28.

The future tense

So far we have seen three tenses:

present porto I carry
imperfect portabam I carried
perfect portavi I have carried

Next up is the future tense: "I will carry". The future tense has two sets of characteristic
letters and endings, one for the first and second conjugations and one for the third,
fourth, and mixed conjugations.

1st and 2nd conj. 3rd, 4th, and mixed conj.

1 sing -bo -am
2 sing -bis -es
3 sing -bit -et
1 pl -bimus -emus
2 pl -bitis -etis
3 pl -bunt -ent

This gives the following paradigm:

1st conj. 2nd conj. 3rd conj. 4th conj. mixed conj.

1 sing amabo monebo traham audiam capiam

2 sing amabis monebis trahes audies capies

3 sing amabit monebit trahet audiet capiet

1 pl amabimus monebimus trahemus audiemus capiemus

2 pl amabitis monebitis trahetis audietis capietis

3 pl amabunt monebunt trahent audient capient

Note how important it is to learn which conjugation a verb belongs to:

 mones ind. present 2nd sing 'you warn'
trahes ind. future 2nd sing 'you will drag'

The future tense of esse and posse:

esse posse
1 sing ero potero
2 sing eris poteris
3 sing erit poterit
1 pl erimus poterimus
2 pl eritis poteritis
3 pl erunt poterunt

Exercises
dei duces bonos non punient.
epistulas librosque in horto legam.
mater mecum in villa manebit.
auxilium ad amicos statim mittemus.
dux stultus te in periculum ducet.
cras, pueri, regem videre poteritis.
stulti consilium bonum dare non poterunt.

29. The pluperfect tense

We have already met the following tenses:

Present I carry
Future I will carry
Imperfect I carried
Perfect I have carried
When the action of a sentence is set in the past, and reference is made to an event even
further back in time, Latin uses the pluperfect. It is used to describe an event that had
already happened by a certain point that is also in the past.
e.g., The king had ruled Rome for many years, when war broke out.
You always used "had" in your English translation.

The pluperfect is formed of the perfect stem with its own set of endings, which
essentially resemble the imperfect of "esse":
1 sing -eram 1 pl -eramus
2 sing -eras 2 pl -eratis
3 sing -erat 3 pl -erant

1st conj. 2nd conj. 3rd conj. 4th conj. mixed conj.
I had carried I had warned I had dragged I had heard I had seized
1 sing portav-eram monu-eram trax-eram audiv-eram cep-eram

2 sing portav-eras monu-eras trax-eras audiv-eras cep-eras

3 sing portav-erat monu-erat trax-erat audiv-erat cep-erat

1 pl portav-eramus monu-eramus trax-eramus audiv-eramus cep-eramus

2 pl portav-eratis monu-eratis trax-eratis audiv-eratis cep-eratis

3 pl portav-erant monu-erant trax-erant audiv-erant cep-erant

The pluperfect of esse and posse:

esse posse
1 sing fueram potueram
2 sing fueras potueras
3 sing fuerat potuerat
1 pl fueramus potueramus
2 pl fueratis potueratis
3 pl fuerant potuerant

Exercises: translate
reges fortes olim urbem Romam ad bellum duxerant.
multos annos servi fueramus.
ancilla subito clamavit. nuntium enim tandem viderat.
maritum bonum invenire numquam potuerat.
ego manebam; tu tamen fugeras.
dux regnum filio tandem tradiderat.
servi omnem cibum in hortum portaverunt.
iter longum difficileque fuit. iuvenes enim decem horas ambulaverant.

30. Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause is a clause that contains a verb but is not the main clause in the
sentence. Often it provides information on the timeframe ("when, after") or a reason or
cause ("because") for the event in the main clause, for example.

When (temporal clause)

The particles ubi "when" and postquam "after" introduce temporal clauses. These are
followed by a verb in the future tense (if talking about the future) or by a verb in the
perfect tense (if talking about the past).
e.g., ubi ad insulam navigabit, urbem inveniet.
when he will sail to the island, he will find a city.

ubi verba nuntii audivit, lacrimavit.

when he/she heard the messenger's words, he/she cried.

Note that in your English, you may well wish to translate this with "when he
had heard", as though the Latin had ubi + pluperfect ("when he had heard
the messenger's words, he cried"), but this is not the rationale of the Latin
(which is simply: when X happened, Y happened). Do not worry about this
too much at this point in time: within a given context the use of tenses will
often intuitively make sense, and the use of tenses in various clauses will
come up again in the future as a hallmark of the Latin verbal system
("consecutio temporum")
Because (causal clause) and Although (concessive clause)
The particles quod "because" and quamquam "although" introduce two different types
of subordinate clause: "because" gives a reason why something happens (= causal
clause) and "although" gives a reason why it might have been expected not to (=
concessive clause: although a fact is conceded, the other is still true). These particles
are often followed by a verb in the pluperfect, describing an action that had already
happened by the time of the event in the main clause.

Exercises: translate
Postquam regem necavimus, ab urbe statim discessimus.
Claudius ridebat quod verba senis audiverat.
Quamquam milites viderat, senex non timebat.
Domina lacrimavit ubi epistulam tristem legit.
Difficile est credere feminae, quamquam eam amo.
Dei, postquam verba regis audiverunt, irati erant.

31. The relative pronoun

Relative pronouns are the forms of "who/which/that" that introduce relative clauses.
The boy who is holding the book is my friend.
Think about this example.
- Why do you not say "the boy that is holding the book is my friend"? (in English, "that" is
used only for things, and the relative pronoun matches the word it refers back to = the
antecedent).
- Why do you not say "the boy whom is holding the book is my friend"? (in English,
"whom" would only be used if the boy would be the object of the relative clause, but
since he is the one holding the books, he is the subject.)

In English, the relative pronoun is one of the few instances in the language that still
shows traces of inflection. This corresponds with the Latin. In Latin, the relative
pronoun will match the gender and the number of the word it refers back to, and the
case will depend on the role of the pronoun in the relative clause.

The boy who is holding the book is my friend.

Puer, qui librum tenet, est meus amicus.
masc sing: puer
nominative: subject of tenet

The boy whom you see is my friend.

Puer, quem vides, est meus amicus.
masc sing: puer
accusative: direct object of vides

The boy to whom you gave gifts is my friend.

Puer, cui dona dedisti, est meus amicus.
masc sing: puer
dative: indirect object of dedisti

The boy whose father is a doctor is my friend.

Puer, cuius pater est medicus, est meus amicus.
masc sing: puer
genitive: possessor of pater

The boy by whom the old man is entertained is my friend.

Puer, quo senex delectatur, est meus amicus.
masc sing: puer
ablative: agent of delectatur

The girl who is holding the book is my friend.

Puella, quae librum tenet, est mea amica.
fem sing: puella
nominative: subject of tenet

masc fem neuter

sing nom qui quae quod
acc quem quam quod
gen cuius cuius cuius
 dat cui cui cui
abl quo qua quo
pl nom qui quae quae
acc quos quas quae
gen quorum quarum quorum
dat quibus quibus quibus
abl quibus quibus quibus

Exercises: translate and explain the relative pronoun

Puella cui donum dedi in foro est.
Miles a quo servus fugit, in urbem currit.
Ei qui Romam defendunt fortes sunt.
Ancillae, quarum clamorem audivi, in horto sunt.
Amas eum qui in villa nunc est.
Navis in qua Romam navigabimus magna est.
Templa quae Romani nunc aedificant ingentia erunt.
Vir pecuniam quam in via invenerat filiis tradidit.
Femina ad portam per quam maritus festinaverat diu lacrimabat.

32. The interrogative pronoun

A modified version of the relative pronoun serves as the interrogative pronoun with
which one introduces a question, "who/what?".

masc fem neuter

sing nom quis quis quid
acc quem quam quid
gen cuius cuius cuius
dat cui cui cui
abl quo qua quo
 pl nom qui quae quae
acc quos quas quae
gen quorum quarum quorum
dat quibus quibus quibus
abl quibus quibus quibus

Quis advenit? Who is arriving?

Quem necavit? Whom did he kill? (which man?)
Quam necavit? Whom did he kill? (which woman?)
Quae video? What things do I see?

33. Asking questions

We make a distinction between different types of questions. The first type of question
are straightforward yes or no questions, where the question asks if something is the
case. Any sentence in Latin can be turned into a question simply by adding a question
mark at the end.
laetus est. he is happy
laetus est? is he happy?
Oftentimes, a question is signalled by adding the suffix -ne to the end of the first word
(remember that Latin originally did not use punctuation marks, so they needed other
means to signal that the question was a sentence). This suffix is entirely neutral.
laetusne est? is he happy?
fratremne necavit rex? did the king kill his brother?

The second type of questions are leading of slanted questions: the question then
suggests either of questions are slanted questions: the question then suggests either
yes or no as the expected answer. In this case, the sentence is introduced by an
interrogative particle:
nonne...? Surely...? / ... don't you?
(expecting the answer to be yes)
num...? Surely ... not...? / ... do you?
(expecting the answer to be no)
For example: nonne Romam amatis? Surely you like Rome?
You do like Rome, don't you?
num vinum amas? Surely you don't like wine?
You don't like wine, do you?

The third type of question requests a specific piece of information, and these questions
are introduced by interrogatives, similar to English:
cur? why?
quando? when?
ubi? where?
quo? where to?
unde? where from?
quis/quid? who/what?
quot? how many?
quomodo? how?

There are two interrogatives who behave like adjectives:

quantus, -a, -um? how big? how much?
qualis, -is, -e? what sort of?

34. The irregular verbs ire "to go", ferre "to bring, to carry", velle "to want"

Like in other languages, the verb "to go" in Latin is frequent and irregular.

Infinitive: ire "to go"

present future imperf perf plupf
1 sing eo ibo ibam ii/ivi ieram/iveram
2 sing is ibis ibas iisti/ivisti ieras/iveras
3 sing it ibit ibat iit/ivit ierat/iverat
1 pl imus ibimus ibamus iimus/ivimus ieramus/iveramus
2 pl itis ibitis ibatis iisti/ivisti ieratis/iveratis
3 pl eunt ibeunt ibant ierunt/iverunt ierant/iverant

Imperative: 2 sing i! 2 pl ite!

Infinitive: ferre "to bring"

present future imperf perf plupf
1 sing fero feram ferebam tuli tuleram
2 sing fers feres ferebas tulisti tuleras
3 sing fert feret ferebat tulit tulerat
1 pl ferimus feremus ferebamus tulimus tuleramus
2 pl fertis feretis ferebatis tulistis tuleratis
3 pl ferunt ferent ferebant tulerunt tulerant

Imperative: 2 sing fer! 2 pl ferte!

Infinitive: velle "to want"

present future imperf perf plupf
1 sing volo volam volebam volui volueram
2 sing vis voles volebas voluisti volueras
3 sing vult volet volebat voluit voluerat
1 pl volumus volemus volebamus voluimus volueramus
2 pl vultis voletis volebatis voluistis volueratis
3 pl volunt volent volebant voluerunt voluerant

There are three verbs that can be studied together becuase of their recurrent features:
Velle, volo I want
Malle, malo I prefer, I would rather < magis volo
Nolle I do not want < non volo

Infinitive: malle "to prefer"

 present future imperf perf plupf
1 sing malo malam malebam malui malueram
2 sing mavis males malebas maluisti malueras
3 sing mavult malet malebat maluit maluerat
1 pl malumus malemus malebamus maluimus malueramus
2 pl mavultis maletis malebatis maluistis malueratis
3 pl malunt malent malebant maluerunt maluerant

Infinitive: nolle "to want"

present future imperf perf plupf
1 sing nolo nolam nolebam nolui nolueram
2 sing non vis noles nolebas noluisti nolueras
3 sing non vult nolet nolebat noluit noluerat
1 pl nolumus nolemus nolebamus noluimus nolueramus
2 pl non vultis noletis nolebatis noluistis nolueratis
3 pl nolunt nolent nolebant noluerunt noluerant

imperative: 2 sing noli 2 pl nolite

The imperative of nolle is used for negative commands:

Nolite festinare Be unwilling to hurry!
Do not hurry!

35. Demonstrative pronouns: this and that

The pronouns hic (this) and ille (that) are called demonstrative pronouns because they
take the place of the noun (person or thing) the sentence is referring to: hic refers to
what is close at hand, and ille refers to things further away.

masc fem neut masc fem neut

sing nom hic haec hoc ille illa illud

acc hunc hanc hoc illum illam illud
gen huius huius huius illius illius illius
dat huic huic huic illi illi illi
abl hoc hac hoc illo illa illo
pl nom hi hae haec illi illae illa
acc hos has haec illos illas illa
gen horum harum horum illorum illarum illorum
dat his his his illis illis illis
abl his his his illis illis illis

Both hic and ille can be used adjectivally and accompany a noun (e.g., "this man" or
"that man"), or independently on its own instead of the noun.
hic vir heri aderat this man was present yesterday
hic heri aderat this man was present yesterday
ille vir heri aderat that man was present yesterday
ille heri aderat that man was present yesterday
When hic, haec, hoc is used on its own, you often want to supply 'man/men',
'woman/women', or 'thing/things' in English in accordance with the gender and the
number of the pronoun. Sometimes, 'he/she/it' works fine as a translation as well.
illam in foro hodie vidi I saw that woman in the forum today
I saw her in the forum today
Often a nominate form of ille is used as the subject of a sentence, referring to someone
who was mentioned in the previous sentence, but was not that previous sentence's
subject – meaning, it marks a change of subject:
dominus servum diu petebat. ille tandem rediit.
the master was looking for the servant for a long time. he finally returned.
Exercises: translate
illae naves magnae sunt.
illa bene dicit.
cibum illi seni da!
quid in illo templo invenisti?
illud non faciemus.
Nolite hunc servum necare.

Exercises: translate
Iam diu bellum Romae fuit. Milites Romani magna virtute se defendebant, sed hostes
fortes erant. Consilium ceperunt: templum Martis oppugnare voluerunt. Sed
sacerdotes illius templi gladios ceperunt et cum eis pugnaverunt. Milites hostium multi
erant, tamen, et sacerdotes oppresserunt atque eos in captivitatem duxerunt. Unus
sacerdos effugit: ad domum in agris cucurrit. Ibi sex annos mansit et Romam rediit.
Iterum enim urbi sui servire voluit.

36. Comparative and superlative adjectives

A comparative adjective is used to compare two people or things, to express than one
has a particular quality to a greater extent than another. A superlative adjective
expresses that a person or thing has a quality to a very great extent or to the greatest
extent of any in a group. We have these forms in English as well:
long – longer – very long / longest
nice – nicer – very nice / nicest
beautiful – more beautiful – very beautiful / most beautiful
good – better – very good / best

In Latin, the comparative is formed by adding -ior (m/f) or -ius (n) to the adjective and
follows a third declension.
laetus, laeta, laetum = happy => happier: laet-ior, laet-ior, laet-ius
 masc/fem neut
sing nom laet-ior laet-ius
acc laet-ior-em laet-ius
gen laet-ior-is laet-ior-is
dat laet-ior-i laet-ior-i
abl laet-ior-e laet-ior-e
pl nom laet-ior-es laet-ior-a
acc laet-ior-es laet-ior-a
gen laet-ior-um laet-ior-um
dat laet-ior-ibus laet-ior-ibus
abl laet-ior-ibus laet-ior-ibus

There are two ways of expressing the comparison:

1. A comparative adjective followed by quam = than. The two people or things being
compared are then in the same case.
Dominus stultior est quam servus.
The master is more stupid than the servant.
Puellam pulchriorem quam florem vidi.
I saw a girl more beautiful than a flower.
Senex librum longiorem mihi quam fratri dedit.
The old man gave a longer book to me than to my brother.

Note that quam has other meanings as well!

quam fortis es? how brave are you?
quam fortis es! how brave are you!

2. Alternatively, Latin will not use quam, but instead but the second noun in the ablative.
This is the ablative of comparison.
Dominus stultior est servo.
The master is more stupid than the servant.

The adverb multo can be added to stress the amount of difference:

 Dominus multo stultior est quam servus.
The master is much more stupid than the servant.

The superlative can either express the quality to a very great extent (very long) or to the
greatest extent in a group (longest). In Latin, we add the suffix -issimus, -a, -um behind
the adjective: laetissimus, laetissima, laetissimum.
The context usually enables you to figure out whether very or most/-est is the better
translation in English.
Quod epistulam tuam acceperat, puella laetissima erat.
Because she received your letter, the girl was very happy.
Hic servus stultissimus omnium est.
This servant is the most stupid of all.

These forms are generally easily recognizable, even if they are slightly irregular:
miser miserior miserrimus
celer celerior celerrimus
facilis facilior facillimus
difficilis difficilior difficillimus

Some (very frequent!) comparative and superlative adjectives are entirely irregular:
bonus melior optimus good – better – best
malus peior pessimus bad – worse – worst
magnus maior maximus big – bigger – biggest
parvus minor minimus small – smaller – smallest
multus plus plurimus much – more – most
multi plures plurimi many – more – most/very many

The comparative of an adverb is the neuter singular of the comparative adjective: the
distinctive but misleading ending is -ius. The superlative of an adverb ends in -issime.
laetius more happily
laetissime most happily, very happily
A special use of quam is when it is placed in front of the superlative adverb. It then
expresses "as ... as possible":
quam celerrime as quickly as possible
Exercises
nova ancilla semper laetissima est.
haec navis celerrima omnium est.
puer peius scribit quam puella.
navem gravissimam ad mare trahebamus.
ille fuit fortissimus militum.
villa senatoris maior templo erat.
plurimi cives in foro aderant.
filia senatoris semper optime dicit.
pater plus pecuniae filia quam filio dedi.
murus eius minor erat meo.
hostes quam celerrime fugerunt.
servus iratius dixit quam dominus.
melius vivum numquam bibam.
senator civibus facilior persuasit quam ego.

37. The present active participle

Think about these sentences:

Barking dogs do not bite.
The dancing girls are having fun.
The underlined words are verbs, in that they express an action, but they are also
adjectives, in that they qualify a noun. They are therefore called verbal adjectives, or
participles.
The present active participle is translated with the -ing form in English. It is active
because the noun to which this participle belongs is doing the action (e.g., the dogs
bark), and it is present, which indicates that the action of the participle is ongoing at the
time of the event expressed by the main verb (e.g., dogs that are barking do not bite).
Participles are an important aspect of Latin verbal syntax.
Since the participle is an adjective made out of a verb, it will have a verbal stem and
endings that follow the declination of an adjective (following the model of ingens).
1st conjugation: portans carrying

masc/fem neuter
sing nom porta-ns (< porta-nt-s) porta-ns
acc porta-nt-em porta-ns
gen porta-nt-is porta-nt-is
dat porta-nt-i porta-nt-i
abl porta-nt-e / -i * porta-nt-e / -i *
pl nom porta-nt-es porta-nt-ia
acc porta-nt-es porta-nt-ia
gen porta-nt-ium porta-nt-ium
dat porta-nt-ibus porta-nt-ibus
abl porta-nt-ibus porta-nt-ibus

* NB: if the participle is used adjectivally, the ablative singular ending is -i, but if it is
used verbally (which is more frequently, and particularly in the ablative absolute), the
ending is -e

2nd conjugation: monens warning

monentem
monentis

3rd conjugation: trahens dragging

trahentem
trahentis

4th conjugation: audiens hearing

audientem
audientis

mixed conjugation: capiens seizing

capientem
 capientis

the verb ire: iens going

euntem
euntis

the verb ferre: ferens bringing

ferentem
ferentis

The tense of the participle tells us when the action of the participle happens in relation
to the main verb of the sentence. A present participle describes an action as taking
place simultaneously to the action of the main verb:

exiit ridens he went out laughing.

This will often lead to a translation in English using "while X-ing", and sometimes you
may even need to use a relative clause to confer the meaning of the Latin into fluent
English.
per viam ambulantes, clamorem audivimus.
walking along the road, we heard a shout.
while we were walking along the road, we heard a shout.

servi fugientes punientur.

fleeing servants will be punished.
servants who flee will be punished.

Features of use:
• Because the participle is a verb, it can take complements, such as direct and
indirect objects or prepositional clauses:
puerum cenam consumentem vidimus
we saw the boy eating dinner
 • The extra information about the action of the participle comes before the
participle. If the participle is used with a noun, the extra information is
sandwiched:
puellas ad forum festinantes vidimus
we say the girls (while they were) hurrying to the forum
• It is important to work out who or what the participle agrees with. Sometimes it is
ambiguous. In the previous example, for example, festinantes can be either a
nominative agreeing with the implied subject "we" or an accusative agreeing with
the direct object puellas.
puellas ad forum festinantes vidimus
we saw the girls (while we were) hurrying to the forum
In this situation, the context will help you decide.
• The participle, like an adjective, can be used as a noun (= substantivized
participle). Based on the grammar and context, you will often have to supply a
word like "man/men", "woman/women", or "thing(s)" in your translation.
turbam audientium vidi
I saw a crowd of listening ones / listening people / listeners.

Exercises: translate
Servos fugientes vidi.
Puer ridens villam intravit.
Quid de milite fugienti audivisti?
In silva ambulans pecuniam inveni.
Senes in tabernam sedentes conspeximus.
Cibum ancillae laboranti dabo.

Exercise: Translate
Puella parva, nomine Lucia, in horto ludebat. Dum flores pulcherrimos carpebat, amica
eius, Maria, advenit et dixit, 'Cur tam celeriter curris, Lucia? Ego lente veniebam, sed tu
iam hic eras!' Lucia respondit, 'Ego flores quaerebam, pulchriores quam solem!'
Postquam diu luserunt, Maria dixit, 'Cum sol occiderit, domum redibimus, sed nunc
ludere possumus.' Dum verba eius audiebat, Lucia laeta erat, et puellae ridentes per
hortum currebant.
 38. The perfect passive participle

More common that the present active participle, is the perfect passive participle. The
perfect passive participle is translated in English as "having been -ed". It is passive
because the noun to which the participle refers underwent the action, and it is perfect,
indicating that the action happened in the past, preceding the action of the main verb.
villam a patre aedificatam vidi.
I saw the house having been built by my father.
I saw the house which had been built by my father.

nuntius a rege auditus discessit.

the messenger, having been heard by the king, left.
the messenger left after he had been heard by the king.

Because the perfect passive participle refers to something that happened prior to the
action described by the main event, the translation of the participle often comes out like
a pluperfect ("after he had been") when the main verb is a past tense.
The conjugation of the participle follows that of the model of laetus, -a, -um:

masc fem neut

sing nom portatus portata portatum
acc portatum portatam portatum
gen portati portatae portati
dat portato portatae portato
abl portato portata portato
pl nom portati portatae portata
acc portatos portatas portata
gen portatorum portatarum portatorum
dat portatis portatis portatis
abl portatis portatis portatis

2nd conj 3rd conj 4th conj mixed conj

monetus, -a, -um tractus, -a, -um auditus, -a, -um captus, -a, -um
 (having been) (having been) (having been) (having been)
warned dragged heard taken

Some verbs have slightly irregularly formed perfect passive participles. This is why the
fourth element of the principle parts, after the present active indicative, the active
infinitive, and the perfect active indicative, is the perfect passive participle. You now
know all the elements of a verb's principal parts. For common verbs, you will need to
memorize them.
For example:
iubeo iubere iussi iussus
pono ponere posui positus
fero ferre tuli latus

Exercises: translate
templa a Romanis aedificata semper manebunt.
templum deletum vidimus.
nuntius diu exspectatus tandem advenit.
cenam ab ancilla paratam consumpsimus.
uxor militis necati miserrima erat.
de verbis ab eo dictis nihil dicere constitui.
regem gladio necatum vidimus.
servi liberati laetissimi erant.
pecuniam in via inventam habeo.
cibum in horto relictum consumpsimus.
cives fugere iussi iter sine periculo fecerunt.
hostes urbem captam incenderunt.
cuius erat liber in aquam iactus?

39. The perfect and pluperfect passive indicative

We had already seen the passive voice for the indicative mood in the present, the future,
and the imperfect tense:
pass ind present: portor moneor trahor audior
 pass ind future: portabor monebor trahar audiar
pass ind imperfect: portabar monebar trahebar audiebar

Now we are adding the passive indicative perfect and pluperfect. These tenses are
made up the perfect passive participle + esse as an auxiliary verb (present for the
perfect / imperfect for the pluperfect).
I was heard / I have been heard auditus sum
I had been heard auditus eram
Beware of the danger of translating the perfect passive as "I am heard" (which is actually
a present passive in Latin: audior). The perfect passive is also to be distinguished from
the imperfect passive: the imperfect emphasizes the duration of the action in the past,
"I was being heard", while the perfect describes something that was done once in the
past or that has been done recently or with continuing effect.

Exercises: translate
laudata est.
iussi estis.
relictus eram.
visi sunt.
superatae sumus.
necata erat.
liberati erant.
acceptum est.
servus in hortum missus est.
custoditae erant.
gladius e flumine tractus est.
cur in forum ductus es?
captus eram, deinde effugi.

40. Conditional clauses

If-clauses are conditional clauses: they set a condition, in that if something is true,
something else follows. In Latin, conditional clauses are introduced by si. The if-clause
is called the protasis, the then-clause the apodosis. Simple conditional clauses with
present or past tense verbs translate into English naturally:
si tu ades, ego laetus sum. If you are here, I am happy.
si dormiebas, nihil videras. If you were asleep, you saw nothing.
It is possible to mix tenses:
si puer hoc dixit, stultus est. If the boy said this, he is stupid.

Sometimes, the Latin uses tenses a bit differenly from how you would it into English:
si hunc librum leges, omnia intelleges.
If you will read this book (future), you will understand everything.
If you read this book, you will understand everything.

The if-clause can come anywhere:

servus fortis erat si illud fecit. The servant was brave if he did that.

The then-part of the conditional is often a statement, but may also be a command or a
question:
si librum habes, lege. If you have a book, read it.
si librum habes, cur non legis? If you have a book, why are you not reading it?

A negative conditional clause uses nisi, translated as "if not" or "unless":

nisi tu ades, miser sum. If you are not here, I am miserable.
Unless you are here, I am miserable.

Exercises
Si illam puellam laudas, stultus es.
Si puer senem servavit, fortissimus erat.
Laetissima sum si amicos pecuniamque habeo.
Nisi viam ostendes, numquam redire potero.
Si me audire potestis, statim respondite!
Omnes te salutabimus si Romam venies.
Si librum meum nunc habes, ubi invenisti?
Ancilla tristis est nisi ab omnibus amatur.
Si bellum gerimus, semper vincimus.

41. The pronouns ipse (-self) and idem (same)

There are two more important pronouns to learn.

Latin uses ipse to give emphasis and corresponds to the English construction 'I did it
myself'. Ipse usually belongs closely to another word in the sentence, though in Latin it
is not, like in English, attached to it: rather, it corresponds in case, gender, and number
to the word it goes with, thus behaving more like an adjective than a pronoun, even
though its official category in Latin is a pronoun.
reginam ipsam vidi I saw the queen herself.
illi ipsi omnia audiverunt. They (those men) themselves heard everything.
ipsi nihil vidimus. We ourselves saw nothing.
Note the difference in use between ipse and se: while both relate to an English
translation that involves "self", their use and meaning in Latin is different:
- se is always reflexive (third person, never in the nominative)
- ipse emphasizes the person it goes with in any role in the sentence.
For example: miles se necavit the soldier killed himself
miles ipse servum necavit the soldier himself killed the servant
The two can be combined, though you may not be able to translate that directly into
English as such:
miles se ipsum semper laudat the soldier always praises himself.

m f n
sing nom ipse ipsa ipsum
acc ipsum ipsam ipsum
gen ipsius ipsius ipsius
dat ipsi ipsi ipsi
abl ipso ipsa ipso
pl nom ipsi ipsae ipsa
acc ipsos ipsas ipsa
gen ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
 dat ipsis ipsis ipsis
abl ipsis ipsis ipsis

The pronoun idem expresses the notion of "same." It is essentially the third person
pronoun is- with the suffix -dem, and it declines as such, with some minor changes:
- the -s in the nom masc sing disappears: is-dem > idem
- the -d in the neuter does not double: id-dem > idem
- the -m at the end becomes -n before d (assimilation): eum-dem > eundum

m f n
sing nom idem eadem idem
acc eundem eandem idem
gen eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
dat eidem eidem eidem
abl eodem eadem eodem
pl nom eidem eaedem eadem
acc eosdem easdem eadem
gen eorundem earundem eorundem
dat eisdem eisdem eisdem
abl eisdem eisdem eisdem

Idem corresponds to the gender, number, and case of the word it goes with. Like other
pronouns, idem can be used either behaving as an adjective, or alone to replace a noun
in the context.
eundum librum saepe legebam. I often used to read the same book.
hic senex eadem semper dicit. This old man always says the same things.

Exercises
1. Aedificabimus templum in eodem monte in quo Iuppiter natus est.
2. Ulixes Romam navigavit in eadem nave qua Troiam profectus est.
3. Eadem ei narrabo quae mihi narravisti.
4. Idem vir qui hostes vicit nunc rex Siciliae factus est.
5. Idem mihi accidit quod tibi accidit.
6. Quod ipse fecisti, tuum scelus est.

42. The future active participle

Latin has a future participle, which expresses the idea of about to, going to, or intending
to. It is formed from the perfect passive participle, with a syllable -ur- inserted before
the end, and declined as an adjective, but it is active in meaning.
1st conj portaturus, portatura, portaturum
2nd conj moniturus, monitura, moniturum
3rd conj tracturus, tractura, tracturum
4th conj auditurus, auditura, auditurum
mixed conj capturus, captura, cupturum

irregular verbs: esse futurus, futura, futurum

ire iturus, itura, iturum
ferre laturus, latura, laturum

Pueri discessuri clamorem audiverunt. The boys, about to leave, heard a cry.
Morituri te salutant. Those about to die salute you.

The future active participle is used with the imperfect tense of esse to form an
expression of a future in the past.

Senex pecuniam Marco daturus erat. The old man was about to give the
money to Marcus.

Exercises
1. Bellum longum futurum erat.
2. Imperator milites pugnaturos fortes esse iussit.
3. Nuntius e foro discessurus erat.
4. Femina epistulam mariti acceptura Romae manebat.
5. Romani auxilium deorum urbem oppugnaturi petiverunt.
6. Senex laetus erat quod ad patriam rediturus erat.
 43. Ablative absolute

Latin has different ways of constructing subordinate clauses. We have already seen
temporal, causal, and concessive constructions with particles such as postquam
("after"), quod ("because"), quamquam ("although"), and relative clauses. Another
subordinate clause, and a very idiosyncratic Latin construction, is called the ablative
absolute. It is a noun or pronoun plus a participle in the ablative case, not linked
grammatically with the rest of the sentence (hence "absolute", from its old meaning as
separated).

Puero dormiente, mater laborat.

With the boy sleeping, the mother works.

Omnibus navibus paratis, Romam navigare constituimus.

With all the ships prepared, we decided to sail to Rome.

Bello finito, milites domum redierunt.

With the war having ended, the soldiers returned home.

Navis advenit magna turba spectante.

The ship arrived with a big crowd watching.

It is often with the perfect passive participle, but it can be any participle. It describes
circumstances that apply when the main action in the sentence happens.
While a translation with "with" as above sometimes works, often you may wish to
translate the ablative absolute as a clause. Most often that is temporal (when, after),
but sometimes there is a causal or other nuance.
His verbis auditis, puellae laetissimae erant.
With these words having been heard, the girls were very happy.
When/Because they had heard these words, the girls were very happy.
Latin needs to put it like this, because Latin generally does not have a perfect active
participle, so you cannot say "having done X".
The tense of the participle is in relation to that of the main verb, so if the main verb is
past, a perfect passive participle comes out in English as a clause with "after" or "when"
with a pluperfect verb.
Urbe capta cives miserrimi erant.
With the city having been captured, the citizens were very miserable.

The verb esse "to be" does not have a present participle, so one may find ablative
absolutes where a form of being needs to be supplied in English:
Camillo duce hostes vicimus
With Camillus being leader we conquered the enemy.
With Camillus as leader / Under Camillus' leadership

Exercises
1. Servo laborante, dominus in horto dormiebat.
2. Romanis appropinquantibus, dux hostium consilium cepi.
3. Magnam cenam amicis adventuris paravimus.
4. Bello decem annos gesto, urbs tandem capta est.
5. Me duce urbem capere poteritis, milites!
6. Uxore lacrimante, senex miserrimus erat.
7. Quid dicere potes de servo clamanti?
8. Heri navibus navigaturis omnes ad mare festinavimus.
9. Senator multis audientibus mortem consulis nuntiavit.
10. Pueri puellaeque libro lecto omnia intellegent.

END OF MICHAELMAS TERM

This covers everything of Taylor volume 1 and volume 2 mostly up to p. 86