Social Research:

 Social research is the study that deals with learning about people and societies.
 Social research is the study of social trends, dynamics and principles that exist
between individuals and within societies.
 Professionals perform social research in order to better understand the social factors
that motivate and influence human beings and to analyse how and why humans
interact with each other.
 Social research mainly focuses on finding the patterns of norms in social life.
 This research generally deals with huge social-economic groups rather than a person.
 Social research: The systematic study of society, the patterns in it and the processes
that shape what people do.
 Method: The research technique or practice used to gather and analyse the research
data.

Nature:
 Social Research follows a systematic plan of action, including qualitative and
quantitative observation methods.
 Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of data that can be
presented numerically or codified and subjected to statistical testing. (example:
survey, questionnaires and structured interviews) (Larger data sources)
 Qualitative research attempts to gather information through non-numerical means,
such as observation and interviews. (a process that does not usually require statistics
or large-scale data)
 Quantitative: methods that produce data relating to social phenomena that are
amenable to statistical analysis vs. Qualitative: methods that concentrate on drawing
on the detail and social meaning of social phenomena
 Primary research involves gathering new data through the creation of an experiment
or study. (data collected for the first time by researcher themselves) (fieldwork)
 Since data is collected first-hand, it’s highly accurate according to the requirement of
research.
 Secondary research combining, organizing and analyzing information in order to
generate new conclusions from preexisting data. (books, reports, websites, papers,
magazine, encyclopedia)

Scope:
 Understanding social life
 Controlling social problems
 Challenging existing theories
 Revising theories with new evidence
 Predicting social phenomena
 Guiding social growth
Steps in Research:
1. Selection of Research Problem: Narrow down the broad area into sub-areas to select a
specific and manageable topic for the research (eg: Domestic Violence – cause,
impact on children)
2. Review of related literature:
 Understand various aspects of topics required for conducting research
 Understand nature of work done on topic
 Identify research gaps
 Make a theoretical background
3. Formulation of research objectives: aim of the study (eg: Impact of domestic violence
on children – emotional development, academics, physical health, social behaviour)
SMART – specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented and time-limited
4. Devising hypothesis: hypothesis is a testable assumption showing relationship among
certain variables of research
5. Making research design: Plan of research – methods and procedures
 Methodology: quantitative or qualitative
 Tool: survey, observation, interview, questionnaire
 Who will be respondents and how many (sample size and technique)
 Analysis of data: software, manual graph, table
 Test to verify: chi-square test or Cronbach alpha
6. Sampling Procedure: Selecting a part of the population for research study that is truly
a representative of the entire population (random sampling, stratified, probability,
non-probability, purposive)
7. Data Collection: Primary or secondary data
8. Data analysis and Interpretation:
 Analysed to generate findings
 Prepared for analysis: data editing and data codings
 Techniques: qualitative and quantitative
9. Hypothesis Testing: statistical tests to reject or confirm correlation
10. Deriving findings, conclusions and suggestions: final inferences and
recommendations to possible audience
11. Report writing: Thesis or dissertation (title page – abstract – introduction – literature
review – research design – data analysis and interpretation – findings and suggestions
– references)
Note:
 Hypothesis: Tentative statement that is testable which can be accepted or rejected.
 Types: Null and Alternative
 Null Hypothesis: Absence of relationship between variables (eg: there is no
relationship between height and shoe size)
 Alternative Hypothesis: Proposes a specific relationship or effect between variables
(eg: Positive relationship between height and shoe size)
 Directional Alternative Hypothesis: Direction is specified – one-tailed hypothesis (eg:
therapy decreases depression)
 Non-directional Alternative Hypothesis: Direction is not specifies (negative or
positive) – two-tailed hypothesis (eg: therapy has an effect on depression)
  Sample size: number of total respondents
 Data editing: checking the collected data for errors or missing information and
correcting it accordingly
 Data coding: Scaling variables in data so that they can be measured (Scales: nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio)

Types of social research:

1. Quantitative: Collecting and statistically analysing numerical data. Helps in finding
averages, patterns and predictions.
2. Qualitative: gathering descriptive opinions of people through open-ended questions in
a survey or an interview.
3. Applied: Research that provides solutions for real-life problems. Used to get to the
solutions which can be implemented immediately. (eg: covid)
4. Pure: Does not concern about providing solutions. Main objective is to provide a total
understanding of a topic. Can be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive.
5. Exploratory: Provides a better understanding of existing problem but will not provide
final solutions. Used when you have to study scope of existing problem for its future.
(seeks to create hypothesis rather than test it)
6. Descriptive: describes the characteristics of the variables. Also called observational
research as variables are not changed during research.
7. Explanatory: revisiting phenomenon that were not studied in depth before.
8. Conceptual: observing and analysing already existing topic. Doesn’t involve any
practical research. Concepts and theoretical ideology of the topic. (Stephen hawking
had a conceptualization of black hole)
9. Empirical: concluding only from verifiable shreds of evidence.
10. Deductive: creates a hypothesis on the theory and then research is done to test if the
hypothesis is true. Top-down approach that goes from more general to specific
11. Inductive: works with focus on developing a theory. Moves from observations to
generalisation. Used when a topic does not have enough existing literature.
12. Cross – sectional: Collect data from a population at a specific point in time
13. Longitudinal: Repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period
of time
14. Ethnographic: a qualitative method that involves observing and interacting with
participants in their natural environment.
15. Case-study: an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is
aimed to generalize over several units

Evaluation tools:
Objectivity:
 A test is objective when no external conditions affect the process and its evaluation.
 Proceeding without any bias or personal opinions.
 Bias is an unfair preference of someone or something.
 Not influenced by an individual previous experience, preferences or taste.
  Interpretation based on factual data collected.
 Relevance: value of research must be held by people or groups of people in the
society and should not be something researcher alone perceives as important.
 Feasible: aim for perfection and unattainable goals should not be base for research.

Reliability
 Closely linked to consistency
 Test is reliable if it has a high level of measuring accuracy.
 If findings or results are same or similar when entire process is repeated it is reliable.
 When any instrument or tool has been used multiple times with similar results across
all the uses, we can conclude that the said instrument or tool is reliable.
 unreliability in data may be caused by one of the following:
1. Participant error: when data is collected across time, errors may occur due to
changes within the participant such as illness, tiredness and hunger all of which
may lead to a lack of concentration and focus.
2. Researcher error: the possibility of this error occurring are higher when the
number of data collectors or researchers increases and/or the number of
measurements increase
 Common ways to establish reliability:
1. Test- retest method: In the test –retest method, we use the same tool or instrument
two times at two different times on the same respondent and then calculate the
correlation between the two sets of data. This correlation which is also known as the
reliability correlation tells us how consistent or dependable the tool/ instrument is.
2. Internal consistency method: This method focuses on assessing the extent to which
a set of questions accurately measure the specific sub topic within a tool. Coefficient
alpha or Cronbach alpha widely used for this purpose. (eg: write four statements
dealing with same subtopic and place them at different points in the scale. Once we
get the data, we group all these together and calculate the correlation between all four
statements)
3. Interrater method: To ensure that there is no bias from the ‘data collector’, the
interrater method is used where two ‘data collectors’ conduct the observation at the
same time using the same observation guide. Both will also observe the same
respondent or subject. The data is then compared either using Cohen’s Kappa or
Spearman-Brown formula. This method is also used when there is a team of data
collectors.
4. Split half reliability: Split-half reliability is determined by dividing the total set of
items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves (e.g., odd-
numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results obtained from the
two subsets of items thus created.

Validity:
 How accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.
 Accuracy and appropriateness of the conclusions drawn from the data.
  Types of validity:
1. Face validity: other peers or experts also agree that the tool used actually
measures what the research wants it to.
2. External validity: how well the outcome of the research can be applied to other
settings. (the extent to which results and findings are generalizable)
3. Internal validity: focuses on cause-effect relationship amongst the variables being
studied (show whether the changes that we have noted in the dependent variable
are indeed the result of changes in the independent variable)

Research Variables:
 Variable: any attribute or structure that is measured, manipulated or controlled in
research.
 Variable: trait of an item of analysis in research that varies
 Independent variables are the cause, and dependent variables are the effect.
 Independent Variable: These variables aren't affected by any other variables that the
study measures.
 Dependent variable: The value of the dependent variable depends on changes in the
independent variable.
 Quantitative: data involving numbers or amounts (height, distance)
 Qualitative: non-numerical values (eye colour, dog breed)
 Extraneous variable: factors affecting the dependent variable but the researcher did
not originally consider when designing the experiment. (socioeconomic status, prior
knowledge)
 Confounding variable: variable that affects both dependent and independent variable
(sleep / food)

Research questions should meet the following criteria:

 Focus on a single problem or issue
 Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
 Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
 Specific enough to answer thoroughly
 Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis

Characteristics of a good hypothesis:

1. Clear and brief
2. Testable (right or wrong)
3. Grounded in knowledge (past knowledge, literature reviews, theory)
4. Specific
5. Measurable
 6. Repeatable
7. Never a question
8. Specify variables

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that uses sample data and probability to determine if
there is enough evidence to support a hypothesis.
Seven steps of hypothesis testing:
1. State the null hypothesis (H0)
2. State the alternative hypothesis (Ha or H1)
3. Set α (critical value)
4. Collect data
5. Calculate a test statistic
6. Construct acceptance/rejection regions (p < 0.05)
7. Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about H0

 When the alternative hypothesis claims p > 0.5 (notice the 'greater than symbol), the
critical region would fall at the right side of the probability distribution curve. In this
case, the right-tailed hypothesis test is used.
 When the alternative hypothesis claims p < 0.5 (notice the 'less than' symbol), the
critical region would fall at the left side of the probability distribution curve. In this
case, the left-tailed hypothesis test is used.
 In the case of the alternative hypothesis p ≠ 0.5, a definite direction cannot be
decided, and therefore the critical region falls at both the tails of the probability
distribution curve. In this case, the two-tailed test should be used.

Delphi Technique

 The Delphi method is a process used to arrive at a group opinion or decision by

surveying a panel of experts.
 Experts respond to several rounds of questionnaires, and the responses are
aggregated and shared with the group after each round.
 The experts can adjust their answers each round, based on how they interpret the
“group response” provided to them.
 The ultimate result is meant to be a true consensus of what the group thinks.
 Responses of the participants are anonymous, individual panellists don’t have to
worry about repercussions for their opinions.
 The anonymity of the participants also helps prevent the “halo effect,” which sees
higher priority given to the views of more powerful or higher-ranking members of the
group.
 Allow participants to rethink and refine their opinions based on the input of others,
contributing to a more reflective and thoughtful process.

Focus Group Discussion

 A focus group is a research method that involves a small group of people
answering questions in a moderated setting.
 The purpose of a focus group is to gain insight into the experiences and
perspectives of various stakeholders
 Choose participants: Use sampling methods to choose participants. Consider the
balance between diverse perspectives and an adequate discussion size.
 Designate a moderator or co-moderators to facilitate the discussion.
 There are three types of focus group questions:
1. Engagement questions: Introduce participants to and make them comfortable
with the topic of discussion.
2. Exploration questions: Get to the meat of the discussion.
3. Exit questions: Check to see if anything was missed in the discussion.