sustainability

Article
Feasibility Study of a Reverse Osmosis Desalination Unit
Powered by Photovoltaic Panels for a Sustainable Water Supply
in Algeria
Zahia Tigrine 1 , Hanene Aburideh 1 , Djamila Zioui 1 , Sarra Hout 1 , Naima Sahraoui 2 , Yasmine Benchoubane 2 ,
Amina Izem 2 , Djilali Tassalit 1 , Fatma Zohra Yahiaoui 1 , Mohamed Khateb 3 , Nadjib Drouiche 4,5, *
and Seif El Islam Lebouachera 6,7, *

1 Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires (UDES), Centre de Développement des Energies
Renouvelables (CDER), Route Nationale N◦ 11, Bou-Ismail 42415, Algeria
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Process Engineering, University of Science and Technology Houari
Boumediene (USTHB), Algiers 16111, Algeria
3 Usine de Dessalement d’Eau de Mer, Fouka 42000, Algeria; [Link]@[Link]
4 Centre de Recherche en Technologie Semi-Conducteurs pour l’Energétique,
Division CCPM, N2, Bd Dr. Frantz Fanon, Algiers 16038, Algeria
5 Agence Nationale de Valorisation des Résultats de la Recherche et du Développement Téchnologique,
11 Chemin Doudou Mokhtar, Ben Aknoun, Algiers 16028, Algeria
6 Institut des Sciences Analytiques et de Physico-Chimie pour l’Environnement et les Matériaux, IPREM,
UMR 5254, CNRS Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour/E2S, 2 Avenue P. Angot, Technopôle Hélioparc,
64000 Pau, France
7 Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, E2S UPPA, CNRS, TotalEnergies, LFCR, Allée du Parc Montaury,
64600 Anglet, France
* Correspondence: nadjibdrouiche@[Link] (N.D.); [Link]@[Link] (S.E.I.L.)

Abstract: In recent years, reverse osmosis water desalination has developed rapidly and has become
Citation: Tigrine, Z.; Aburideh, H.;
the most competitive and widely used technology in the world. The number of desalination plants is
Zioui, D.; Hout, S.; Sahraoui, N.;
increasing rapidly as freshwater needs increase. Various membrane technologies have been developed
Benchoubane, Y.; Izem, A.; Tassalit,
and improved, including nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO), whose desalination costs have
D.; Yahiaoui, F.Z.; Khateb, M.; et al.
Feasibility Study of a Reverse
been relatively reduced. Therefore, this work proposes an experimental study for a small desalination
Osmosis Desalination Unit Powered unit based on RO generated by renewable energy, which is mainly suitable for arid regions or desert
by Photovoltaic Panels for a areas that do not have electricity and water and can be applied for emergency treatment to meet
Sustainable Water Supply in Algeria. strong freshwater resource needs. In this study, to meet the drinking water demand, a reverse osmosis
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189. desalination system is designed and evaluated in order to improve and optimize its operation. This
[Link] system has a daily capacity of 2 m3 . We used brackish groundwater, which has been characterized as
su151914189 reference water, to produce synthetic water for different salinities until seawater. The analysis is based
Academic Editors: Agostina Chiavola on data obtained from experiments carried out in the standalone RO pilot designed for the production
and Yawei Shi of fresh water. For this purpose, we conducted relevant experiments to examine the influence of
applied pressure, salt concentration and temperature on the RO membrane performance. The effects
Received: 1 May 2023
of different factors that affect the energy consumption in the RO desalination process were analyzed,
Revised: 9 September 2023
and those with significant influence were explored. The effectiveness of RO desalination coupled
Accepted: 11 September 2023
Published: 26 September 2023
with a photovoltaic (PV) energy system is shown. We found the recovery rate for system operation to
be 32%. An optimization study is presented for the operation of an autonomous RO desalination
system powered by photovoltaic panels. The energy produced by the PV system was used to feed
two pumps forthe production of drinking waterwithanRO membrane, under the conditions of the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. town of Bou-Ismail. As results, a 3 kWp PV system was installed based on the energy demand. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. design data have shown that a 3 kWp PV system can power a 1.8 W RO load given the Bou-Ismail
This article is an open access article climate. Energy consumption in the case study under Bou-Ismail weather conditions were analyzed.
distributed under the terms and
The desalination of brackish water at a TDS value of 5 g/L requires an energy of about 1.5 kWh/m3 .
conditions of the Creative Commons
Using seawater at a TDS value of 35 g/L, this value increases to 5.6 kWh/m3 . The results showed
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
that the optimal recovery rate for system operation was determined to be 32% for a feedwater salinity
[Link]/licenses/by/
of 35 g/L, and 80% for a feedwater salinity of 1 g/L.
4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189. [Link] [Link]

Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 2 of 23

Keywords: reverse osmosis; desalination; membrane; temperature; seawater; renewable energy;

photovoltaic; energy consumption

1. Introduction
Fresh water is an essential element for any form of life. Unfortunately, it is not available
in infinite quantities on our planet, and it is not always available where it is needed most.
Population growth and urbanization are increasing the demand for water in industrial and
domestic urban areas. Problems arise in terms of quality for northern countries and in terms
of quantity for southern countries. Algeria unfortunately does not escape this situation
(water stress), given the scarcity of this precious liquid. This situation is due to a very
significant demographic boom towards the coastal zone (which shelters the big cities),an
elevation in the standard of living, increasing agriculture that requires large quantities of
water, and increasing industrial activity. In addition, climate change, which causes long
periods of drought, increases the pressure due to the lack of water resources. By definition,
a region is considered to be under water supply stress when annual water supplies fall
below 1700 m3 per capita. A region is faced with water scarcity if water supply drops below
1000 m3 per capita per year [1]. There are societal needs and personal needs for water.
For example, personal use is in the range of 180–200 L per day for consumption, cooking,
washing, and flushing toilets. Much of the water consumed by society is for non-personal
use, including agriculture, industry, healthcare, commercial services, etc. Unfortunately,
today, more than 1.4 billion people live on less than 1000 m3 of water per year. Develop-
ments in reverse osmosis (RO) membrane technology allow the desalination industry to
make the largest desalination facilities in the world to produce drinking water. Nowadays,
drinking water production has become a global concern for many regions, especially in
the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), North Africa, and Asia. Developing countries
suffer from rapid population growth with a scarcity of clean water, a lack of sanitation, an
unreliable electricity supply, and off-grid electricity. In fact, more than 1 billion people are
without clean drinking water, and approximately 2.3 billion people live in regions with
water shortages [2]. According to Nafiseh Aghababaei [3], freshwater contains less than
1000 mg/L of salts or total dissolved solids (TDS). At more than 1000 mg/L, properties
such as taste, color, corrosion propensity, and odor may be affected. Saltwater desalination
is a rapidly growing sector that satisfies the rapid increase in water demand in the sectors
of agriculture and industry. Around 107.95 million m3 /d of installed desalination capacity
was present globally at the end of 2022, and the market continues to grow [3]. The installed
capacity indicates that the annual rate increases by about 10%. Sustainable development
in the field of desalination consists of ensuring the efficient treatment andthe availability
and sustainable management of water. Indeed, all solar desalination systems integrate
solar technologies that can provide a sustainable solution to meet drinking water needs in
areas with clean water scarcity and water consumption in the industry [4]. Water desali-
nation processes are classified into two categories, namely thermal processes (distillation:
multiple-effect MSF (Multi-Stage Flash) [5–8] or MED (Multi-Effect distillation)) [9] and
membrane processes (RO, electrodialysis) [10–12].
RO is a mature membrane method that is technologically well controlled with recovery
rates of more than 60%. The big drawback is that it still consumes energy, despite the
integration of energy recovery systems. This depends on the water to be desalinated; a
lower specific energy consumption is found in brackish water (BWRO) due to its lower
osmotic pressure compared to seawater [13,14]. The energy requirements for BWRO and
SWRO are approximately 1–1.5 kWh/m3 and 3–4 kWh/m3 , respectively. Consequently, the
costs of desalination are mainly linked to the costs of the electrical energy consumed. To
this end, it is important to take up the challenge of reducing the energy cost of desalination
in the future. Desalination of seawater and brackish water is the best way to meet the
growing demand for drinking water. However, desalination remains relatively expensive
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 3 of 23

today, despite the drop in the cost of RO [15]. Actually, the majority of conventional water
resources are very limited in several regions in the world, according to the climate changes
that are explained by changes in global temperature and weather patterns observed today,
which have sounded an alarm. Therefore, to solve this problem, the desalination process is
presented as a solution by providing high-quality drinking water [16]. Renewable energy
RE has many advantages over traditional energy sources. It is clean, sustainable, and
has a low environmental impact. RE sources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy
sources, are becoming more affordable and reliable. Additionally, they can reduce air
and water pollution. They can also help reduce reliance on fossil fuels (electricity), which
are a major contributor to climate change and which provide energy security [17]. The
desalination of brackish water or seawater systems powered by renewable energy sources
offers a promising and sustainable solution that resolves water scarcity in many regions of
the world [18]. Indeed, solar energy systems coupled with desalination have contributed to
sustainable development that can take into account the environment. Different solar energy-
driven desalination technologies are mainly based on the capacity of the system, the type
of energy source, and the raw water to be purified. Desalination using renewable energies
is mainly based on the RO process, followed by the MSF and MED thermal processes [19].
The MENA region’s groundwater resources will decline gradually, and there will be a
water demand exceeding 13 million m3 /d by 2030. Therefore, desalination capacity is
expected to increase speedily by around 110 million m3 /d, and the total electricity demand
for desalination is also expected to reach 122 TWh [20].
The main source of renewable energy is the sun or solar power, which is converted into
electrical or thermal energy. The revolution in renewable energy technologies is resulting
in the speedy development of mainly solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, followed by wind
energy and solar thermal energy. In fact, the solar PV sector is one of the main generators
of energy (electricity generation) that produces economical energy, generating a significant
percentage of electricity needs. Actually, the integration of renewable energies in the
desalination process has been largely successful, as demonstrated by the RO membrane
(RO) process, followed by thermal desalination processes such as MSF and MED, which
consume a large amount of energy compared to RO [21].
In MENA countries, there is an increasing need for drinking water supplies because
their available resources are decreasing due to climate change and the pollution of sur-
face water or groundwater. The majority of available water resources have largely been
exploited. Consequently, the increased demand for water increases the cost of developing
non-conventional water sources. RO is a more efficient and economically viable process.
Pressure is used to reverse the osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable mem-
brane [22]. These regions cannot sustainably meet their actual water demand without using
a supply from non-conventional resources, especially desalination and treated wastewater
reuse. Salt groundwater is always abundant and available in semi-arid regions whose salin-
ities can be very high, and it particularly changes depending on the land’s topography and
the environment. Different existing experiments show the technical and significant viability
of coupling RO water desalination with PV. Various existing experiments demonstrate
the technical and significant viability of coupling desalination with an RO plant using PV
technology, as installed in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Morocco and Tunisia [23]; Doha-Qatar [24];
Egypt [25]; Spain [26]; Tanzania [27,28]; etc.
For the performance evaluation of the desalination system, A.M. Helal [29] conducted
an economic feasibility analysis of alternative designs of a PV-RO desalination unit for
remote areas in the United Arab Emirates. He used three different energy systems: a diesel
generator, PV-diesel, and an off-grid PV system without battery backup to operate the
RO system. It was shown that a permeate productivity of 20 m3 /d was produced using
the assisted PV-ROdiesel, but a freshwater volume of 44 m3 /d was obtained using the
solar RO on a clear and sunny day. In fact, because desalination is an energy-intensive
process, a sustainable energy source is needed [30]. H. Bilal et al. [31] carried out a study
onaportable RO (PVRO) system with a battery and without a battery, running the RO
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 4 of 23

system for 5 h. Without energy storage, the analysis showed that permeate productivity
was 3.8 L/h, while it increased to 5.9 L/h with the battery. The freshwater productivity
was 9.8%. In addition, they found that the batteryless PV system was more economically
suitable than the battery-powered system.
Using HOMER ([Link] accessed on 9 August 2023) and
Excel software, a techno-economic study of an off-grid PV-RO system in nine districts of Iran
was conducted by A. Mostafaeipour et al. [32]. The study concluded that solar desalination
is an economically viable technology. Ghafoor, A et al. [33] performed an experimental
study of an RO plant (500 L/h) coupled with a solar PV system (2 kWp) to analyze techno-
economic feasibility. The performance of the PV-RO system in terms of power produced
and membrane productivity, along with an economic analysis, was evaluated. They found
that 15–20% of the PV energy is increased by tracking the PV system, while 5–10% is due to
cooling the PV panels. The cost per liter of desalinated water was calculated to be USD
0.002592, with a total monthly profit of USD 194.4. The payback period of the PV-RO
system was calculated to be 1.83 years. Shalaby, S.M et al. [34] focused on solar-based RO
plants, which have been established to decrease the specific energy consumption by using
PV or solar thermal power plants—in particular, the organic Rankine cycle. In addition,
various preheating techniques performed by recovered heat from other systems, such as a
PV cooling unit, a humidification–dehumidification process, and hybrid systems used for
brine disposal challenges were presented and discussed. Maftouh et al. [35] presented a
comparative and systematic review of the economic feasibility of using solar PV-RO for
desalination in the MENA region. They highlighted the importance of RO technology
powered by renewable energy resources, in which the detailed challenges associated with
the solar RO technique were elucidated. They concluded that RO systems are more cost-
effective in MENA countries where water salinity is lower, which explains why North
African countries use RO systems. On the other hand, the Gulf Cooperation Council
countries choose thermal processes because of the higher salinity of the water. It was found
that the use of renewable energy in desalination is economically feasible, depending on the
specific needs and water conditions of each country. To maximize the rate of freshwater
production, Monjezi, Alireza Abbassi et al. [36] developed an off-grid solar energy-powered
RO desalination system with integrated PV thermal (PVT) cooling. They evaluated and
compared the required solar panel area with and without a cooling system. The results
showed that a reduction of 0.12 kWh/m3 in the specific energy consumption (SEC) of the
RO unit can be achieved by using PVT cooling, resulting in a 6% reduction in solar panel
surface.
Various factors need to be taken into account when designing brackish water reverse
osmosis (BWRO) desalination plants with short operating times, such as those powered by
renewable energy sources [37,38]. Many published works have studied the impact of oper-
ating parameters and SEC in the intermittent mode (during solar irradiance fluctuation)
on the performance of a BWRO desalination plant during operation and, consequently, on
osmotic backwash and membrane fouling [39–42]. The evolution of operating parameters
and the ideal SEC over a long period of intermittent operation with constant water pro-
duction has been carried out and investigated in the relevant work of A. Ruiz-García and I.
Nuez [38,40]. The objectives were to provide a long-term performance analysis of a large-
scale BWRO desalination plant operating intermittently without membrane replacement.
Other variable renewable energy sources for powering RO desalination have been investi-
gated in a case study of wave-powered desalination in Kilifi, Kenya and experimental data
on a commercial RO system presented by [Link] et al. [39]. They discuss the possibility of
using wave energy converters (WECs) to power RO systems. It was found that the power
output of the WEC studied in this work is estimated to be 7 kW, and it would be sufficient
to power a suitably sized RO system.
Algeria is facing a severe water crisis due to the increasing demand for water, limited
water resources, and climate change [43]. The latter has led to decreased rainfall and
increased temperatures, resulting in increased water evaporation. In addition, the lack of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 5 of 23

water has caused severe damage to the environment, leading to desertification and soil
erosion. This has had a negative impact on the country’s agricultural sector, leading to
reduced crop yields and increased food insecurity. In order to address the water crisis in
Algeria, the Algerian government has taken measures to increase the water supply, improve
water management and reduce water wastage. Desalination is seen as a viable solution
to this problem, as it would provide a reliable source of freshwater that can be used for
drinking, agriculture, and industry [44–48].
For the past fifteen years, Algeria, like many other developing countries in the MENA
region (Middle East and North Africa), has launched a national program to implement
the strategies developed to address the water shortage through the use of unconventional
resources—in particular, the desalination of water and the reuse of treated wastewater. The
most important method on which the policy of our Ministry of Water Resources (MRE) was
based to end this crisis is the desalination of seawater and brackish water. Among these
many proven desalination processes, Algeria has opted for the RO technique in the vast
majority of cases for its effectiveness. In fact, RO is the most widely used, most profitable
process and consumes less energy compared to the distillation process.
Desalination is an alternative option to Algeria’s water crisis. The cost of desalination
is a major challenge. In fact, the plants are expensive to construct and operate, and
consequently, the water produced is often too high. In addition, the process of desalination
is energy-intensive and expensive. The plants require a large amount of energy to operate,
which can be difficult to obtain in some Algerian regions. Additionally, the plants require
regular maintenance and repairs. The plants use RO technology, which is the most efficient
and cost-effective method of desalination.
The number of desalination plants reached 21 in 2019 in Algeria, distributed along the
14 coastal wilayas, providing 17% of the water consumed in the country and supplying
6 million people [43,48]; two more plants are in the pipeline [49]. The country plans to
increase the number of desalination plants to 43. Indeed, the El-Magtaâ plant is the largest
seawater desalination plant in Algeria and Africa and uses the RO method;it has a capacity
of 500,000 m3 /day, and recently, an even larger one was built and has been operating since
2014 [47,48]. It covers the needs of more than 5 million people at a rate of 100 L of water
per day/person. The plant was built by the Singaporean group Hyflux on behalf of the
Algerian Energy Company (AEC), a subsidiary of Sonatrach [45,49].
Algeria has one of the highest solar deposits in the world. The large Sahara Desert
covers most of Algeria’s south, where solar energy is the most abundant natural resource.
The overall installed PV power is about 1.2 MW [50]. The sunshine duration over almost
the entire national territory exceeds 2500 h annually and can reach 3900 h (Hauts-Plateaux
and Sahara). The energy received daily on a horizontal surface of 1 m2 is of the or-
der of 5 kWh over most of the national territory, i.e., nearly 1700 kWh/m2 /year in the
north and 2263 kWh/m2 /year in the south of the country. This solar deposit exceeds
5 billion GWh/year. For example, 270 MWp was installed in 2015, bringing the cumulative
power to 300 MWp; only 50 MWp was installed in 2017, but a call for tenders for 4 GWp
was announced for 2018. The National Renewable Energy Program (2015–2030) now has
a target of 22 GW of renewable power with a share of 13.5 GW of PV power by 2030 [51].
The biggest constraints of the desalination system are its energy consumption per cubic
meter produced and its environmental impacts due to discharges of brine in the natural
environment. Despite these constraints, desalination plants are increasingly widespread
around the world and include desalination processes to deal with the increasing water
demands. Resources are limited in quality and quantity, resulting in the establishment of
treatment solutions for brackish water and seawater.
Several types of research have been reported in the literature [52–56] to find ways of
integrating renewable energy into the field of membrane desalination in order to increase
the daily yield of small solar desalination systems. Algeria has a population of around
44 million. If each person requires 100 L/d (the minimum requirement in many western
countries; in practice, most consumers use between 100 and 200 L/d when the water is
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 6 of 23

not metered), then the required water supply is 4.4 million m3 /d. The plants currently
provide 2.12 million m3 /d, equivalent to 780 million cubic meters of water per year,
which is not enough to meet the needs of over 10 million people. The required shortfall
is 2.28 million m3 /d. Algeria is currently building several desalination plants to meet
the growing demand by reaching a capacity of about 45% of the fresh water demand.
Two seawater desalination plants (SWDP) are under construction that will have a total
capacity of 600,000 m3 /d and 80,000 m3 /d. In addition, at present, five SWDPs are under
construction, each having a capacity of 300,000 m3 /d. Others have been approved but
not built; there is a program to complete six SWDPs by 2024, each having a capacity of
300,000 m3 /d. For sustainable desalination, renewable energies could be a good solution,
especially since Algeria is one of the sunniest countries in the world, thus favoring the
production of solar energy without neglecting the important wind and geothermal deposits
located essentially in the south of the country. Despite the desalination plants being located
in the north all along the coast, they can obviously be powered by renewable energies
produced in the south and injected into the national grid.
Population growth and economic development around the worldhave led to and will
continue to lead to a considerable increase in energy consumption. At the present rate of
exploitation, the known fossil fuel reserves (coal, shale, oil, gas, and hydrates) could last
between one and two centuries. However, as part of the United Nations Net Zero (UNNZ)
framework, Western national governments have collectively decided to phase out fossil
fuels by 2050–2070 and are attempting to impose this Net Zero Program (Agenda) on the rest
of the world. It is important to note that governments have consistently proclaimed since
the 1950s that the world will run out of fossil fuels within 20 years of that time. Instead, since
the 1950s, oil production has multiplied tenfold, and coal production is currently at a world
record level. Today, PV solar energy has experienced strong exponential development in
recent years. It is a continuously growing renewable energy whose electricity is produced
by transforming part of the solar radiation with the help of a PV cell. PV is currently
becoming a source of energy that can compete with conventional sources (with or without
connection to the grid) and can meet different requirements in order to ensure sustainable
development. For example, in Algeria, the government has put in place several measures
to develop the PV and wind industry. A program was adopted that made it possible to
strengthen the PV industry and make it competitive with fossil fuels from an economic
point of view. The use of this once non-polluting operation and sustainable energy is an
undeniable renovation in terms of the impact on man and the environment [55].
To this end, the present work is an experimental study on solar-driven stand-alone RO
membranes. The RO desalination system is supplied by a stand-alone PV system of 3 kWp
with energy storage. It produces an average daily drinking water amount of 2 m3 per day.
The RO membrane’s performance and energy consumption are presented for different
water salinities. An autonomous desalination system could serve as a basis for the future
development and deployment of small-scale water treatment solutions in water-stressed
regions.
In the present study, we propose the development of an RO membrane desalination
process coupled with solar PV energy. It is a very promising technology that combines
the two systems (RO and PV), allowing for a sustainable process of water desalination. To
do this, it consists of coupling a water desalination process with a PV electricity produc-
tion with a storage system. The experimental system was designed to conduct relevant
experiments to evaluate the effect of salt concentration, pressure, and temperature on the
operating performance and energy consumption of ROPV.
A study of the application of different synthetic waters of variable salinity concen-
trations (1–35 g/L) was carried out. Using solar energy for PV power generation with a
storage system can power small RO facilities in remote, arid, and even coastal areas where
fresh water is scarce and solar radiation is very important and not connected to the network,
and where water resources are limited.
 with a storage system. The experimental system was designed to conduct relevant exper-
iments to evaluate the effect of salt concentration, pressure, and temperature on the oper-
ating performance and energy consumption of ROPV.
A study of the application of different synthetic waters of variable salinity concentra-
tions (1–35 g/L) was carried out. Using solar energy for PV power generation with a stor-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 7 of 23
age system can power small RO facilities in remote, arid, and even coastal areas where
fresh water is scarce and solar radiation is very important and not connected to the net-
work, and where water resources are limited.
TheRO
The ROdesalination
desalination system
system is supplied
is supplied by by a stand-alone
a stand-alone PV system
PV system of 3 kWp
of 3 kWp with with
energystorage.
energy [Link]
producesanan average
average daily
daily drinking
drinking water
water amount
amount m3day.
of3 2per
of 2 m per The
day. The
RO membrane
RO membraneperformance
performance and
and energy
energy consumption
consumption are are presented
presented and and discussed.
discussed.

2. Materials
2. Materialsand
andMethods
Methods
The RO
The RO membrane
membraneisis aa filter
filter that
that allows
allows only
only water
water molecules
moleculesthrough
throughandandleaves
leaves ions
and impurities
ions in the
and impurities in brine. RO RO
the brine. is a isprocess thatthat
a process occurs whenan
occurs whenan amount
amount of of
pressure
pressuregreater
than thethan
greater osmotic pressurepressure
the osmotic is applied to the concentrated
is applied solution,solution,
to the concentrated as shown asinshown
Figurein1. The
Figure 1. The semipermeable
semipermeable membrane can membrane
remove many can remove
types many types ofand
of dissolved dissolved
suspended and sus-
chemical
pended
species,chemical species,
as well as as well
biological onesas biological
(bacteria),ones
from(bacteria),
water, andfrom
it iswater,
usedand it is used
in both industrial
in both industrial
processes processes andoftheproduction
and theproduction potable water. of potable water.

Figure
[Link]
Schematicofofreverse osmosis
reverse process.
osmosis process.

The
Thestudy
studyofofsaltwater
saltwater desalination
desalination by by
membrane
membrane separation
separation was was
carried out on
carried theon the
out
pilot
pilot RO
RO installed
installedatatSolar
SolarEquipment
Equipment Development
Development UnitUnit
(UDES).
(UDES). Indeed, this filtration
Indeed, this filtration
system,
system,which
whichtreats a volume
treats a volumeof 200 of L, is illustrated
200 in Figure
L, is illustrated in [Link]
In this 2.
study, RO mem-
In this study, RO
brane element “SWC5-LD-4040” with low fouling technology
membrane element “SWC5-LD-4040” with low fouling technology designed designed to reduce biolog-
to reduce
ical growthgrowth
biological was used
wastoused
investigate its performance.
to investigate It is made
its performance. ofmade
It is polyamide and has an
of polyamide and has
active surface
an active areaarea
surface of 7.43 m2. m
of 7.43 The experimental
2 . The setupsetup
experimental used used
is a stand-alone installation
is a stand-alone installation
made
madeup upofoftwo
twosystems
systemsthat
thatareare
combined
combined forfor
solar desalination
solar desalinationin order to evaluate
in order the the
to evaluate
functioning of the RO process on a laboratory scale. The first is a pilot membrane filtration
functioning of the RO process on a laboratory scale. The first is a pilot membrane filtration
and the second one is a solar system for electricity generation based on renewable energy
and the second one is a solar system for electricity generation based on renewable energy
with energy storage. The characteristics and technical details for the PV panels, as well as
with energy storage. The characteristics and technical details for the PV panels, as well
the features of the solar inverter, battery, and controller used in the PV system for this
as the features of the solar inverter, battery, and controller used in the PV system for this
study, are displayed in Tables 1 and 2.
study, are displayed in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Characteristics of the PV modules used.

Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics

IP65, 3 Bypass Diodes and
Monocrystalline Cell with
Cell Type Junction Box and Connector Compatible Cables with
Anti-Reflection
MC4 Connector
Number of cells per module 36 cells (4 × 9) Operating temperature 40 bar at 85 ◦ C
Cell sizes 156 × 156 mm Nominal power (W) 150
Module dimensions 1482 × 674 × 45 mm Open circuit voltage Vco (V) 22.35
Module weight 12 kg Short-circuit current ISC (A) 9.005
Panel frame Anodisedaluminum alloy Tension mppVmmp (V) 18.54
Type of glass Tempered glass, 3.2 mm thick Curent mppImmp (I) 8.29
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 8 of 23
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

(a) (b)
Figure 2. View of the PV-RO system installed at the DDESM Laboratory, UDES: (a) RO membrane
Figure 2. View of the PV-RO system installed at the DDESM Laboratory, UDES: (a) RO membrane
system and (b) PV solar panel array.
system and (b) PV solar panel array.
Table 1. Characteristics of the PV modules used.
Table 2. Features of the solar inverter, battery and controller in the PV system.
Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics
Characteristics of the Batteries Single-Phase Stand-Alone
IP65, 3 Bypass PV Inverter
Diodes
Charge Controller (Condor)
(Condor) Monocrystalline Cell with (Victron)
Cell Type Junction Box and Connector and Compatible Cables
Manufacturing technology: AGM-Gel battery. Anti‐Reflection Inverter with with
MPPT.MC4 Connector
Nominal voltage of a battery: 12 V. Charge controller with MPPT. Nominal apparent output power: 5 Va.
Number of cells per module 36 cells (4 × 9) Operating temperature 40 bar at 85 °C
Storage capacity: 250 Ah. Nominal voltage: 24/48 V. Nominal input DC voltage: 48 V dc.
Cellofsizes
Nominal voltage the battery pack: 48 V. 156Nominal
× 156 mm current: 50 A. Nominal power (W) AC output voltage:
Nominal 150 230 Vac
Module dimensions
Autonomy day(s): 2 days. 1482 × 674 × 45 mm Open circuit voltage V co (V)
single-phase. 22.35
Module weight 12 kg Short-circuit current ISC(A) 9.005
Panel frame Anodisedaluminum alloy Tension mppVmmp(V) 18.54
2.1. Solar Desalination System PV-RO
Type of glass Tempered glass, 3.2 mm thick Curent mppImmp (I) 8.29
The experimental study involved the evaluation of a stand-alone pilot solar desali-
nation unit
Table 2. in terms
Features of theofsolar
membrane productivity
inverter, battery and energy
and controller in the PVconsumption
system. under climatic
conditions of the Bou-Ismail region (36◦ 380 3300 N, 2◦ 410 2400 E).
Characteristics of the Batteries Single‐Phase Stand‐Alone PV Inverter
This pilotCharge
unit isController
designed(Condor)
to desalinate the seawater, which is characterized by
(Condor) (Victron)
an electric conductivity level of 56 mS/cm. The RO pilot unit was constructed within
Manufacturing technology: AGM-Gel
the framework of the internal project UDES/EPST-CDER. The system is designed to
battery. Inverter with MPPT.
produce 2.4 m3 /d of permeate water. The solar system for electricity generation is based
Nominal voltage of a battery: 12 V. Charge controller with MPPT.
on renewable energy with energy storage. It is equipped Nominal apparent
withoutput power:
an array 5 Va.
of PV modules
Storage capacity: 250 Ah. with a total capacity
Nominal of voltage:
3 kWp. 24/48 V. systemNominal
The consistsinput DC voltage:
of a pressure 48 V dc.
casing containing a
Nominal voltage of the battery pack:
spiral 48 Nominal
membrane module,current: 50 A.
a high-pressure (HP)Nominal AC output (LP)
and low-pressure voltage:
pump,230aVac
flowsin-
meter,
V. gle-phase.
a pressure gauge, two cartridge filters, and storage tanks. The RO unit is attached to
Autonomy day(s): 2 days. a stainless-steel skid intended for the demineralization of brackish water and seawater
desalination. A three-phase high-pressure (HP) stainless steel motor pump is connected
2.1. Solar Desalination System PV-RO
behind the filters and directly feeds the RO membrane. The manometer is placed at the
inlet ofThe
theexperimental
membrane module study involved
to measurethe evaluation
the 0–80 barof pressure
a stand-alone
that pilot solar desalina-
is regulated by a valve
tion unit in terms of membrane productivity and energy consumption under
installed on the stainless-steel chassis. We have taps for taking samples of the permeate, climatic con-
ditions of the Bou-Ismail region (36°38′33″ N, 2°41′24″ E).
concentrate and feed water. The daily power consumption is 2 kWh, the daily charge to the
This
batteries is pilot
952 Ahunitand
is designed
the power torecovered
desalinate from
the seawater,
the PV iswhich
3000 [Link] characterized by an
electric
As shown in Figure 3, using a low-pressure pump, the feed water is within
conductivity level of 56 mS/cm. The RO pilot unit was constructed pumped theinto
framework of the internal project UDES/EPST-CDER. The system is designed to produce
sand as3 a pre-filter, which is a preliminary filtration stage to remove larger particles in the
2.4 m /d of permeate water. The solar system for electricity generation is based on renew-
water; then, commercial activated carbon was used toremove odors and other compounds
able energy with energy storage. It is equipped with an array of PV modules with a total
followed by two microfiltration MF filters (1–5 µm). The HP pump is then connected to the
capacity of 3 kWp. The system consists of a pressure casing containing a spiral membrane
RO unit membrane to provide the pressure driving force needed to facilitate desalination
module, a high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) pump, a flow meter, a pressure
through the RO semi-permeable membrane. The low and high-pressure pumps are pow-
gauge, two cartridge filters, and storage tanks. The RO unit is attached to a stainless-steel
ered by a solar PV system during the daytime. The surplus electricity provided by the PV
panels during the day is stored in batteries that can power the pumps at night.
 sand as a pre-filter, which is a preliminary filtration stage to remove larger particles in the
water; then, commercial activated carbon was used toremove odors and other compounds
followed by two microfiltration MF filters (1–5 µm). The HP pump is then connected to
the RO unit membrane to provide the pressure driving force needed to facilitate desalina-
tion through the RO semi-permeable membrane. The low and high-pressure pumps are
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 9 of 23
powered by a solar PV system during the daytime. The surplus electricity provided by
the PV panels during the day is stored in batteries that can power the pumps at night.

Figure 3. Design scheme of RO pilot solar desalination system.

Figure 3. Design scheme of RO pilot solar desalination system.
To optimize the membrane performance, water with different salt concentrations was
To optimize the membrane performance, water with different salt concentrations
desalinated through an osmosis unit powered by renewable energy. This involves evalu-
was desalinated through an osmosis unit powered by renewable energy. This involves
ating the critical pressure values characterizing the brackish water and seawater on which
evaluating the critical pressure values characterizing the brackish water and seawater on
the membrane treatment operates. In the present study, well water of the Bou-Ismail re-
which the membrane treatment operates. In the present study, well water of the Bou-Ismail
gion (salty borehole water) was taken as benchmark water. Then, different synthetic sam-
region (salty borehole water) was taken as benchmark water. Then, different synthetic
ples were prepared and analyzed in order to produce saltwater with the same salinity as
samples were prepared
Mediterranean seawater andand analyzed
Algerianin order to
brackish produce
water, Tablesaltwater
3. with the same salinity
as Mediterranean seawater and Algerian brackish water, Table 3.
The RO system was equipped with an energy recovery system from the brine. A spi-
ral wound Hydranautics membrane producing water at a flow rate of 84 L/h with a recov-
Table
ery 3. Initial
rate analytical
of 98% characteristics of the different saline waters.
was used.
For all the treatment tests with filtration on RO membranes, different samples were
Physico-Chemical Parameters analyzedUnity Waterthe
in order to follow 1 parameters
Water indicated
2 Water 3 3. WeWater
in Table 4 that the
observe Water
feed5
pH -
water is very 7.40with higher 7.10
rich in salts 7.56
mineral concentrations than 7.40 7.60the
well water, and
Conductivity µS/cm
analytical 2231.00
characteristics 10,600.00
of these waters are quite 21,200.00
similar. However, 33,700.00
we notice 50,000.00
that the
Turbidity more the NTU
salt concentration0.30increases, the
0.37 0.49
more the conductivity and 0.40 0.61
TDS values increase.
TDS mg/L 1115.00 5700.00 11,700.00 20,100.00
Water sample 5 shows salt concentrations close to that of Mediterranean seawater for pos- 35,200.00
Salinity g/L 1.00 5.00 12.00 20.00 35.00
sible characterization.
Durety mg/L CaCO3 894.00 910.00 930.00 960.00 1010.00
Alcalinity mg/L CaCO3 171.00 170.00 167.00 175.00 162.00
Magnesium mg/L 675.56 695.17 697.54 705.10 748.68
Calcium mg/L 218.44 214.83 232.46 254.10 261.32
Chloride mg/L 165.92 2268.99 5530.67 7941.47 18,337.64

The RO system was equipped with an energy recovery system from the brine. A spiral
wound Hydranautics membrane producing water at a flow rate of 84 L/h with a recovery
rate of 98% was used.
For all the treatment tests with filtration on RO membranes, different samples were
analyzed in order to follow the parameters indicated in Table 3. We observe that the feed
water is very rich in salts with higher mineral concentrations than well water, and the
analytical characteristics of these waters are quite similar. However, we notice that the more
the salt concentration increases, the more the conductivity and TDS values increase. Water
sample 5 shows salt concentrations close to that of Mediterranean seawater for possible
characterization.
Indeed, it is necessary to assess the initial physicochemical characteristics of the
feedwater before treatment, which is an essential indication in order to control the quality
of the water after membrane treatment. The conductivity analysis has shown that the feed
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 10 of 23

waters have conductivity and TDS values that are well above the standards of the World
Health Organization (WHO), which are, respectively, 2700 (µs/cm) and 1000 (mg/L).

2.2. Photovoltaic Power System

2.2.1. Design and Sizing of a PV System
The design of an autonomous PV installation dedicated to a specific application as
solar desalination by RO is based on several stages, the required characteristics of which
must be precisely chosen to obtain optimal operation. To be able to size this installation,
it is essential to make a load estimate and to know the amount of energy available on an
inclined plane.
The sizing study was based on the electrical and physical characteristics of the HP
pump and the operating mode of the system, namely, the number of operating hours
(4 h/d), the number of operating days (5 days/week), and battery operating time (2 days).
All features of the HP pump are pump output (11.5 L per minute (1420 TPM)), voltage and
current (400 v-3.7 Amp), pump speed (1700 t/m), rated mechanical power (1 KW), power
factor (Cos) (0.77) and electric power (1.8 KW).
For the sizing of the annual PV part recorded on the Bou Ismail site, the monthly solar
irradiation received on a plane inclined to the latitude of the site’s location is estimated. To
do this, we processed the lighting data recorded and provided every 10 min by the Bou
Ismail meteorological station. A program on Matlab (R2021a)was developed for reading,
processing, and calculating the estimated monthly irradiation on the Bou-Ismail site. The
geographical coordinates of the Bou-Ismail region are the following:
- Latitude of the Bou-Ismail site in degrees: 36.64◦ ;
- Longitude of the Bou-Ismail site in degrees: 2.69007◦ .
- PV generator tilt angle in degrees: 36◦ ;
- The average global solar irradiation incident on the inclined plane of the PV generator
of the worst month of the Bou-Ismail site is of the order of Gdg = 2800 Wh/m2 /day;
(measurement made at the UDES weather station).
Figure 4 illustrates the variation in the monthly energy production calculated during
one year in the Bou-Ismail location. The results showed that the maximum energy produc-
tion generated reached 310 kWh in the month of July, whereas the lowest power generated
in the months of November and December is 159.363 kWh and 159.025 kWh, respectively
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23
(the most unfavorable months). This total annual production in kWh per year is the sum
of the simulation values in kWh. During this period, the total power production from
this
fromplant was was
this plant 60056005
kWh. Figure
kWh. 5 illustrates
Figure 5 illustratesthe
theevolution
evolution of
of the ambienttempera-
the ambient temperature
and solarsolar
ture and intensity with
intensity operating
with operatingtime
time for oneexperiment
for one [Link].
TheThe irradiation
irradiation is theis the
integral
integral of theirradiance arrivingon
theirradiance arriving onaaplane
planecharacterized
characterizedby byits
itsorientation
orientationand andinclina-
inclination.
Illumination datadata
tion. Illumination recorded by the
recorded Bou-Ismailmeteorological
by the Bou-Ismailmeteorologicalstation
stationisisprovided
provided forfor each
time
each interval t = 5tmin.
time interval = 5 min.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Monthly
Monthlyaverage
averagepower
powergeneration in Bou-Ismail
generation location.
in Bou-Ismail location.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 11 of 23

Figure 4. Monthly average power generation in Bou-Ismail location.

Figure
[Link] andand
Irradiation ambient temperature
ambient variation
temperature as a function
variation of time recorded
as a function of time on the Bou-on the
recorded
Ismail site.
Bou-Ismail site.
2.2.2.
[Link]
PVSystem
SystemOperation
Operation
AA PV
PVgenerator
generator(48 (48V)V)drives thethe
drives input of aofPV
input regulator,
a PV which
regulator, helpshelps
which protect the the
protect
electrochemical storage device from overload. The electric accumulator system
electrochemical storage device from overload. The electric accumulator system supplies supplies
the
the input
input of
of aa stand-alone
stand-alone48 48V-5
V-5 KVA
KVAPV PVinverter,
inverter,which
whichprovides
providesatatits
itsoutput
outputa aregu-
regulated
lated alternating voltage of 230 V. An electronic starter made up of the association (single-
alternating voltage of 230 V. An electronic starter made up of the association (single-phase
phase rectifierthree-phase variable speed drive) ensures the progressive starting of a
rectifierthree-phase variable speed drive) ensures the progressive starting of a three-phase
three-phase asynchronous motor driving a centrifugal pump, which has the effect of con-
asynchronous motor driving a centrifugal pump, which has the effect of considerably
siderably reducing overruns of the motor load starting current.
reducing overruns of the motor load starting current.
A second single-phase asynchronous motor with a starting capacitor is connected in
A second single-phase asynchronous motor with a starting capacitor is connected in
parallel with the three-phase asynchronous starter-motor cascade in order to extract en-
parallel
ergy fromwith the inverter.
the PV three-phase
The asynchronous starter-motor
advantages of using cascade
a stand-alone in order to
single-phase PVextract
inverter energy
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
from the PV inverter. The advantages of using a stand-alone single-phase PV 12 of 23
inverter
reside in the fact that the storage of electrical energy is carried out at low voltage. This
reside the
avoids in the
need fact thata the
to put largestorage
numberofofelectrical energy
batteries in series,is
andcarried out at lowintegrated
the transformer voltage. This
avoids the need to put a large number of batteries in series, and the transformer integrated
in
in the
the inverter makes it
inverter makes it possible
possible to
to increase
increase the
the output
outputvoltage
voltageto
to230
230V-AC.
[Link]
Thesynoptic
synoptic
diagram
diagram ofof the
the installation is given
installation is given in
in Figure
Figure 6.
6.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Overall
Overallsynoptic
synopticdiagram
diagramofof
thethe
power supply
power stage
supply of the
stage PV/RO
of the solarsolar
PV/RO desalination sys-
desalination
tem.
system.

The result
The result of
of the
the sizing
sizing study
study shows
shows that
that the
thestand-alone
stand-alonePV
PVconversion
conversionchain
chainshould
should
include 20
include 20monocrystalline-type
monocrystalline-type150 150Wp
WpPV PVmodules,
modules, 0202 charge
charge regulators,
regulators, an inverter
an inverter and
and solar
solar batteries.
batteries. Therefore,
Therefore, the the 20 modules
20 modules of 150
of 150 WpWp were
were connected
connected to to have
have a voltageat
a voltage
at the output of the 48 V generator. Every four panels are connected in series, and there-
fore, we obtain this connection five times, and they are then connected in parallel. All of
this connection was carried out in collaboration with the UDES electronics workshop
team. The modules of this solar generator were placed on aluminum supports fixed on
the roof of the Water Treatment Division of UDES. To provide water supply, we have set
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 12 of 23

the output of the 48 V generator. Every four panels are connected in series, and therefore,
we obtain this connection five times, and they are then connected in parallel. All of this
connection was carried out in collaboration with the UDES electronics workshop team.
The modules of this solar generator were placed on aluminum supports fixed on the
roof of the Water Treatment Division of UDES. To provide water supply, we have set
up a small-decentralized energy-water system PV-RO, which will have the potential to
profitably supply an isolated region or small village where energy and drinking water
are not available or difficult to produce due totheir high cost. This most promising solar
PV desalination prototype demonstration has been tested under specific irradiation in the
town of Bou-Ismail by treating saltwater for different salinities.
The solar panels were arranged in five modules in parallel and four modules in series
with a nominal power of 3000 W from batteries, supplying sufficient energy for two days.
In this case, we are interested in the autonomous configuration for an isolated site
with energy storage. Autonomous solar PV systems are very suitable when it comes to
supplying, for example, small water treatment and desalination units that are not connected
to the electricity grid. The production of electricity by PV panels remains the most profitable
technique and claims to have much more in the future. The sunniest regions ensure better
production. Indeed, these installations are more widespread in arid regions and remote
sites that are not connected to the electricity network.

3. Results and Discussion

The experimental results obtained during this study are represented in order to show
the efficiency of the RO process operating with solar PV energy. The influence of some
operating conditions on the performance of the membrane is studied. The main operating
parameters affecting the performance of membranes are pressure, temperature, flowrate,
recovery rate, pH. . . etc. In order to test the operation of the RO desalination process as
well as solar coupling and the feasibility of an autonomous PV system associated with a
reverse osmosis system, the effect of parameters such as pressure, salinity, and temperature
on recovery rates and the energy consumption is studied.

3.1. RO Membrane Performance

The effect of the pressure variations on the recovery rate and the energy consumption
of the desalination pilot was analyzed. The results are presented for different salinities
and treatments. Different synthetic salt waters simulating those existing in Algeria were
prepared and used. In this study, the pressure that varies in the range of 5–65 bar with a
step of 5 bar is considered
Figure 7 depicts the effect of pressure increase on the recovery rate of feed water
through the membrane surface for brackish water and seawater. Plots show that the
recovery rate tends to increase with pressure for different salinities, resulting in increased
energy consumption. The results showed that the recovery rate increases with increasing
inlet pressure, indicating that high operating pressures are needed to achieve fairly high
recovery rates, and this strongly depends on the characteristics of the membrane used. In
general, the effect of pressure increase on recovery rate is more significant in the case of
the high salinity seawater than in brackish water, as shown in Figure 7. For example, the
RO plant achieves an optimal recovery rate of 85% for a feedwater salinity of 1 g/L and a
rate of 32% for seawater. Certain stability in the recovery rate is observed above 55 bar due
to the start of stability of the permeate flow. Following the phenomenon of concentration
polarization, it is imperative to apply a pressure below this threshold limit in order to avoid
the compaction of membranes and modules.
 general, the effect of pressure increase on recovery rate is more significant in the case of
the high salinity seawater than in brackish water, as shown in Figure 7. For example, the
RO plant achieves an optimal recovery rate of 85% for a feedwater salinity of 1 g/L and a
rate of 32% for seawater. Certain stability in the recovery rate is observed above 55 bar
due to the start of stability of the permeate flow. Following the phenomenon of concen-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 13 of 23
tration polarization, it is imperative to apply a pressure below this threshold limit in order
to avoid the compaction of membranes and modules.

100

1g/L 85.335
5g/L
80 12g/L
20g/L
35g/L 80.1525
Recovery rate (%)
60
64

40
44.64

20 31.52

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pressure (bar)

Figure 7. Variation
[Link] recovery
Variation raterecovery
in the R% for different salinities
rate R% for assalinities
different a functionas aoffunction
the pressure.
of the pressure.

For the concentration tests, the inlet

For the concentration pressure
tests, the inlettopressure
the membrane module, module,
to the membrane the permeate
the permeate
flow rate andflowthe retentate flow rate were evaluated. For comparison, the permeation
rate and the retentate flow rate were evaluated. For comparison, the permeation and and
the flow rate the
of concentrate for different salinities ranging from 1 g/L up to
flow rate of concentrate for different salinities ranging from 1 g/L up to 35 g/L35 g/L and the and the
membrane inlet pressureinlet
membrane varyingfrom 5 to 65 barare5 given
pressure varyingfrom below to
to 65 barare examine
given belowthe to membrane
examine the mem-
[Link] 8 illustratesFigure
performance. the change in the the
8 illustrates permeate
changeflow
in therate for different
permeate salinity
flow rate for different
values and assalinity
a function
valuesof and
pressure. The curves
as a function show that
of pressure. Thethe behavior
curves showof filtration
that or theof filtra-
the behavior
demineralization
tion orofthe
saline water followsofthe
demineralization same
saline pattern.
water Forthe
follows lowsame
andpattern.
high salinities,
For low itand high
can
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
be seen that as the
salinities, inlet
it can pressure
be seen increases,
that as the the permeate
inlet pressure flow rate
increases, increases
the relatively.
permeate
14 of 23
flow rate in-
For low and creases relatively.
high salinities, it For low and
is found thathigh salinities,
as the it is found
inlet pressure that as the
increases, the permeate
inlet pressure in-
creases,strongly
flow rate increases the permeate flow rate
in a linear increases
manner. The strongly in a linear
results showed thatmanner.
for lowThe results showed
salinities,
the minimum critical pressure for initial permeate production is around 5 bar. However, for
that for low salinities, the minimum critical pressure for initial permeate production is
high salinities of 20 g/L and 35 g/L, it is 20 bar and 35 bar, respectively, Figure 8. On the
around 5 bar. However, for high salinities of 20 g/L and 35 g/L, it is 20 bar and 35 bar,
other hand, the flow rate of the concentrate decreases rapidly with the increase in pressure,
respectively, Figure 8. On the other hand, the flow rate of the concentrate decreases rap-
as shown
idly with theinincrease
Figure 9. in This evolution
pressure, as shownshows that if 9.
in Figure a membrane
This evolutionhasshows
a transfer
that mechanism
if a
membrane has a transfer mechanism by diffusion, the flow rate of the permeate is directly applied,
by diffusion, the flow rate of the permeate is directly proportional to the pressure
while the flow
proportional to therate of theapplied,
pressure concentratewhileistheindependent.
flow rate of the concentrate is independent.

0 .9

0 .8
1 g /L
0 .7
Permeate flow rate (m /h)

5 g /L
3

1 2 g /L
0 .6 2 0 g /L
3 5 g /L
0 .5

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0 .0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
P re s s u re (b a r)

Figure 8. Variation in permeate flow rate as a function of pressure at different salinity values.
Figure 8. Variation in permeate flow rate as a function of pressure at different salinity values.
0 .9
1 g /L
0 .8 5 g /L
1 2 g /L
0 .7 2 0 g /L
/h)
3
 0 .3

Per
0 .2

0 .1

0 .0
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 14 of 23
P re s s u re (b a r)

Figure 8. Variation in permeate flow rate as a function of pressure at different salinity values.

0 .9
1 g /L
0 .8 5 g /L
1 2 g /L
0 .7 2 0 g /L

Concentrate flow rate (m /h)

3 5 g /L

3
0 .6

0 .5

0 .4 0 .9

0 .8
5 g/L a nd 3 5 g/L P e r m e a t e 5 g /L
C o n c e n tr a te 5 g / L
P e r m e a t e 3 5 g /L

0 .3 Flow rate(m /h)

0 .7

0 .6
C o n c e n tr a t3 5 g /L

0 .5
3

0 .2 0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1 0 .1

0 .0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
P r e s s u re (b a r)

0 .0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
P re s s u re (b a r)

Figure
[Link]
Variationin in
concentrate flow
concentrate raterate
flow as aas
function of pressure
a function at different
of pressure salinity
at different [Link].
salinity

ItItshould
should bebe
noted
notedthat thethe
that flow raterate
flow curves coincide
curves with with
coincide a threshold pressure
a threshold value. value.
pressure
The points of intersection for 1 g/L, 5 g/L and 12 g/L between the permeate and concentrate
The points of intersection for 1 g/L, 5 g/L and 12 g/L between the permeate and concentrate
flow
flowrates
ratesindicate
indicatea constant recovery
a constant raterate
recovery of 45% and 52%,
of 45% respectively,
and 52%, whereas
respectively, for high
whereas
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 offor
23 high
salinity, these curves no longer intersect, as shown in the case of 35 g/L (Figure
salinity, these curves no longer intersect, as shown in the case of 35 g/L (Figure 10). 10).
According to WHO standards, the maximum allowable limit for total dissolved sol-
ids (TDSs) and conductivity in treated water is 1000 mg/L and 2800 µS/cm, respectively
0.9
[57,58]. The water after treatment by RO exhibits TDSs between Permeate34.5 and 197 mg/L (Figure
5g/L
0.8 the conductivity values are between 69.2 and 387
11). Thus, Concentrate
µS/cm. 5g/L
These values comply
Permeate 35g/L
with the standards, which indicates that this treated water is then suitable
Concentrat35g/L
for consump-
tion. 0.7
0.6
Flow rate (m /h)

0.5
3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Pressure (bar)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparison of of
thethe
variation in concentrate
variation and permeate
in concentrate flow rate
and permeate as a rate
flow function
as aoffunction
pres- of
sure for salinity values of 5 and 35 g/L.
pressure for salinity values of 5 and 35 g/L.

2000
According to WHO standards, the maximum allowable limit for total dissolved solids
8 0 0 conductivity1 gin
(TDSs)1and /L treated water is 1000 mg/L and 2800 µS/cm, respectively [57,58].
5 g /L
The water
1600
after treatment
1 2 g /Lby RO exhibits TDSs between 34.5 and 197 mg/L (Figure 11).
Thus, the conductivity 2values
0 g /L are between 69.2 and 387 µS/cm. These values comply with
1 4 0 0 3 5 g /L
the standards, which indicates that this treated water is then suitable for consumption.
TDS (mg/L)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
P re s s u re (b a r)
 0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Pressure (bar)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 15 of 23
Figure 10. Comparison of the variation in concentrate and permeate flow rate as a function of pres-
sure for salinity values of 5 and 35 g/L.

2000

1800 1 g /L
5 g /L
1600 1 2 g /L
2 0 g /L
1400 3 5 g /L

TDS (mg/L) 1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
P re s s u re (b a r)

Figure
Figure11.
[Link]
Variationin in
thethe
TDS as aasfunction
TDS of the
a function of pressure at different
the pressure salinities.
at different salinities.

Theanalytical
The analytical results
results of 12
of the theg/L
12and
g/L 35and 35 g/L feedwater
g/L feedwater and permeatesamples
and permeatesamples taken
attaken
a pressure of 55 barof
at a pressure are55shown
bar arein shown
Figures in
12 Figures
and 13. It12can
andbe13.
seenIt that
can the ion concen-
be seen that the ion
tration
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER in the rawinwater
concentration
REVIEW exceeds
the raw watertheexceeds
WHO standard.
the WHO However,
[Link] treatmentafter
However, of thetreatment
water
16 of 23 of
by
theRO, the ion
water content
by RO, the reaches values
ion content withinvalues
reaches the WHO standard.
within the WHO standard.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

Figure 12. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of 12
Figure
g/L. 12. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of
Figure 12. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of 12
12 g/L.
g/L.

Figure 13. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of 35
g/L.
Figure 13. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of 35
g/L. 13. Chemical analysis of water before and after treatment for feed water with a salinity of
Figure
35 g/[Link] intended for human consumption must not contain any pathogenic microbes.
FecalWater
contamination
intended for is detected by the presence
human consumption must ofnot
Escherichia colipathogenic
contain any or fecal streptococci.
microbes.
TheWater
Fecal intended
results
contamination for
of the search human
for andconsumption
is detected enumeration
by the presence must
of of not contain
pathogenic
Escherichia any
bacteria
coli pathogenic
orin the well
fecal microbes.
water
streptococci. (1
Fecal
g/L)contamination
The and in of
results thethe is detected
water
searchtreated byenumeration
with
for and the
thepresence ofofpathogenic
SWC5-LD-4040 Escherichia
membrane coliator55
bacteria fecal
in thestreptococci.
bar are water (1The
wellpresented
results
g/L) of the
in Table
and 4.
in Thesearch
the for
membrane
water andfiltration
treated enumeration
with the of pathogenic
technique bacteria
is used membrane
SWC5-LD-4040 to detect, atin55the
identify,barwell
and water
arecount (1 g/L)
indi-
presented
cator
in microorganisms
Table 4. The membrane in the water technique
filtration sample. Anis appropriate
used to detect,volume of the
identify, andsample is fil-
count indi-
tered microorganisms
cator through a Millipore in themembrane with a An
water sample. pore size of 0.45volume
appropriate mm. Theofmembrane
the sampleisisincu-
fil-
tered on an agar
batedthrough plate. Bacterial
a Millipore membrane cellswith
trapped
a poreonsize
theof
membrane will membrane
0.45 mm. The grow into colonies
is incu-
that can
bated on be
ancounted, and
agar plate. a bacterial
Bacterial cellsdensity
trappedcanonbethe
calculated.
membrane The number
will grow of visible
into col-
colonies
onies (CFU) present on a plate can be multiplied by the dilution factor to provide the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 16 of 23

and in the water treated with the SWC5-LD-4040 membrane at 55 bar are presented in
Table 4. The membrane filtration technique is used to detect, identify, and count indicator
microorganisms in the water sample. An appropriate volume of the sample is filtered
through a Millipore membrane with a pore size of 0.45 mm. The membrane is incubated on
an agar plate. Bacterial cells trapped on the membrane will grow into colonies that can be
counted, and a bacterial density can be calculated. The number of visible colonies (CFU)
present on a plate can be multiplied by the dilution factor to provide the CFU/mL value.
The feedwater is found to contain fecal contamination germs, which allows us to consider
that the well water is bacteriologically impure and threatened by pollution. Nevertheless,
the analyzes obtained after an RO membrane treatment show a total absence of fecal
contamination germs, and therefore, the water has good bacteriological qualities that are in
accordance with the standards for drinking water intended for human consumption.

Table 4. Results of the bacteriological analysis.

Maximum Allowable RO Water

Parameters Sought (UFC) Well Water
Concentration at 55 Bars
Total coliforms/100 mL 0 10 0
Faecal coliforms/100 mL 0 10 0
Sulphite-reducing anaerobes/20 mL 0 5 0
Fecalenterococcus/Intestinal enterococcus/100 mL 0 9 0
CFU = colony forming unit.

Table 5 illustrates the results of the physicochemical and microbiological analysis

of permeate and retentate water for a high salinity of 35 g/L. These analyses found that
the water after RO treatment at a pressure of 55 bar has TDSs between 29 and 255 mg/L.
Thus, the conductivity values are between 59 and 250 µS/cm, as shown in Figure 6. These
values comply with WHO standards, which indicates that this treated water is suitable for
consumption.

Table 5. Physicochemical and microbiological analysis of permeate and retentate water, feed water
salinity 35 g/L, feed water flow rate 200 L/h.

Parameter Permeate Water Retentate Water

Salinity (g/L) 0 65
M.E.S 4 79.5
Ammonium (mg/L) 0.0555 0.0635
Nitrites (mg/L) 0.1017 0.1585
Nitrates (mg/L) 1.29 11.0184
Phosphates (mg/L) 0.3416 0.3271
Chlorides (mg/L) 0 36,675.200
Carbonates (mg/L) 0.0097 0.0675
Calcium (mg/L) 7.711 275.49
Sulphates (mg/L) 346.90 2.884
Total coliforms Absence Absence
Fecalcoliform Absence Absence
Escherichia coli Absence Absence
Salmonella Absence Absence
CFU = colony forming unit.

3.2. Renewable Energy Supply and Consumption

The electrical power supplied by the HP pump of an RO membrane at different salini-
ties has been measured using an energy meter and a Score smart plug. The different results
of the power supplied by the pump are summarized in Table 6. For each given pressure
and salinity, the electrical power generated by the system was calculated. According to
the results, the power of the various salinities coincided with powers ranging from 0.36
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 17 of 23

to 1.9 kW for inlet pressures of 5 to 65 bar for a given salinity. It is noticed that when the
pressure increases, the electrical power also increases.

Table 6. Results of power supplied by the HP pump.

Power kW Power kW Power kW Power kW

Pressure (Bar)
(Salinity 5 g/L) (Salinity 12 g/L) (Salinity 20 g/L) (Salinity 35 g/L)
5 0.391 0.374 0.391 0.366
10 0.479 0.465 0.384 0.458
15 0.568 0.560 0.479 0.574
20 0.667 0.676 0.564 0.654
25 0.777 0.779 0595 0.779
30 0.884 0.884 0.698 0.896
35 1.020 1.000 0.867 1.029
40 1.161 1.144 0.988 1.123
45 1.268 1.266 1.153 1.254
50 1.379 1.399 1.295 1.394
55 1.592 1.553 1.396 1.592
60 1.739 1.667 1.543 1.680
65 1.907 1.855 1.855 1.859

Figure 14 represents the law of variation of the electric power supplied (Pe) by the HP
pump as a function of the permeate flow rate (Qp) obtained for different salt concentrations
(5 g/L, 12 g/L and 35 g/L). Qualitatively, we obtain a linear law for the four studied salinity
values, which is of type y = ax + b, where a and b are two constants. From this constitutive
law associated with each feedwater salinity, the energy consumed to produce 1 m3 of
water iscalculated. The equation of the linear regression line is in the form Pe = aQp + b,
and the point cloud fits correctly to a line and asserts the correlation between the flow
rates produced by RO (Qp) and the electrical power supplied by the HP pump (Pe). The
correlation coefficients have mean values of R2 = 0.98, which is due to measurement
uncertainties. For both low and high salinities, it can be seen that as permeate production
rates increase, the electrical power supplied by the HP pump increases linearly.
The results from the correlationshow us that the more the salt concentration increases,
the more power is required to produce a constant volume, which leads to an increase in
energy consumption (Figure 14). The energy consumption required to produce 1 m3 of
permeate water at different feedwater salinities is presented in Figure 15. It is recorded that
the values go from 2.28 kWh/m3 for saline water with 1 g/L to 5.74 kWh/m3 for saline
water with 35 g/L. This causes a gradual increase in specific energy consumption as the
salt concentration increases.
The operating temperature is one of the most important parameters that can directly
affect the RO membrane permeability because it varies inversely and proportional to the
viscosity of the water to be desalinated. In this study, the electrical power supplied by
the HP pump during desalination by RO membrane SWC5-LD-4040 is measured for a
feedwater salt concentration of 8.6 g/L at two different feed water temperature values,
Tw = 19 ◦ C and Tw = 23 ◦ C. The various results of the power supplied by the pump are
grouped together in Table 7. We have measured the electrical power supplied by the HP
pump during the SWC5-LD-4040 RO desalination process for a feed water salt concentration
of 8.6 g/L at two different temperature values, Tw = 19 ◦ C and Tw = 23 ◦ C. The different
results of the power supplied by the pump are grouped in Table 7.
 salinity values, which is of type y = ax + b, where a and b are two constants. From this
constitutive law associated with each feedwater salinity, the energy consumed to produce
1 m3 of water iscalculated. The equation of the linear regression line is in the form Pe =
aQp + b, and the point cloud fits correctly to a line and asserts the correlation between the
flow rates produced by RO (Qp) and the electrical power supplied by the HP pump (Pe).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 The correlation coefficients have mean values of R2 = 0.98, which is due to measurement 18 of 23
uncertainties. For both low and high salinities, it can be seen that as permeate production
rates increase, the electrical power supplied by the HP pump increases linearly.

(a) (b)

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

(c) (d)
Figure 14. Evolution of the power supplied by the HP pump as a function of the production flow:
Figure 14. Evolution of the power supplied by the HP pump as a function of the production flow:
(a,b) water with a low salinity of 5 g/L, 12 g/L respectively, (c,d) water with a high salinity of 20 g/L
saline
(a,b) water
water with
with 35 g/L.
a low Thisofcauses
salinity 5 g/L,a12gradual increase in(c,d)
g/L respectively, specific
waterenergy
with a consumption
high salinity ofas20 g/L
and 35 g/L.
the salt
and concentration increases.
35 g/L.
The results from the correlationshow us that the more the salt concentration in-
creases, the more power is required to produce a constant volume, which leads to an in-
crease in energy consumption (Figure 14). The energy consumption required to produce
1 m3 of permeate water at different feedwater salinities is presented in Figure 15. It is rec-
orded that the values go from 2.28 kWh/m3 for saline water with 1 g/L to 5.74 kWh/m3 for

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Energy
Energyconsumption
consumptionrequired forfor
required different feed
different water
feed salinities.
water salinities.

The operating temperature is one of the most important parameters that can directly
affect the RO membrane permeability because it varies inversely and proportional to the
viscosity of the water to be desalinated. In this study, the electrical power supplied by the
HP pump during desalination by RO membrane SWC5-LD-4040 is measured for a feed-
water salt concentration of 8.6 g/L at two different feed water temperature values, Tw = 19
°C and Tw = 23 °C. The various results of the power supplied by the pump are grouped
together in Table 7. We have measured the electrical power supplied by the HP pump
during the SWC5-LD-4040 RO desalination process for a feed water salt concentration of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 19 of 23

Table 7. The HP pump operating power results obtainedat a feed water temperature of 19 ◦ C and
23 ◦ C (salinity 8.6 g/L).

kW kW
Pressure (Bar)
Ta = 19 ◦ C Ta = 23 ◦ C
10 0.408 0.478
20 0.652 0.679
30 0.876 0.906
40 1.160 1.151
50 1.388 1.351
55 1.543 1.554
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 60 1.968 1.675 20 of 23

Furthermore, the effect of temperature on the power supplied by the HP pump as a

function of the
a systematic permeate
loss water
of energy production
as the flow
temperature rate is due
increases illustrated in Figure
to the increase in16.
permeate
water production.

(a) (b)
Figure 16. Evolution of the power supplied by HP pump vs. production flow: (a) feed water Tw = 19
Figure 16. Evolution of the power supplied by HP pump vs. production flow: (a) feed water
°C, (b) feed water Tw = 23 °C.
Tw = 19 ◦ C, (b) feed water Tw = 23 ◦ C.
For further comparison and validation, IMSDesign software (version 18.5) (Inte-
According
grated Membrane to the curves,
Solutions the results
Design) from
is used these
to size linear
a RO correlations
installation. Usingshowthisthat the effect
program
of
has enabled us to calculate and control the values of the main operating parameters and con-
temperature significantly affects the energy consumption, of which the system
sumes 3 at a temperature of T = 23 ◦ C, and 3.13 kWh/m3 when operation
also to2.45
assesskWh/m
the quality of the water produced. w The experimental results obtained are
atcompared ◦
Tw = 19 withC. When
thosethe temperature
of the numericalofsimulation
the desalination water drops of
for the desalination under thesesea-
synthetic circum-
stances,
water. a relative rise is seen, which causes a strong force to be applied to the membrane,
causing its 8pores
Table to [Link] experimental and theoretical results in terms of flow rates,
summarizes
In terms
recovery rate,of permeation,
power, TDS andit conductivity.
is found thatItoperating
should beatnoted
lowerthat
temperatures
the quality of hasthelower
productivity
water obtained than byworking at higher
the experiment temperatures.
is slightly higher As a result, it can
in comparison withbetheseen that there is
calculated
aresults.
systematic
For aloss of energy
recovery rate ofas31.92%,
the temperature increases
the water treated dueRO
by this to pilot
the increase in permeate
has conductivity
water
and TDSproduction.
values of 387 (µs/cm) and 197 (mg/L), respectively. These values are quite close
to the
Forvalues
furtherobtained by theand
comparison simulation—300 (µs/cm) and
validation, IMSDesign 161 (mg/L).
software It also
(version noted
18.5) that
(Integrated
the maximum supply pressures necessary to obtain a permeate flow
Membrane Solutions Design) is used to size a RO installation. Using this program has rate of 0.32 m 3/h of

water are
enabled usidentical.
to calculateTherefore, the electric
and control powerofsupplied
the values the mainbyoperating
the HP pump is also similar.
parameters and also to
assess the quality of the water produced. The experimental results obtainedused
With the help of this simulation, we confirm that treatment on the membrane at the
are compared
laboratory level is very efficient and achieved optimum performance,
with those of the numerical simulation for the desalination of synthetic seawater. and it practically
conforms
Tableto 8 theoretical
summarizes results.
the experimental and theoretical results in terms of flow rates,
recovery rate, power, TDS and conductivity. It should be noted that the quality of the water
Table 8. Results of operations carried out experimentally and theoretically; feed water salinity 35
obtained by the experiment is slightly higher in comparison with the calculated results.
g/L.
For a recovery rate of 31.92%, the water treated by this RO pilot has conductivity and
TDS values of 387 (µs/cm) and 197RO Water respectively.
(mg/L), Measured by These RO Water
valuesPredicted
are quiteby close to
Parameter Unit
Experimental Theory
Recovery rate Y (%) 31.920 31.920
Permeate flow QP (m3/h) 0.230 0.230
Supply pressure PA (bar) 65 64.800
Feed rate QA (m3/h) 0.711 0.7400
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 20 of 23

the values obtained by the simulation—300 (µs/cm) and 161 (mg/L). It also noted that
the maximum supply pressures necessary to obtain a permeate flow rate of 0.32 m3 /h of
water are identical. Therefore, the electric power supplied by the HP pump is also similar.
With the help of this simulation, we confirm that treatment on the membrane used at the
laboratory level is very efficient and achieved optimum performance, and it practically
conforms to theoretical results.

Table 8. Results of operations carried out experimentally and theoretically; feed water salinity 35 g/L.

RO Water Measured RO Water Predicted

Parameter Unit
by Experimental by Theory
Recovery rate Y (%) 31.920 31.920
Permeate flow QP (m3 /h) 0.230 0.230
Supply pressure PA (bar) 65 64.800
Feed rate QA (m3 /h) 0.711 0.7400
Retentate flow QR (m3 /h) 0.512 0.5100
Electrical power Pe (kW) 1.800 1.700
Electrical conductivity σ (µs/cm) 387 300
TDS (mg/L) 197 161

4. Conclusions
This work seeks to improve our understanding of potential sustainable and cost-
effective solutions to water scarcity in arid regions or areas with increasing pressures on
water supply due to emergency, drought, or saltwater intrusion.
A small decentralized solar energy-water system has the potential to provide a cost-
effective supply to a region where energy and drinking water are not available or difficult
to produce for its high cost. An experimental study was carried out to assess the effec-
tiveness of an RO desalination system with a salinity from 1000 mg/L (low salinity) up to
35,000 mg/L (high salinity). In this case, the pretreatment of feedwater is provided by the
sand filtration-activated carbon adsorption system and two microfiltration MF (1–5 µm)
filters. The performance of the tested membrane SWC5-LD-4040 is measured in terms
of permeate and retentate flow under different operating conditions, such as feed water
salinity, pressure, temperature and recovery rate. We find that the salt rejection increased
when feed pressure increases and decreases with salt concentration and recovery rate. For
each salinity, the energy consumption of the RO pilot was measured for different flow rate
and pressure measurements in order to examine the membrane performance. We note
that higher salinity increases energy consumption, whereas the energy increases when
feed water temperature is decreased. To monitor the quality of the permeate, the water
parameters were followed and the physicochemical and bacteriological results of the de-
salinated water showed good quality. The PV-RO system demonstrated durability, which
is determined in terms of the amount of permeate and its quality, which depended strongly
on the membrane used. Desalination of brackish water at a TDS value of 5 g/L requires an
energy level of about 1.5 kWh/m3 . Using seawater at a TDS value of 35 g/L, this value
increases to 5.6 kWh/m3 . The difference between the experimental and the numerical
results shows good agreement.

Author Contributions: Investigation, validation, writing original draft, Z.T., ressources, H.A., D.Z.
and S.H.; methodology, N.S.; validationand software, Y.B. and A.I., formal analysis, D.T.; ressources,
M.K. and F.Z.Y.; writing—review and editing, N.D. and S.E.I.L. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14189 21 of 23

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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