ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER

MODULE 10
• Subgenres of Poetry:
BASIC GENRE OF LITERATURE
• Epic:
• Three Basic Genres of Literature: Prose, Poetry, and Drama • What It Is: A long narrative poem about heroic deeds,
• Literature can be broadly categorized into three main historical events, or cultural myths.
genres: Prose-Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Each genre has its • Examples:
own characteristics, subgenres, and literary history. • Literary: The Iliad by Homer (~8th century BCE).
• Taylor Swift: "Enchanted" captures an epic love story with
• 1. Prose-Fiction fate and fantasy at its core.
• Definition: Prose-fiction refers to stories written in ordinary
language without any poetic structure. It is the most • Elegy:
common literary form and mirrors real-life storytelling. • What It Is: A reflective poem mourning the death of a
Writers use narration to describe events, characters, and person.
settings. Examples:
• Main Feature: Narration—a sequential and cohesive • Literary: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas
recounting of events. Gray (1751).
• Taylor Swift: "Ronan" is an elegy for a young boy who
• Subgenres of Prose-Fiction: passed away.
• Novel:
• What It Is: The most comprehensive form of prose fiction, • Dirge:
usually with a detailed plot, characters, and themes. • What It Is: A less formal elegy, often set to music,
Defined by Palmer (1986) as a "compact, coherent, and expressing grief.
unified fictitious prose narrative having a beginning, middle, Examples:
and end." • Literary: Traditional dirges like "Danny Boy."
• Historical Context: The novel is considered the newest • Taylor Swift: "Soon You’ll Get Better" functions as a dirge
literary form. The first modern novel is often credited to about her mother’s illness.
Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719).
Examples: • Lyrical Poetry:
• Literary: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen (1813). • What It Is: Emotional and musical poetry, often
• Taylor Swift: "Folklore" is like a novel in album form. The accompanied by music.
song "The Last Great American Dynasty" mirrors a Examples:
fictionalized family history. • Literary: Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats (1819).
• Taylor Swift: "The Archer" and "Delicate" showcase
• Novella: emotional vulnerability.
• What It Is: Shorter than a novel but longer than a short
story. A novella focuses on specific life experiences and • Panegyric
detailed narratives. • A panegyric is a poem or speech that praises someone or
Examples: something in a formal, celebratory tone. It uses rich
• Literary: The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka. language and imagery to highlight greatness and
• Taylor Swift: The extended "All Too Well: 10-Minute accomplishments.
Version" is essentially a novella—it unpacks every detail of
a past relationship. • Features:
• Purpose: To glorify or honor.
• Short Story: • Tone: Formal and celebratory.
• What It Is: Focuses on a single event, moment, or character. • Style: Full of metaphors and hyperbole.
Defined by Millet (1950) as having an immediate impact on Examples:
its reader by emphasizing one central character. • Pindar’s Odes (Ancient Greece): Praised athletes.
Examples: • Long Live by Taylor Swift: Celebrates her band's triumphs
• Literary: The Lottery by Shirley Jackson (1948). and shared moments.
• Taylor Swift: "You Belong with Me" is like a short story of • Lyrics: "Long live all the mountains we moved."
unrequited love told in under four minutes. • Direct, celebratory, and rich in admiration—panegyrics are
about honoring achievements.
• 2. Poetry
• Definition: Poetry is a form of literary expression that uses • Occasional Poetry:
rhythm, imagery, and emotion to communicate ideas. It is • What It Is: Written for a specific event or celebration.
more compact and layered than prose, often leaving Examples:
interpretation to the reader. • Literary: On the Pulse of Morning by Maya Angelou for Bill
• Key Quote: Abrams (1981) described poetry as "the Clinton’s inauguration (1993).
spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in • Taylor Swift: "Only the Young" addresses political activism.
tranquility."
• Main Feature: Dense and imaginative language. • Sonnet:
• What It Is: A structured 14-line poem divided into an octave
(8 lines) and sestet (6 lines).
Examples:
• Literary: Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare ("Shall I
compare thee to a summer’s day?").
• Taylor Swift: "You Are in Love" mirrors the emotional
reflection of a sonnet.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
• 3. Drama • They drive the plot and help convey the story’s themes and
• Definition: Drama combines dialogue and action to tell emotions.
stories through performance. It’s meant to be seen or
heard, making it the most interactive genre. • Characterization:
• Key Element: Blends words, visuals, and physical • This is the method the author uses to portray or project the
expressions. characters to the audience.
• Main Feature: Characters act out the story.
• Characterization is done in two ways:
• Subgenres of Drama: • Direct or Telling: The narrator explicitly describes the traits
• Tragedy: of the character.
• What It Is: A serious play with a sorrowful ending, often Example: "Jane was a kind and thoughtful person."
exploring themes like loss or fate.
• Historical Context: Introduced by Aristotle in his concept of • Indirect or Showing: The traits are revealed through the
catharsis—emotional release through pity or fear. character’s actions, dialogue, thoughts, and interactions
Examples: with others.
• Literary: Hamlet by William Shakespeare (1609). Example: Jane stopped to help a stranger struggling to carry
• Taylor Swift: "Dear John" and "All Too Well" are personal their groceries.
tragedies about heartbreak.
• Comedy (COMIC PLAY): • Types of Characters:
• What It Is: A lighthearted play that often ends happily. • Flat Characters:
Examples: • These are simple characters built around a single idea or
• Literary: The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde quality.
(1895). • They do not undergo any significant growth or
• Taylor Swift: "Shake It Off" humorously rejects criticism. transformation during the story.
• Often serve as background or supporting characters.
• Tragicomedy (TRAGICOMIC): Example: A shopkeeper in a story who has a single role and
• What It Is: Combines elements of tragedy and comedy. no character depth.
Examples:
• Literary: Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett (1953). • Round Characters:
• Taylor Swift: "The Story of Us" captures the bittersweet • These are well-developed characters with complexity in
blend of heartbreak and irony. thoughts, emotions, and actions.
• They can experience change and growth throughout the
• FAQs story.
• Can features of one genre appear in another? Example: Elizabeth Bennet in Jane Austen’s Pride and
• Yes! This is called intertextuality (Ogunsiji, 2013). For Prejudice is a round character who learns about her own
example, poetic prose or dramatic poetry blend biases and changes accordingly.
characteristics of different genres.
• Taylor Swift: "The Lakes" mixes poetic imagery with • 2. Plot
narrative storytelling. • The plot is the sequence of events arranged by the author
to achieve a specific effect or purpose. It is the backbone of
• Why study genres? the story that gives it structure and coherence.
• To understand the methods and messages of literature.
Genres guide stylistic analysis by focusing on language and • Key Aspects of Plot:
meaning. • Chronological Order: Events occur in the order in which
they happen.
• Summary Example: A biography tracing the life of a famous individual
• Prose-Fiction: Novels, novellas, and short stories emphasize from birth to death.
narration ("Folklore" and "All Too Well"). • Flashback: Events are revealed out of sequence, often
• Poetry: Uses emotional, rhythmic language ("Ronan" and through a character’s memory.
"You Are in Love"). Example: A protagonist reflecting on a pivotal childhood
• Drama: Brings stories to life through performance ("Dear event.
John" as a tragedy, "Shake It Off" as a comedy).
• Typical Plot Structure:
• Exposition: Introduces the characters, setting, and main
conflict.
MODULE 11
• Rising Action: Complications or challenges arise, building
ELEMENTS OF PROSE, POETRY, AND DRAMA tension.
• Climax: The most intense or turning point of the story.
• Elements of Prose • Falling Action: Events that follow the climax and lead to
• Prose refers to written or spoken language in its ordinary resolution.
form, without the structured patterns found in poetry. • Resolution/Denouement: The conclusion of the story,
Stories narrated in prose can either be real (non-fiction) or where conflicts are resolved.
imagined (fiction).
• 3. Setting
• 1. Characters/Characterization • Definition: Refers to the time and place where the story’s
• Characters: events take place. This includes the physical location, time
• Characters are the agents of action within a story. They can period, and social environment.
be individuals, animals, or even abstract figures, depending • Physical Environment: The geographical location or
on the type of narrative. physical surroundings where the story unfolds.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
• Social Circumstances: Includes societal norms, cultural
settings, and the psychological atmosphere. • Elements of Poetry
• Time: The historical moment or time frame in which the • What Makes Poetry Unique?
events occur. • Poetry is distinct because it reflects human experience and
• Purpose: Helps establish mood, context, and background consciousness, directly stemming from emotions, thoughts,
for the characters and plot. and sensory perception.
• Example: In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, the setting
of 1930s Alabama reflects the racial tension and societal • Key elements to consider when analyzing poetry include:
prejudices that shape the story. • Diction: The specific choice of words by the poet.
• Imagery: Descriptions that appeal to the senses.
• 4. Theme • Sound Effects: How the poem uses rhythm, rhyme, and
• Definition: The central message, idea, or underlying other auditory patterns.
meaning of a story. It answers the question: What is this • Subject-Matter and Themes
story really about? • Subject-Matter: The explicit topic or issue the poem
• Explicit vs. Implicit: Themes can be directly stated or addresses. It is usually clear and stated.
implied through the narrative and character actions. Example: A poem about love, nature, or war.
• Purpose: Provides the reader with a deeper understanding
of the human condition, societal issues, or universal truths. • Theme(s): The underlying message or deeper meaning
Example: The theme of love and sacrifice is central to deduced from the subject matter.
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. Example: A love poem may explore themes like sacrifice,
longing, or heartbreak.
• 5. Conflict
• Definition: The struggle or clash between opposing forces • Persona in Poetry
in a story. • Definition: The “voice” or narrator of the poem. The
• Types: persona is the character or perspective the poet adopts to
• External Conflict: When the character faces challenges tell the story or express ideas.
from outside forces, such as other characters, nature, or • This voice is not always the poet themselves. The poet may
society. create a persona to represent someone else, real or
• Example: In Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, Captain Ahab’s imaginary.
obsession with the white whale represents man versus • Purpose: Helps the poet communicate emotions or ideas in
nature. a unique way by stepping into a different perspective.
• Internal Conflict: The psychological struggle within a Example: In Robert Browning’s poem My Last Duchess, the
character, dealing with emotions, decisions, or morality. persona is a Duke who narrates the story, not Browning
• Example: Hamlet’s indecision in Shakespeare’s Hamlet himself.
represents internal conflict.
• Identifying the Persona:
• 6. Point of View • Determine if the poet is speaking as themselves or through
• Definition: The perspective from which the story is told. another character.
• Types: • Analyze the tone, language, and context to understand the
• First Person Point of View: persona’s role and perspective.
• The narrator is a character in the story, using "I" to describe
events. • Detailed Example of Persona:
Example: The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, where • In Wole Soyinka’s poem Abiku, the persona speaks through
Holden Caulfield narrates the story. the voice of a child destined to die young. This child explains
• Third Person Point of View: their premature death, providing an emotional and cultural
• Omniscient Narrator: The narrator knows everything about lens.
all the characters and events.
Example: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. • Imagery
• Limited Omniscient: The narrator focuses on one • Definition: Imagery involves descriptive writing that
character’s thoughts and experiences. appeals to the senses. It helps the reader visualize scenes,
Example: Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling (focuses on hear sounds, or feel emotions as if they are part of the
Harry’s perspective). experience.

• 7. Language • Types of Imagery:

• Definition: The medium through which the story is told, • Aural (sound-related): Focuses on how the poem uses
encompassing the words, phrases, and tone used by the sound to create effects.
author. • Visual (sight-related): Paints pictures in the reader's mind.
• Two Dimensions: Purpose: It relies on emotional and vivid word choices to
• Authorial Language: Reflects the writer’s style and make the experience more engaging and relatable.
narrative voice. Example: A poem describing a sunrise might use phrases
• Character Language: Represents how characters speak, like "golden light spills over the horizon" to appeal to visual
revealing their personality, background, and role. imagery.
• Purpose: Enhances characterization, sets the tone, and
makes the story engaging.
Example: The formal, poetic language of Frankenstein by
Mary Shelley contrasts with the colloquial tone in Mark
Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
• Sound Patterns
• Poetry often uses rhythm to create a musical quality. • Purpose: Helps maintain the audience’s interest by
Rhythm is formed by the arrangement of stressed and organizing events for emotional or logical impact.
unstressed syllables.
• Types of Rhythms: • 2. Theme
• Iambic Rhythm: • Definition: The central idea or message of the play.
• Structure: An unstressed syllable followed by a stressed • Details:
syllable. • Themes can include topics like love, betrayal, ambition, or
Example: "be-yond the sun." justice.
• This is the most common rhythm in English poetry. • A play may explore multiple themes.
Example: In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the theme revolves
• Trochaic Rhythm: around ambition and its destructive consequences.
• Structure: A stressed syllable followed by an unstressed
syllable. • 3. Conflict
Example: "love-ly win-dow." • Definition: The struggle between opposing forces.
• Types of Conflict:
• Anapaestic Rhythm: • External: Conflicts between characters, like the protagonist
• Structure: Two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed versus the antagonist.
syllable. • Internal: A character struggles with emotions or decisions.
Example: "in the night." • Importance: Drives the plot and creates tension.

• Dactylic Rhythm: • 4. Characters/Characterization

• Structure: A stressed syllable followed by two unstressed • Definition: Characters are the individuals in the play, while
syllables. characterization is how their personalities and motives are
Example: "mer-ri-ly." presented.
• Purpose of Rhythm: It provides a musical flow to the poem
and emphasizes certain words or emotions. • Types of Characters:
• Protagonist: The main character, often facing a challenge or
• Sound Effects conflict.
• Poets use sound effects to enhance the auditory experience • Antagonist: Opposes the protagonist.
of a poem. These include:
• Methods of Characterization:
• Onomatopoeia: • Through dialogue (what they say).
• Words that imitate natural sounds. • Through actions (what they do).
Example: Words like "buzz," "clang," "roar," and "mew"
mimic the sounds they describe. • 5. Language
• Purpose: Adds realism and evokes sensory responses. • Definition: The way characters communicate and express
themselves.
• Alliteration: • Types of Language in Drama:
• Repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of • Verbal (spoken): What characters say aloud.
closely placed words. • Gestural (paralinguistic): Non-verbal cues like facial
Example: "Big bad Bob bounced bravely." expressions or body movements.
• Purpose: Creates a rhythmic flow and makes the lines more • Symbolic (semiotic): Symbols, objects, or settings
memorable. conveying deeper meanings.

• Rhyme: • Style: Can be poetic (with rhyme and rhythm) or prose

• Repetition of similar sounds, often at the end of lines. (everyday language).
Example: "The sun will rise / and dry the skies."
• Purpose: Adds musicality and binds lines together. • How Drama Differs from Other Literary Genres
• Drama combines the written text with visual and auditory
• Definition of Drama performance elements, making it both a literary and a
• Drama is any form of literature that is meant to be performing art.
performed on stage. It uses characters and their actions to
communicate a message to the audience.
• Drama can appear in two forms: MODULE 12
• Written Form: Texts, like scripts, are written and read.
REGISTER: MEANING AND ELEMENTS
• Staged Plays: These are performed live in front of an
audience, emphasizing action, dialogue, and visual • Register: Meaning and Elements
elements. • Definition of Register
• M.A.K. Halliday (a British linguist) introduced the concept
• Elements of Drama of register as part of his work on systemic functional
• These are the basic components that all dramas include: linguistics in the 1960s. He explained that register means a
variety of language that people use depending on the
• 1. Plot context, purpose, and participants.
• Definition: The sequence of events in the play. • Leckie-Terry and Birch (1995) elaborated on Halliday's idea,
• Types of Plot Structures: stating that register is about how each speaker chooses
• Linear: Events occur in a chronological order. from a range of language styles depending on the situation.
• Non-linear: Events might be presented out of sequence • Gregory and Carroll (1978) described register as “a useful
(e.g., flashbacks). abstraction” that links language variations to social context.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
• Three Major Determinants of Register
• 1. Field
Specific Registers in Different Fields
• Definition: Field refers to the subject matter or topic of the
communication. It focuses on what is happening and the Registers vary based on occupations or activities. Here are
type of activity being discussed. examples:
• Contributor: M.A.K. Halliday’s work in 1994 described field
as the content and purpose of the conversation. Field Contributors and Examples of
Example: Words
• Sports field: “Goalkeeper,” “penalty kick,” and “midfielder” Wedding Halliday’s work applies here
are specific to football. with terms like: “Bride,”
“groom,” “wedding ring,” “for
• Medical field: Terms like “diagnosis,” “surgery,” and
better or worse,” “marriage
“prescription” are unique to healthcare.
register.”
• Education field: “Lesson plan,” “curriculum,” and “rubric” Burial Gregory and Carroll’s idea of
are used by teachers. linking language to social
events applies: “Corpse,”
• 2. Mode “funeral oration,” “dust to
• Definition: Mode refers to the channel of communication dust.”
(spoken, written, prepared, or spontaneous) and what the Football Leckie-Terry and Birch’s focus
language achieves in that context. on context-specific language:
• Contributor: Halliday (1994) emphasized analyzing the “Penalty kick,” “midfielder,”
mode by asking: “What does the text achieve in this “half-time,” “free kick.”
situation?” Field Contributors and Examples of
Words
• Key Ideas:
• Mode includes whether the text is formal or informal, and
if it is prepared or spontaneous. • Important Contributors to Register Studies
• It looks at genre and purpose (e.g., to inform, persuade, or • M.A.K. Halliday (1960s): Developed the concept of register
entertain). and its three dimensions: field, mode, and tenor.
Example: • Leckie-Terry and Birch (1995): Expanded on Halliday’s
• A prepared speech for a wedding is formal and ceremonial. ideas, focusing on how speakers choose language
• A text message between friends is informal and casual. depending on the situation.
• Gregory and Carroll (1978): Linked language variations to
• 3. Tenor social contexts, making register a practical tool for
• Definition: Tenor focuses on the people involved, their understanding stylistics.
roles, and their relationships in the conversation.
• Contributor: Halliday’s 1994 work defined tenor as the • Summary
social roles and interactions among participants. • Register is how we change our language based on the topic
• Key Ideas: (field), method (mode), and relationships (tenor).
• Tenor asks: Who are the participants? What is their • Names to remember:
relationship? Are they equals or is there a hierarchy? • M.A.K. Halliday (1960s): Defined register and its
• Social roles can be permanent (e.g., boss and employee) or dimensions.
temporary (e.g., two strangers). • Leckie-Terry and Birch (1995): Explained situational choices
Example: in language.
• Teacher and student: A formal relationship where the • Gregory and Carroll (1978): Linked language to social
teacher gives instructions, such as “Submit your homework contexts.
by tomorrow.” • Registers exist everywhere: weddings, sports, education,
• Friends: An informal relationship, e.g., “Hey, let’s hang out medicine, and even daily conversations.
later!”
• Parent and child: A nurturing relationship, e.g., “Finish your
vegetables, and then you can have dessert.”
MODULE 13

• Why is Register Important? SAMPLE STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF A POEM

• It Reflects Identity:
• How you speak shows who you are, your profession, and • Introduction to Stylistic Analysis of a Poem
your relationship with others. • Stylistic analysis examines how poetic features like
Example: A lawyer uses legal jargon like “plaintiff” or phonological, graphological, syntactic, and lexico-semantic
“subpoena,” while a doctor uses terms like “symptoms” and elements give a poem its unique identity. The poem being
“treatment.” analyzed here is "Still I Rise" by Maya Angelou, first
• Adaptability: published in her poetry collection And Still I Rise in 1978.
• Register helps you adjust your language for different
situations. • Angelou’s poem embodies resilience, empowerment, and
Example: You don’t speak to a friend the same way you the struggle against oppression, particularly focusing on the
speak to your boss. history of African Americans during and after slavery.

• Graphological Features
• Graphology refers to the visual presentation of a poem,
including punctuation, line breaks, stanzas, and the use of
special characters.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER

• Structure of the Poem:

• The poem has 8 stanzas: • Inversion:
• Stanzas 1 to 7: Each contains 4 lines. • Examples:
• Stanza 8: Contains 15 lines. • “…like dust, I’ll rise.”
• This structural deviation at the end creates a climax and • “Out of the huts of history’s shame, I rise.”
highlights the message of rising above oppression. • The inversion of normal sentence structure emphasizes
resilience and adds stylistic variation.
• Punctuation:
• Question Marks: Found in lines 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 25, and 28, • Lexico-Semantic Features
the questions directly challenge the oppressors, probing • Lexico-semantics deals with the meaning of words and their
their motives. arrangement.
• Apostrophes: Words like I’ll, Don’t, Cause, I’ve emphasize a
colloquial tone that mirrors Angelou’s defiant attitude and • Metaphor:
carefree nature toward her oppressors. • Examples:
• Repetition: The phrase "I rise" is repeated multiple times, • “You may shoot me with your words…”: Words are
particularly in the last stanza. This emphasizes the theme of metaphorically described as weapons.
overcoming challenges. • “I am a black ocean…”: The persona likens herself to a vast,
powerful ocean, symbolizing strength and depth.
• Stylistic Function:
• The repetitive "I rise" in the final stanza forms an image of • Simile:
a collective uprising, symbolizing the fight against • Examples:
oppression by African Americans. • “Like dust, I’ll rise.”
• “Like air, I’ll rise.”
• Phonological Features • “Like I’ve got diamonds at the meeting of my thighs.”
• Phonology focuses on sound patterns, musicality, and • These similes create vivid imagery that conveys the
rhythm in the poem. resilience and self-worth of the poetic persona.

• Rhyme Scheme: • Unusual Collocations:

• Rhyming pairs like lies/dust, hard/backyard, and clear/near • Phrases like "cut me with your eyes" and "shoot me with
create a musical flow that keeps the reader engaged. your words" create striking metaphors that make the
• These rhymes highlight the resilience of the poetic persona oppressors’ actions seem violent and dehumanizing.
and the rhythm of perseverance.
• Themes and Tone
• Repetition: • Themes:
• The phrase "I rise" is repeated throughout, symbolizing • Resilience: Despite oppression, the poetic persona refuses
defiance and hope. to give up, symbolized by the repeated phrase "I rise."
• Freedom and Empowerment: The poem represents the
• Musicality: struggle of African Americans for equality and freedom.
• Through rhyme and repetition, Angelou infuses a sense of • Pride and Defiance: The poetic persona exudes confidence
musicality that makes her message more impactful. and refuses to be diminished.

• Syntactic Features • Tone:

• Syntax refers to sentence structure and the types of • Defiant, hopeful, and empowering. Angelou’s tone
sentences used. challenges the oppressors while inspiring others to rise
• Imperative Sentences: above adversity.
• Examples:
• "You may write me down in history…" • Historical Context
• "You may shoot me with your words…" • Background:
• These pseudo-imperatives challenge the oppressor, daring • Maya Angelou, born April 4, 1928, in Missouri, was a
them to continue their actions, as the poetic persona celebrated African American poet, author, and activist.
refuses to be defeated. • The poem reflects the struggles of African Americans during
and after slavery, particularly during the Civil Rights
• Interrogative Sentences: Movement in the United States.
• Examples:
• "Does my sassiness upset you?" • Publication:
• "Why are you beset with gloom?" • “Still I Rise” was published in 1978 as part of her poetry
• These rhetorical questions probe the oppressors, exposing collection And Still I Rise, a significant work addressing
their unjust behavior. themes of racial and gender inequality.
• Conclusion
• Simple and Complex Sentences: • Maya Angelou’s “Still I Rise” combines stylistic elements—
• Simple Sentences: Examples include "I rise." These short graphological, phonological, syntactic, and lexico-
statements are emphatic and direct. semantic—to create a powerful narrative of resilience. Its
• Complex Sentences: Lines like "Cause I walk like I’ve got oil unique structure, sound patterns, rhetorical devices, and
wells pumping in my living room" showcase Angelou’s historical context give the poem its timeless impact. The
mastery in blending colloquial tone with layered meaning. repetitive “I rise” not only highlights personal defiance but
also serves as a universal anthem for oppressed people
striving for freedom and dignity.

CREATED BY MARK NATHANIEL B. JAVIER

 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
MODULE 14

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: LANGUAGE AND CONTEXT • 3. Dimensions of Context

• Context determines how language is used and understood.
• Language and Context According to van Dijk (2011), context is a subjective
• Discourse analysis involves studying how people use construct, meaning:
language in real-life situations, considering the relationship • Participants define the situation and create meaning based
between language and context. Below is a detailed on their shared understanding.
explanation, focusing on the core ideas and significant
• Context isn’t fixed; it’s dynamic and changes during
contributors to discourse analysis.
interactions.

• 1. Key Concepts of Language and Context

• Key Dimensions:
• The meaning of language changes depending on the
• Field:
situation in which it is used, who is using it, and why.
• Refers to the subject matter or topic.
Consider the examples given:
Example: A legal document has different language than a
casual text message.
• Example Sentences:
• a) "The runway is full at the moment" (spoken by an air
• Mode:
traffic controller to a pilot):
• Refers to the medium (spoken or written) and how
• In this context, it means the plane cannot land because the
language is organized.
runway is occupied.
Example: Prepared speeches differ from impromptu
conversations.
• b) "The runway is full at the moment" (spoken by Maria to
her friend):
• Tenor:
• Refers to the relationships between participants and their
• Here, it means the plane is delayed, explaining why the
social roles.
person they are waiting for has not landed yet.
Example: Language between a teacher and student differs
from that between friends.
• Observations:
• The same words have different meanings based on context, • 4. Practical Examples of Register and Context
participants, and purpose.
• Registers (language varieties) vary depending on the field,
• The air traffic controller’s message is an instruction tied to mode, and tenor. Here are some field-specific examples:
safety, while Maria’s message is an explanation.
• Wedding Vocabulary:
• Why Context Matters:
• Terms: bride, groom, best man, officiating minister, vows.
• Context refers to the circumstances in which a statement is
• Context: These terms fit a formal setting focused on
made.
marriage ceremonies.
• Zellig Harris (1952) emphasized that language and meaning
are tied to the specific situations in which people
• Football Vocabulary:
communicate. The same words can have entirely different
• Terms: penalty kick, midfielder, referee, offside.
implications depending on who is speaking, to whom, and
• Context: These terms are used in sports, with meanings
why.
understood only in this specific activity.

• 2. Discourse Analysis
• Significance of Register:
• Discourse analysis studies language in use. It examines both
• Registers reflect social identities and relationships.
spoken and written interactions to understand how people
Example: A lawyer uses legal jargon, while a doctor uses
create meaning in different contexts.
medical terminology.

• Origin and Contributions:

• 5. Important Contributors
• Zellig S. Harris (1952): Introduced discourse analysis to
• Zellig Harris (1909–1992):
study connected speech and writing beyond isolated
• Known for structural linguistics and his introduction of
sentences.
discourse analysis.
• Key observation: “Connected discourse occurs within a
• Wrote "Methods in Structural Linguistics" (1951).
particular situation.”
• J. R. Firth (1935, 1957): Highlighted the importance of
• J. R. Firth (1935, 1957):
context of situation and context of culture. To understand a
• Emphasized context of situation and context of culture.
message, we must know:
• What the people are doing.
• Michael Halliday (1971, 1989):
• Their cultural background.
• Developed Systemic Functional Linguistics, connecting
• Michael Halliday (1971, 1989): Linked context of culture
culture and situational context to language choices.
(possibilities for language use) and context of situation
(actual choices people make). He stressed that language
• John Sinclair (2004):
changes based on specific social situations.
• Advocated for studying real-life language use, not artificial
• John Sinclair (2004): Emphasized studying language in
examples.
natural contexts and focusing on the meanings created
during real-life interactions.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER
• 6. Summary
• Discourse analysis is about understanding how language
Examples:
works in different contexts.
• At a travel agency:
• Context includes the participants, situation, culture, and
• Request for Service: "Could you help me find flights to
purpose of communication.
Tokyo?"
• Scholars like Harris, Firth, Halliday, and Sinclair have shaped
our understanding of how language adapts to different • Response from Staff: "Sure, let me check for you."
circumstances. • Final Transaction: "Here are your tickets. Have a nice trip!"
• Takeaway: Language is never static. Its meaning depends
on what we’re doing, who we’re speaking to, and the • Variations by Context:
situation we’re in. • Busy Supermarket: Politeness is brief (e.g., "Can I have...?").
• Upscale Bakery: Extended pleasantries are common (e.g.,
"These croissants look lovely. I’ll take two, please.").

MODULE 15
• 3. Cultural Ways of Speaking and Writing
THE DISCOURSE STRUCTURE OFNTEXTS AND THE CULTURAL WAYS • Focus: Different cultures have unique ways of structuring
OF SPEAKING AND WRITING and delivering messages, influenced by traditions, social
norms, and expectations.
• The Discourse Structure of Texts: Expanded Explanation • Key Researcher: Dell Hymes (1964) introduced the
• This lesson focuses on how people organize spoken and ethnography of communication, emphasizing cultural
written communication, taking into account cultural differences in how people communicate.
differences, stages of interaction, and the role of context. • Examples:
Researchers in discourse analysis have provided • Japanese Emails: Start with seasonal greetings like, "The
frameworks for understanding how meaning and cherry blossoms are beautiful this time of year."
interaction vary across cultures, settings, and languages. • English Emails: Skip the pleasantries and go straight to the
Below is a detailed explanation, including examples and point: "Our spring sale starts next week."
important researchers.
• Buying Lunch in Different Cultures:
• Key Concepts • In an English-speaking country, customers often say, "Can I
• 1. Stages in Discourse have a sandwich, please?" and follow up with "Thank you."
• Definition: Stages are the steps people follow in • In Japan, the cashier speaks more (e.g., confirming the
conversations or written interactions. These steps depend total), while the customer may say very little.
on cultural expectations, social norms, and the purpose of • Business Example:
communication. • When Daimaru, a Japanese department store, opened in
• Origin: Malcolm Mitchell (1985) first introduced the Melbourne:
concept of stages in discourse. He analyzed buying and • Japanese advertisements began with seasonal greetings to
selling interactions, focusing on the overall structure rather connect with customers emotionally.
than the exact language used. • English advertisements focused directly on the sale details,
Examples: reflecting a cultural preference for efficiency.
• Shanghai Market Interaction:
• A street vendor says, "Hello Mister, DVD." • 4. Conversation Analysis
• This is a greeting and offer step. • Focus: Examining fine details of spoken interactions, such
• Contextually, the vendor is inviting the buyer to purchase as:
DVDs. • Opening and closing conversations.
• If a customer shows interest, the vendor moves to • Turn-taking: How people alternate speaking in a
negotiation, often starting with a high price. conversation.
• The buyer negotiates for a lower price, leading to the • Overlap: When two people speak simultaneously.
agreement stage. • Speech features: Pauses, tone, pitch, and volume.

• Supermarket in English-speaking Countries: • Applications:

• Stages include: • Doctor-Patient Consultations: The doctor typically controls
• Greeting (optional): "Hi, how are you?" the conversation, asking questions and giving instructions.
• Request for items: "Can I have a loaf of bread?" • Legal Settings: Structured and formal, with strict turn-
• Transaction: Paying and receiving the product. taking and professional language.
• Closing (optional): "Thank you!"
• 5. Cultural Variations
• 2. Service Encounters • Dell Hymes' Ethnography of Communication:
• Focus: Analyzing typical structures in interactions involving • Emphasizes the importance of who, what, where, when,
services like shopping or booking tickets. and why in communication.
• Key Researchers: Ruqaiya Hasan (1989) and Eija Ventola • Shows how cultural norms shape speech events, such as
(1984, 1987). buying lunch or conducting business.
• They identified obligatory stages (e.g., stating what you Examples:
want to buy) and optional stages (e.g., polite greetings). • Lunch Interaction:
• Language use in these stages varies based on context and • In an English-speaking country: The customer actively
culture. engages with “please” and “thank you.”
• In Japan: The cashier speaks more, while the customer
listens quietly, reflecting cultural norms of politeness.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER

• Shopping Differences: Example:

• In English-speaking supermarkets, a short exchange • A political leader delivering a speech may adjust their tone,
occurs: gestures, and vocabulary based on their audience—
• "Hi, how are you?" whether addressing a local rally or an international
• "Good. Can I get this?" conference. The "dance" adjusts, but the identity of a leader
• In Japan, politeness rituals extend, and cashiers thank remains.
customers profusely.
• 2. Performativity in Discourse
• 6. Summary of Key Researchers • The idea of performativity originates from J.L. Austin's
• Malcolm Mitchell (1985): Speech Act Theory, where saying something enacts it.
• Introduced the concept of stages in discourse, focusing on • For example, "I now pronounce you husband and wife"
structured interactions like buying and selling. makes a couple legally married.
• Judith Butler (1990, 1993) expanded this idea to include
• Ruqaiya Hasan (1989) and Eija Ventola (1984, 1987): gender and identity, stating that these are not innate but
• Identified obligatory and optional stages in service are performed through repeated actions and language.
encounters.
• Key Researchers:
• Dell Hymes (1964): • Judith Butler (1990): Gender is "performed," meaning that
• Developed the ethnography of communication, highlighting repeated acts like clothing, mannerisms, and speech define
cultural differences in speech and writing. gender, not biology.
• Pennycook (2007): Identity is constructed by what we do
• John Sinclair (2004): and say rather than who we are inherently.
• Advocated for studying language in naturally occurring Example:
contexts. • A teacher promising to help a student creates a social reality
where the teacher becomes a helper and guide. Similarly, a
• Conclusion person saying, "I am a writer," establishes that identity
• The structure of discourse varies widely depending on through the act of writing and self-identification.
cultural norms, situational contexts, and social
relationships. By understanding the stages of interaction, • 3. Social Identity Through Language
cultural differences, and the role of context, we can better • Social identities are not fixed traits. Instead, they are
appreciate the richness of human communication. This created and negotiated through discourse and
knowledge helps us adapt our language use in diverse performance.
settings, fostering effective and respectful interactions. • Otsuji (2010) highlights how people use language to define
their identities, often challenging cultural assumptions.
Example:
• A student with Chinese heritage but raised in Australia
MODULE 16
might say, "I don’t know much about China because I grew
DISCOURSE PERFORMANCE AND INTERTEXTUALITY up here." This response redefines their identity beyond
appearance or ethnicity.
• Discourse and Performance
• Discourse and performance are interconnected ideas that • 4. Performance and Identity in Specific Contexts
explore how language and actions construct identity and • Performance is not limited to speech. It includes gestures,
meaning. Below is a detailed exploration of the key attire, and behavior that align with specific roles or
concepts, supported by examples, researchers, and their identities.
contributions. • A rap artist performing in New York might emphasize street
culture, while the same artist in a Seoul nightclub might
• 1. Discourse as a "Dance" adapt their style to suit the local audience. The identity as a
• James Paul Gee explains discourse as a "dance," meaning it rap artist remains, but the performance adjusts.
involves a coordinated pattern of words, actions, beliefs, • Key Point:
and symbols. These patterns vary depending on the • Performance is dynamic and adjusts to cultural,
situation and participants but follow recognizable norms. geographical, and social contexts.

• Like a dance, discourse is flexible, yet structured. Each • Discourse and Intertextuality
interaction may be slightly different but still follows shared • Intertextuality is the idea that texts (spoken, written, or
rules or patterns. visual) derive their meaning by referencing or building on
other texts.
• Key Ideas:
• Discourse happens in both abstract forms (general rules or • 1. What Is Intertextuality?
conventions) and in real-time performances (specific • According to Lemke (1992), no text exists in isolation. All
interactions). texts gain meaning from their connections to previous texts,
• The "masters of the dance" are those who control or events, or cultural knowledge.
influence what is considered acceptable within a discourse.
For example, an established rapper determines what is • Norman Fairclough (1992) describes intertextuality as the
"authentic" in rap culture. transformation of past texts and genres to create new ones.

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 ENG161 STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS P2 REVIEWER

• Key Example:
• The movie Casablanca combines elements from romance,
war, and spy genres, creating an "intertextual collage"
(Umberto Eco, 1987). Its success lies in its ability to evoke
familiar tropes from multiple genres.

• 2. Cultural Variations in Intertextuality

• Wang (2007) examined newspaper commentaries on
September 11 and found cultural differences:
• Chinese writers quoted external sources but distanced
themselves from those views.
• English writers presented external views as widely accepted
within their communities.
Example:
• A Western advertisement might use direct, bold language
to persuade consumers, while a Japanese ad might focus on
subtle references to seasons or traditions, showing cultural
differences in discourse.

• 3. Creating New Texts and Genres

• Intertextuality allows writers and speakers to transform
prior conventions into new forms.
• Blogs, for example, combine personal storytelling with
journalistic reporting, creating a hybrid genre.

• Discourse, Identity, and Social Context

• Language and discourse are deeply connected to social
contexts, as highlighted by key researchers:
•
• Zellig Harris (1952):
• Discourse occurs within specific situations, such as
conversations or cultural traditions.
Example: An air traffic controller saying, "The runway is
full," means the plane cannot land. In contrast, a friend at
the airport using the same phrase means a delay in pickup.

• Michael Halliday (1971):

• Context influences language choices. Cultural norms and
situational settings determine how we speak or write.
Example:
• A Japanese email might start with seasonal greetings, while
an English email gets straight to the point.

• Conclusion
• Discourse and performance illustrate how language is not
just a tool for communication but a way of creating and
negotiating identity. Intertextuality shows how texts are
interconnected, drawing on prior works to construct new
meanings. Both concepts emphasize the dynamic nature of
language, shaped by cultural, social, and situational
contexts.

CREATED BY MARK NATHANIEL B. JAVIER