the outcome will be.
There are no time limits; the subject is encouraged to continue for as long as five minutes on a
picture. The account should be recorded verbatim if possible. It is recommended that testing be
followed by an interview to learn the origins of the stories, seeking associations to places, names of
persons, dates.
• The subject’s accounts not only are a product of his inner personality traits but may be a
superficial reflection of cultural forces (radio, television, movies, comics, current events,
reading materials etc.)
• TAT pictures are not unstructured to the same degree as inkblots, they are sufficiently
ambiguous to permit a wide latitude for individual differences in responses.
ANALYSIS OF STORIES
Interpretation of TAT stories may be made in one of several ways, depending upon the viewpoint
of the examiner and the purpose of the testing. But in all instances, the details of stories must be
viewed against facts known about the personality being studied. The stories should not be
interpreted in vacuo. In some cases, rereading the stories several times will reveal the subject’s
basic problems, for repetitive patterns may be found throughout; or it may be found that facts
and aspects of different stories constitute a meaningful whole. Or one may make an analysis in
accordance with the scheme provided by Murray, or in accordance with modifications
suggested by others
2. MURRAY’S METHOD
Murray recommends that the content of stories be analyzed into (1) the forces emanating from
the “hero” and (2) the forces emanating from the environment. These two divisions are analyzed
under the following six categories.
i. The Hero: the character in each picture with whom the subject identifies; in whom the subject
is most interested; whose point of view, feelings, and motives have been most intimately
portrayed. The heroes are to be characterized by the interpreter according to their principal
traits (for ex: solitariness, leadership, superiority, and criminality).
Motives, trends, and feelings of the heroes: analysis of everything each of the heroes feels,
thinks, and does; noting especially the unusual, the high frequencies, and the high and low
intensities. Such as achievement, aggression, dominance, passivity, nurturance, sex,
rejection etc.
Their strength as expressed through intensity, duration, frequency, and importance in the
plot (for ex: abasement, achievement, dominance, conflict, dejection).
ii. Forces in the hero’s environment: the nature and details of the situations, especially human,
noting uniqueness, intensity, and frequency, as well as objects and persons not in the picture
but invented by the subject.
The environmental forces are classified according to the effect – realized or promised-upon
the hero. More than thirty such forces have been listed (for ex: rejection, physical injury,
dominance, lack, loss). The strengths of these are rated on a scale of one to five.
• Outcomes: The comparative strengths of the forces emanating from the hero and the
strengths of those from the environment; the amount of hardship and frustration experienced;
relative degrees of success and failure; happy and unhappy endings.
• Themas: Interaction of a hero’s need with environmental forces, together with the successful or
unsuccessful outcome for the hero, constitute a simple thema. Combinations or sequences of
these are called complex themas. (deals with the interaction between needs and press both
the person and situation considered, E.g.; someone is snubbed and responds in kind. The
thema, simple or complex, is a synthesis of the elements analyzed under the first four
categories, the purpose being to view the several forces in their interrelationships and to
determine the subject’s most prevalent problems arising from internal needs and external
forces.
• Interests and sentiments: Choice of topics and manner of dealing with them, displayed by the
positive and negative appeal of various elements in the picture (for ex: older women who may
be mother figures, older men as father figures, same or opposite sex).

SITUATIONAL TESTS
Situational personality test was first developed by united state office of strategic service (OSS)
during the World War 2 effort to screen out men for military assignment.
Standardized test and observational method of assessing personality. Personality traits are
measured on the basis of observations of rating of what a person think and does in a given
situation. The person has no idea that he is being examined. Situational test more suited to the
measurement of traits like leadership, dominance, responsibility, and extraversion-introversion.
Sometimes these tests utilize directly observable units of behaviour as the basis assessment of the
trait. Such situational test is called behavioural test because they are directly concerned with
observable behaviour. Character Educational Inquiry (CEI) tests were principally designed to
measure behavioural tests like altruism, honesty, and self-control (most CEI tests were concerned
with measuring honesty among children).
Behavioural test utilized natural situation lying within the day-to-day routine of a school child such
as games, class- room examination, etc. Children not aware of the fact that they were being
studied.
Limitations: They are time consuming, costly, laborious technique, situation cannot be planned so
limited behaviour can be observed.

OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Structured and unstructured observations are used to measure study variables. It is not merely
looking at what is happening, but rather is watching with a trained eye for certain specific events.
A combination of both structured and unstructured observation is also used which provide both
quantitative and qualitative type of data.
Structured observation clearly identifies what is to be observed and precisely defining how the
observations are to be made, recorded and coded. Usually used tools are check list, rating scale
or categorization system.
Unstructured observation involves spontaneously observing and recording what is seen with a
minimum of prior planning.
Event sampling observation: involves observation of an entire event
Time sampling observation: involves observation of events or behaviour during certain specified
times.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Ensures validity of findings Vulnerable to biases and distortion because of
observer involvement
Collects data in variety and depth Personal factors of observer influence the way
behaviour and events are observed
Eliminates biases because of recall Excessive training is necessary if assistance are
used
Relatively inexpensive Use of recording devices are expensive
Can be stopped or begun at any time Difficulty to be present to observe key events
Technique is flexible to all designs and setting Ethical concern when observation data is
concealed
MEASUREMENT OF INTERESTS
There are various methods of measuring interests, such as interviews, check lists, direct
observations, questionnaires and inventories. Questionnaires and inventories are the most
important methods of measuring interests.
TYPES OF INTERESTS
Super has suggested three types of interests—Expressed Interests, Manifested Interests and Tested
Interests.
1. Expressed Interest:
It refers to interest in an object, activity, subject of study or occupation as verbally expressed by
an individual.
2. Manifested Interest:
This refers to the actual participation in an activity or occupation.
3. Tested Interest:
It refers to an individual’s interest as measured by interest inventories.
STRONG INTEREST INVENTORY (SII)
It an interest inventory used in career assessment. As such, career assessments may be used in
career counseling. It is also frequently used for educational as one of the most popular career
assessment tools. The test was developed by psychologist Edward Kellog Strong, Jr. to help people
exiting the military find suitable jobs. It was revised later by Jo-Ida Hansen and David P. Campbell.
The modern version is based on the Holland Codes typology of psychologist John L. Holland. The
Strong is designed for high school students, college students, and adults, and was found to be at
about the ninth-grade reading level. It is an assessment of interests, and not to be confused with
personality assessments or aptitude test.
The newly revised inventory consists of 291 items that measure an individual's interest in six areas:

Area Number of Questions in Each Area

Occupations 107

Subject Areas 46

Activities 85

Leisure Activities 28

People 16

Your Characteristics 9
The Strong assessment measures interests in four main categories of scales:
o General Occupational Themes (GOTs): 6 GOTs measure basic categories of occupational
interests—Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional (RIASEC)—
based on John Holland’s theory (Holland, 1959). Studies have found the GOTs to be
predictive of work-related variables. GOT reliabilities range from .90 to .95. BISs from .80 to
.92, and PSSs from .82 to .87.
o Basic Interest Scales (BISs): 30 BISs measure clusters of interest related to the GOTs in areas
such as Athletics, Science, Performing Arts, and Sales. Research has shown the BISs can
accurately distinguish occupations.
o Personal Style Scales (PSSs): 5 PSSs—Work Style, Learning Environment, Leadership Style, Risk
Taking, and Team Orientation—measure preferences for and comfort levels with styles of
living and working. Validity of the PSSs has been supported through research showing their
relationships with the Skills Confidence Inventory.
o Occupational Scales (OSs): 260 Oss (130 for men, 130 for women) measure the extent to
which a person’s interests are similar to the interests of people of the same gender working
in 130 diverse occupations, such as Accountant, Bartender, and Computer Programmer.
Validity of the OSs has been demonstrated in research showing their ability to predict the
occupations that people will eventually enter. Determining internal consistency reliability is
not appropriate for the OSs because the scales contain items with heterogeneous content
and are empirically derived.
The current norm sample for the Strong is called the General Representative Sample (GRS) and
consists of 2,250 individuals (50% men, 50% women). The GRS is generally representative of the
racial and ethnic makeup of the U.S. workforce (Donnay, Morris, Schaubhut, & Thompson, 2005).
All scales are measured using the GRS, except the OSs.

THE KUDER OCCUPATIONAL INTEREST SURVEY (KOIS)

The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOS ranks second in popularity and tries to provide a
unique alterative to SCII. The earliest version of K0IS was named the Kuder Preference Record –
Vocation. In this original version the scores were obtained not for specific occupations but for 10
broad interest areas, namely, Outdoor Mechanical, Computational, Scientific, Persuasive, Artistic,
Literary, Musical, Social Science, and Clerical. Subsequently, this inventory was revised and a
downward extension of the Kuder Preference Record Vocation was made. This revised inventory
was named the Kuder General Interest Survey (KGIS) which was designed for Grades 6 to 12, using
simpler language and easier vocabulary. A still later version of KGIS appeared and was called the
Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS) and it provided scores with reference to specific
occupational groups as does the Strong Inventory.
Studies show that the psychometric properties of KOIS are very satisfactory Short-term reliabilities
tend to be high (between 89 and 95) and also, evidence suggests that scores remain stable for as
long as 30 years. Reviewers have however, pointed out the dearth of the predictive validity data
of this scale. Apart from this, the inventory also fails to address the effects of its forced-choice
format on scores.

JACKSON VOCATIONAL INTEREST SURVEY (JVIS)

The Jackson Vocational Interest Survey was developed by Jackson. It consists of forced-choice
type items where the respondents must indicate their preference between two equally popular
interests. Rational classification of vocational interest items was of two types: One set was defined
in terms of work roles and the other set was defined in terms of work styles. Work roles relate to
what a person does on the job and work styles refer not to job-related activities but to preferences
for particular working environment or situations in which a certain kind of behaviors expected.
Examples of work styles include independence, playfulness, etc. which were, of course, related to
a person's values either directly or indirectly.
JVIS has been revised in and the final form contains 34 basic interest scales, covering 26 work roles
and work styles. It is designed in such a way that it could be equally applicable to both sexes,
although separate percentile norms for male and female are available. Today IVIS is basically
used for the career education and counselling of high school and college students. It is also used
in planning careers for adults. It contains 289 statements describing various job-related activities. It
takes about 45 minutes to complete and from 34 basic interest scales, score forms.

CAREER ASSESSMENT INVENTORY (CAI)

The Career Assessment Inventory (CAD) had been first developed by Johansson and recently
revised. It is based on the Strong Inventory. It is designed especially for people who seek a career
but don't have college degree or any advanced professional training a basically concentrates on
skilled trades, technical work and various types of service occupations.
The CAI has 305 items which are grouped into three content categories Activities, School subjects
and Occupations. In each item, there are five response options ranging from ‘like very much’ to
‘dislike very much'. Although CAl is written at a sixth-grade reading level, it can also be used with
adults who have poor reading skills. It provides scores on three major types of scales, including
Holland's six General Theme scales, 22 homogeneous Basic Interest Areas scales and 89
occupational scales.

SELF-DIRECTED SEARCH (SDS)

The Self-Directed Search (SDS) has been developed by Holland whose hexagonal model of
general occupational themes has attracted wide attention. It is a unique interest inventory in the
sense that it is a self-administered, self-scored and self-interpreted, vocational counselling
instrument. The SDS contains 228 items. A set of 66 items, grouped into six scales with 11 items
each, describe activities. A set of another 66 items assess competencies which are again grouped
into six scales of 11 items each. Occupations are evaluated by six scales of 14 items each. Self-
estimates are obtained in two sets of six ratings. The respondent fills out the SDS, scores the
responses and calculates six summary scores. corresponding to the themes of the Holland model.
These six summary scores can be used to obtain codes that reflect the highest areas of interest.
The SDS also attempts to simulate the process of counselling by allowing respondents to allow to
list occupations which indicate occupational preferences in six areas and ultimately, rate abilities
and skills in aspirations, then areas. Using the SDS, the respondents can also build a meaningful
personal career theory which, going beyond interests, includes readiness for career-decision
making and readiness to obtain guidance.
Kuder's model seems more suitable for Indian conditions. Singh adapted the Kuder Preference
Record in Hindi; Naik adapted the same form in Oriya: Parikh (1971) adapted the vocational form
in Gujarati; and Gopalan adapted it in Malayalam. Trivedi constructed an interest inventory for
undergraduate students. Palsane also constructed an interest inventory in Marathi for school and
college-leaving students.