Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

CHAPTER ONE
SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1. Purpose of Soil Exploration
The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which the
structure has to be built.
The main purposes of soil exploration are: -
 Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites.
 Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
 Selection of alternative methods of construction.
 Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
 Location and selection of construction materials.
 The soil exploration should provide the following data: -
 Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity or
settlement calculation)
 Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
 Location of ground water level
1.2. Planning Soil Exploration Program
The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon
 The nature of sub-soil  The importance of structure
 The type of structure
The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the following
steps:
a) Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the general
topographic and geological character of the site.
b) Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent structures, rock
outcrops, cuts, etc.
c) A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to
establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground
water level. For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in
which case the exploration program is finished.
d) A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality and/or
erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may involve sinking several

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 1

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other
field tests.
1.3. Methods of Exploration
Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface are
1. Test pits 4. Geophysical methods
2. Boring and sampling 5. Laboratory test
3. Field tests
I. Test Pits
The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3
to 4 m. Test pits enable the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually. It is relatively easy
to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples:
II. Soil Boring and Sampling
a) Soil Boring
This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for visual
inspection as well as laboratory tests.
The most commonly used methods of boring are: -
1) Auger boring 3) Percussion drilling
2) Wash boring 4) Rotary drilling
1) Auger boring: -
Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of two types.
a. Post-hole and helical augers.
b. This boring method provides highly disturbed soil samples.
Power operated augers (helical) can be used to great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all
types of soils above water table.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 2

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

2) Wash boring: -
 Power operated.
 Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit and jetting action of
drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure.
 Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles through the annular space between casing
and drill rod.
 This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders)
and rocks.
 Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
 Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of
out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry.
 Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.
3) Percussion drilling: -
 Power operated.
 Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole.
 The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer or sand pump.
 Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not favored. Casing is
generally required.
 Maximum depth of boring is 60m.
4) Rotary drilling: -
 Power operated.
 Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit
 This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock).
 In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable
samplers.
 Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m
b) Soil Sampling:- Laboratory test results are mainly dependent on the quality of soil
samples. There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes
or trial pits.
 Disturbed and  Undisturbed samples
Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. However, these

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 3

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

samples represent the composition and the mineral content of the soil. Disturbed samples are
satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis, Atterberg limits etc
Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-situ
structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable
information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit.
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples. This is due to that:
 The process of boring, driving the coring tool, raising and withdrawing the coring tool
and extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance.
 In addition, samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a result of stress relief.
Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole, with care being taken
to avoid contact with water.
As soon as they are brought to the surface,
 Core tubes ends should be sealed with wax and capped to preserve the loss of moisture content
 Core tubes should properly be labeled to indicate the number of bore holes and the depth at
which they are taken and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and vibration.
Types of tube samplers used are:
 Split Spoon Sample  `Piston Samplers
 Thin-Walled Tube Sampler

(a) (b) (c)

III. FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS
These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and bearing
capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are: -
a) Penetration or sounding tests b) Vane shear test

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 4

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

c) Plate loading test d) Pile loading test

a) Penetration Tests
They are conducted mainly to get information on the relative density of soils with little or no
cohesion. The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum is directly
proportional to the resistance of the soil against the penetration of the drive point. From this,
correlations between values of penetration resistance versus angle of internal friction (), bearing
pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have been developed. Penetration tests are
classified as: Static and dynamic penetration tests.
i) Static Penetration Tests.
1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -
This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia.
The depth of penetration is measured for each loading after which the number of half-turns is
counted by [Link]; the penetration depth is then measured after 25 half-turns. If the
penetration after 25 half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg
hammer.
The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m (half-
turns per meter) are as given below.
Frictional Soils Density (kN/m3)
Very loose <50ht/m 11-16
Loose 50 -150ht/m 14.5 - 18.5
Medium 150 - 300ht/m 17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m 17.5 - 22.5
Very dense > 500ht/m 21 – 24
Cohesive Soils Density (kN/m3)
Soft 0 ht/m 16 –19
Firm 0 – 100 ht/m 17.5 – 21
Stiff 100-200 ht/m
19 – 22.5
Very stiff 200 - 500 ht/m
Hard >500 ht/m
2. Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 5

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

This method is widely used in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter
35.7mm, end area 10cm2, rods (⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”).
The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of 10mm/sec.
The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring, manometer or a strain gauge.
 The cone is 1st pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone 20cm into the soil
is recorded.
 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the pipe is also
recorded.
 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.
Correlation between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of Frictional Soils
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)
Very loose soil < 2500
Loose soil 2500 – 5000
Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000
According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd)
where N = Standard penetration number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2)
For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from the
following relationship.
ES =3/2( Ckd)
ii) Dynamic Penetration Tests
1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -
This is the most common of the field tests and measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic
penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon sampler which is driven into the soil at the bottom of
a borehole (sometimes cased). The sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic driving force
is a 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods. The sampler is initially
driven 15cm below the bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The number of
blows required to drive the last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration value denoted by N.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 6

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal Friction and Relative Density
of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).
N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

 <280 28 -300 30-360 35 - 400 >420

Relative Density Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength and

Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck).
N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30
2 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400
qu(kN/m )

Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff

The relationship between  and Dr may be expressed approximately by the following equation
(Meyerhof).
0=25+0.15Dr
For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt.
0=30+0.15Dr
For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations Dr is expressed
in percent.
Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT
The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 7

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts, correction is
usually made for possible buildup of pore water pressure. The SPT values, greater than 15 are
modified as follow
N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck
Where N= corrected value
N’= Recorded value
The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This correction is
applied only to cohesion less soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction suggested by Gibbs and
Holtz and widely used is as follows.
N =  2N’, for o’  280 kN/m2
o’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2
2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: -
This is another useful test, which is normally used to determine the relative resistance offered by
the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven
into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required to penetrate
30 cms depth is called as Nc value.
In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used. Experiments carried out indicate
that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod increases which gives erroneous results
for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be
conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced
through the pipe and the cone.
The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod eliminating thereby the
frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former method is called as dry method
and the latter wet method.
To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to N values
of SPT
Nc = N/C
Where
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 8

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m

Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesion less soils like SPT
b) Vane Shear Test: It is used to determine the un drained shear strength of soft clays soils. The
apparatus consists of a vertical steel rod having four thin stainless steel blades (vanes) fixed
at its bottom ends. Vane head (torsion head), complete with pointer, stop pin, circumferential
graduated scale, calibrated torsion spring

In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is planned to be
performed and the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder
of soil defined by the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus with a
constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then measured from which the shearing
strength is determined. From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing
resistance of the tested clay from the following formula

where T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height
c) Plate Loading Test
In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate, and readings
of the settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between bearing
pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained.
Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 9
 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

The test procedure

1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesion less soil (to prevent
early displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be positioned in cast in-
situ concrete.
3. Loading platform should be properly erected.

4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).

5. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to draw the
expansion curve).
Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If the
maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate
of width Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by

Sp ( 2 Bf ) 2
S 
(B f  Bp )2

Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the footing
could be read from the load settlement curve.
The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be determined
Bf
using the following expression;
S  Sp
Bp

Limitation of Plate Loading Test

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 10

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur
during the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated or
rather unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous within
the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not be recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to
depth of 1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation
d) Pile Loading Test
This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load
arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test. From the
results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a group of
friction piles can be estimated.
IV. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods.
a. Seismic Method:- In this method shock or seismic are created by detonating small charges or
by striking a rod or a plate near the surface. The radiating waves are picked up and time of
travel from source recorded by detectors known as geophones or seismometers. Seismic method
is based on the fact that sound waves travel faster through rocks than through soils.

b. Electrical Resistivity: - In this method four metallic spikes to serve as electrodes are driven in
to the ground at equal intervals along a line. A known potential is then applied between the
outermost electrodes and potential drop is measured between the innermost electrodes.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 11

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

c. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical
resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). Seismic and resistivity methods are normally
employed as preliminary or supplementary to other methods of exploration.
V. LABORATORY TESTS
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are
Grain size analysis Direct shear test
Atterberg limits Triaxial compression test
Natural moisture content Consolidation test
Unit weight Compaction test
Unconfined compression test Chemical analysis
1.4. Ground Water Measurement
Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its
location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy. The depth of water table is
measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The depth can also be measured
by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open ends of the leads touch the water
in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow of the indicator lamp.
1.5. Depth And Number Of Borings.
1.5.1. Depth of Boring
The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected by
foundation bearing pressures.
According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions may
be used.
1. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times the
width of the foundation.
2. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.
3. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones of pressure,
boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
4. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times width of
pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the length of the piles.
5. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside bedrock.
6. According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but should
be extended below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 12

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

1.5.2. Number of Borings

From experience Teng has suggested the following guideline for preliminary exploration
Distance between boring (m) Minimum
Project Horizontal stratification of soil number of
Uniform Average Erratic boring for each
structure

Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story 60 30 15 3
building
Bridge piers, abutments, - 30 75 1-2 for each
television towers, etc foundation unit
Highways 300 150 30
1.6. Data Presentation
The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually plotted
graphically on a sheet of drawing paper.
The graphical presentation should include.
a) A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their identification number.
b) A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test pits records.
c) Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries between
identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay
layers etc.
d) The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural
moisture content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on each boring on
the soil profile.
e) The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil profile.
1.7. Soil Exploration Report
Most reports have the following contents.
1. Introduction:-Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.
2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 13

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

5. Laboratory test results.

6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
7. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 14

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

CHAPTER TWO
2. FOUNDATION TYPES AND THEIR SELECTIONS
Definition: Foundation is the lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load
of the structure to the ground. The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground
level to increase the lateral stability of the structure.
2.1. Purposes of Foundations
Foundations are used for the following purposes:
To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of loading
within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
To increase both the overturning and sliding stability of the structure as a whole.
[Link] of Foundations
Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two categories based on depth:
Shallow foundations Deep foundations
2.2.1. Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations are provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the
ground level. Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:
Spread or Isolated footings Continuous (strip) or wall footing
Combined footing Raft (Mat) foundation
Cantilever footing
A) Spread or Isolated Footings (simple, stepped or slope type

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 15

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure: Types of isolated footing

Isolated footing is used when:
The soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below the ground level.
The soil has adequate bearing capacity.
The super structural load is very small
The major advantages of selecting the isolated footings are:
Economical when columns are placed at longer distances.
Ease of Constructability- Excavation, Form-work, Reinforcement placement and placing of
Concrete is at ease.
Workmen with little or no knowledge can easily construct an Isolated Footing.
Combined Footing
Combined footing is required:
Whenever two columns are nearby together, inducing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
Where soil bearing capacity is low, inducing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
When column end is situated near the property line and the footing cannot be extended
When the super structural load to be transferred to the foundation is very high
Types of Combined Footing:
Rectangular: is provided when the load of the two or more columns combined together is the
same in magnitude.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 16

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Trapezoidal: Trapezoidal footing is provided when the load on one of the columns is larger than
the other column.

Figure: Combined footing types

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 17

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

B) Cantilever or Strap Footing

Strap footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap. The strap connects
the footing such that they behave as one unit.
A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when:
The allowable soil pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.
A normal combined footing is impractical due to the required large excavation.

C) Continuous or wall footing or strip footing

A strip footing is another type of spread footing which is provided for a load bearing wall. A strip
footing can also be provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread
footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such cases, it is more economical to provide a strip

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 18

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as
continuous footing.

D) Mat (Raft) Foundation

A raft foundation is a solid reinforced concrete slab covering entire area beneath the structure and
supporting all the columns. Such foundation due to its own rigidity minimizes differential
settlements.
Raft Foundation is preferably used:
When the column loads are heavy or when the safe bearing capacity of soil is very low
In a places like seashore area, coastal area where the water table is very high
In swampy areas dominated by soft soil
When the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch
each other (when the area covered by the footing is greater than 50% of the total plan area)
The drawbacks of raft foundation:
Sometimes, mat foundations need heavy reinforcement in certain areas, which can add up to
the price of the manufacture.
The edges of the mat foundation, if not properly take care of, may erode with time. However,
when maintained well, these edges can last as long as the building it supports.
Sometimes, the design can become very complex and thus, requires really skillful and
experienced engineers as well as workers.
Frost can have an adverse effect on the mat formation.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 19

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure: Typical View of Mat Foundation

2.2.2. Deep Foundations
Deep foundation is required basically;
When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep
foundations are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata.
Deep foundations are therefore, used:
When surface soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation and a firm stratum is so deep that it
cannot be reached economically by shallow foundations.
The most common types of deep foundations are piles, piers and caissons.
Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 20
 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

i) Pile: is a long (slender) vertical load transferring member made of timber, steel or concrete.

Figure: Typical View of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are divided into two based on the type of construction;
Pre cast Piles: Precast piles are casted at factory and transported to the site. This kind of piles
is readymade and used where there are fewer places to cast pile. Precast piles are not economical
and require more money to transport piles to the site.

Cast-in-situ piles: The piles which are casted on site. And don’t require any transportation is
called cast-in-situ piles. The cast-In-situ concrete piles are casted in position inside the ground
and need not to be reinforced in ordinary cases.
ii) Pier: Pier is a vertical column of relatively large cross-section than a pile. Pier foundation is
required:

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 21

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

When the top strata consists of decomposed rock, overlying a strata of sound rock. In such
conditions pile driving becomes very difficult, hence pier foundations are used.
Also in the case of stiff clays, which offer a lot of resistance to driving of a bearing pile, pier
foundations can be conveniently used.
iii) Caisson (Drilled shafts): A caisson is a type of foundation of the shape of hollow prismatic
box, which is built above the ground and then sunk to the required depth as a single unit.
A pier and caisson differ basically only in the method of construction. The caissons, has action
similar to pile foundations, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from
structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The
construction of drilled shafts or caissons is done using an auger.

Figure: Typical view of Caisson Foundation

Advantages and Disadvantages of Caissons
Advantages of Caissons:
• Economics • Easily adaptable to varying site conditions
• Minimizes pile cap needs • High axial and lateral loading capacity
• Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations
Disadvantages of Caissons:
• Extremely sensitive to construction • Lack of construction expertise
procedures • Lack of Qualified Inspectors
• Not good for contaminated sites
2.3. General Principles of Foundation Design
The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is:

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 22

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, load-bearing walls
with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming into the
foundation units.
To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below the
ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on soil
strength or structural requirement considerations.
To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable bearing
pressure.
To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure.
2.4. Loads on Foundation
A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads.
a) Dead load:
Weight of structure
 All material permanently attached to structure
 Static earth pressure acting permanently against the structure below ground surface.
 Water pressure acting laterally against basement walls and vertically against slab.
b) Live load: Temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful life.
c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind.
d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earth- quake motion.
e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery)
2.4.1. Foundation Loading Types
There are two loading mechanisms of foundations:
a) Concentrically loaded footing
In this case the super structural load and the center of gravity of the footing coincide. Hence,
pressure distribution below the footing would be a uniform along the width and length of the
footing.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 23

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure: Concentric loading illustration

b) Eccentrically loaded footing
Eccentricity can be caused by lateral forces due to earthquake or wind and by the lateral soil
pressure. Eccentricity has adversary impact on the bearing capacity of the shallow foundation
hence can result in the formation of differential settlement. The bearing capacity decreases with
increasing in eccentricity. The pressure distribution below the footings varies based on the
magnitude of eccentricity as depicted on the following figure. Where a) for e=0, b) e < B/6, c)
e > B/6

a) b) c)
Figure: Pressure distribution for different values of eccentricity
2.5. Selection of Foundation Type
In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered;
Function of the structure
Loads it must carry

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 24

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Subsurface conditions (Bearing Capacity)

Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.
The depth of foundations of adjacent buildings

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 25

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
3.1. Elements of Reinforced Concrete Design
3.1.1 Design Methods:
Based on design load determination and the corresponding design strength of materials, different
methods of design have been introduced.
Permissible stress method: The ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor of safety
to give safe design stresses, which are usually within the elastic range. Stresses caused by the
working loads must not exceed the permissible stresses.
Load factor method: The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety to obtain design
loads. Stresses caused by the design load must not exceed the ultimate strength of the material.
Limit state method: The working loads are multiplied by partial factors of safety to obtain
design loads and ultimate strengths of materials are divided by further partial factors of safety
to obtain design strengths. Stresses caused by the design loads must not exceed the design
strength of the material.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method. However, there are
certain shortcomings: Because it is based on an elastic stress distribution, it is not entirely
applicable to concrete which is a semi-plastic material. Neither is it suitable when deformations
are not proportional to the load, as in the case of slender columns.
In the load factor method, the ultimate strengths of the materials are used in the calculations.
Because this method does not apply factors of safety to the materials, the variability of the
materials cannot directly be taken into account. Furthermore, it cannot be used to calculate
deflections and cracking under working loads.
The limit state method overcomes most of the shortcomings of the previous two methods. This is
achieved by applying partial factors of safety to both the material strengths and the working loads,
and also by varying the magnitude of the factors, depending on whether plastic conditions at the
ultimate limit state are being considered, or whether elastic conditions under working loads are
being considered.
3.1.2. Limit State Principles:
When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability
requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and the construction process

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 26

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria required to
define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.
The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure can be
described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead to the structure being
considered 'unfit for use'.
Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.
(i). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely affects the
appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(ii). Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance or efficiency
of the structure.
(iii). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort or alarm,
damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(iv). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(v). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to be considered.
(vi). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.
When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or more of the above
causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the limit states as:
(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii).Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire resistance
and lightning.
The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not become unfit for
the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state. The essential basis for the
design method, therefore, is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable margin of safety.
To obtain values for this margin of safety it was proposed that probability considerations should
be used and the design process should aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that the structure
would not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.
Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on the
structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is designated
m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will vary for the various limit states and
different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or loading becomes available the factors
can be amended quit easily without the complicated procedures to amend one overall factor used
in previous Codes.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 27

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the other limit
states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the ultimate limit
state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed concrete is usually designed at the
serviceability limit state with checks on the ultimate limit state.
The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:
(Design load effects Qd)  (Deisgn resistance Rd)
fk
 f Qn 
m
Where Qd = design load effects = f Qn
Qn = nominal load
f = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/m
fk = characteristic material strength
m = partial safety factor for materials
N.B. Limit state is adopted throughout the design of reinforced concrete foundations.
 Grades of Concrete
Grades of
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

Grade
f ck 
1.25

Where: fck = Characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete.

 Safety Factors
Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS.
Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 28

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Design Situation Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable

Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00

Design loads and partial load factor.

Load Acting Pd

DL + LL. 1.3Gk  1.6Qk

DL + LL + EQL 0.81.3Gk  1.6Qk   EQL

Where, G k is Characteristic dead load.

Qk is characteristic live load.

EQ is earth quake load.
 Design Strength for Concrete
0.85 f ck f ctk
f cd  f ctd   0.21 f ck
2/3
(a) In compression: (b) In tension: c
c c
 Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd 
s
3.2. Analysis and Design of Isolated footings
3.2.1. Concentrically Loaded Isolated Footing
The General Procedure for the Design of Concentrically Loaded Isolated Footing
Given: Column dimensions and reinforcement; column loads (LL, DL); fck for footing and
column; fyk for footing and column; allowable bearing capacity, q a.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 29

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Solution:
(i) Find Pu = 1.3DL+1.6LL (Self wt. and backfill usually absent).

(ii) Determine B and L of footing; A 

DL  LL . For a unique solution, B or L is fixed.
qa

Pu
(iii) Find qu  (Ultimate bearing pressure beneath footing).
BL
(iv) Assume trial effective depth, d, of footing for determination of flexural reinforcement.
(v) Check d for punching shear and wide beam shear.
(vi) If step (v) is not fulfilled increase d and repeat starting from step (iv).
(vii) Calculate the anchorage length and reinforcement distribution.
(viii) Select the appropriate dowels based on the anchorage length and lap length.
(ix) Complete a design drawing showing all details (footing dimensions, reinforcement Size,
spacing cover, etc.)
Note: to avoid repetition of the steps for safe and economical depth you may calculate the d
value.
3.2.2. Eccentrically Loaded Spread Footings
The ensuing “load” on the column, and subsequently on the footing, due to supported beams from
several spans, can be a combination of a vertical load and moments as shown in figure 4.4.1.

Figure 3.3.1 Example of a

loading condition that
may induce eccentric

The source for the effects of eccentricity on the footing may be either a concentric vertical load
and moment combination (fig. 3.3.2a) or a column located eccentrically to the centroid of the
footing (fig. 3.3.2b). In order not to overstress the soil under some points of the footing, and to

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 30

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

eliminate tilting of column and footing, a footing is proportioned in such a way that a uniform soil
pressure distribution is attained.
The difficulty in establishing a fixed location of the load centerline relative to the footing centroid
lies on the change of magnitude and direction of the variable loads (such as the live and wind load).
Hence, if the column is not centrally located for the sake of having uniform bearing pressure (fig.
3.3.2c), our design is perhaps somewhat hypothetical in a strict sense.

Figure 3.3.2 Soil pressures resulting from eccentric loading

Superimposing the pressures resulting from the direct vertical load to those from moment:
P M x c1 M y c2
q  
A Ix Iy

M x  Pe y and M y  Pex
LB 3 BL3
Ix  and Iy 
12 12

P  6ex 6e y 
 q 1   
BL  L B 

When qmax>qu the process of load redistribution (similar to concrete beam analysis in ultimate limit
state) continues until equilibrium (or failure) is obtained. As a result the assumed rectangular
bearing pressure block is being produced (fig. 4.4.3).

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 31

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 3.3.3 Soil yielding under P/A + Mc/I toe stresses to produce an approximate rectangular
pressure zone to resist P and to satisfy statics. For overturning stability always take a  M check
about point 1 at toe.

After careful consideration it appears that the base should be deigned consistent with the procedure
for obtaining the bearing capacity. That is use dimensions B’, L’ for the design also.
This procedure ensures four items of considerable concern:
(i) The resultant soil pressure R (fig. 3.3.3) is never out of the middle one-third of the base so that
the overturning stability is always satisfied. This R always gives:
M resist PL
SF  
M overturn 2 M

(ii) The toe pressure will always be such that qtoe  q a .

(iii) The design is more easily done when a uniform soil
Pressure is used to compute Design moments.
(iv) Approximately the same amount of steel is required as in the design using the triangular stress
distribution.
L'  L  2e x ; B'  B  2e y
My Mx
ex  ; ey 
P P
The amount of steel computed for a unit width is used across the full base dimensions of B and L.
Pu
For the punching shear and wide beam shear compute an “average” qu ,av  and use this qu,av
BL
value.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 32

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

3.2.3. Inclined Loaded Spread Footings

The General Procedure for the Design of Inclined Loaded Isolated Footing
Given: Column dimensions and reinforcement; column loads (LL, DL); fck for footing and
column; fyk for footing and column; allowable bearing capacity, qa.
Solution:
(i) The procedure done for eccentrically loaded will be followed and in addition to it the footing
should be checked against sliding failure.
3.3. Combined Footings
3.3.1. Rectangular Combined Footing
An isolated footing is likely to result in an uneven soil-pressure distribution for a column very
close to a property line. In order to achieve uniform soil pressure, one alternative may be a
rectangular-shaped, combined footing. The footing near the property line is connected with an
adjacent one.
Generally, it is assumed that the rectangular footing is a rigid member, thus, the pressure is linear.
The approach yields a rather conservative design; the moments are somewhat larger than those
obtained by treating the footing as a beam on an elastic foundation.
The following is a summary of the procedure:
Given: Typically included in the given part of the problem are column data (loads, sizes,
reinforcement, location, and spacing), soil bearing, concrete strength (fck), and grade of
reinforcement (fyk).
Objective: The goal is to determine footing dimensions (width, length, thickness), steel
reinforcement (bar sizes, spacing, placement, details, dowels), and relevant details for
construction.

Figure 4.5.1 Rectangular shaped

combined footing. For uniform q,
the resultant of the applied load is
collinear with that of the soil

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 33

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Procedure: The design is predicated on the assumption that the footing is rigid and that the soil
pressure is uniform. The following explanation may illustrate the procedure:
Step 1: Convert the column loads to ULS loads via Pu= 1.3(D.L.)+ 1.6(L.L.). Then convert the
allowable soil pressure to ULS pressure via qu= (Plu + P2u) qa/ (P1+ P2).
Step 2: Determine the footing length (L) and width (B).

 First determine the location of the load resultant distance ( x ). This point coincides with the
midpoint of L,thus yielding the value for L. B is then determined from B  P u Lqu .

Step 3: Draw shear and moment diagrams. The footing is treated as a beam, loaded with a uniform
soil pressure (upward) and column loads (downward), which are treated as concentrated loads.
Step 4: Calculate footing depth based on shear (Punching shear and wide beam shear). Critical
sections are at 1.5d for punching shear and at the d for a diagonal tension or wide beam, the same
as for spread footings. The critical section for wide-beam shear is investigated only at one point
(max. shear).
For punching shear, however, an investigation of a three- or four-sided zone for each column may
have to be done.
Step 5: Determine the flexural reinforcing steel based on footing depth you calculated in step 4.
The longitudinal (flexural) steel is designed using the critical moments (negative and positive)
from the moment diagram. Thus, typically, combined footings will have longitudinal steel at both
top and bottom of the footing.
Step 6: Determine the steel in the short direction. The steel in the transverse direction is determined
based on an equivalent soil pressure q' and subsequent moment, for each column. Even for stiff
footings, it is widely accepted that the soil pressure in the proximity of the columns is larger than
that in the zone between columns. Thus, for design, we account for this phenomenon by assuming
an empirical effective column zone width of s. The soil pressure in this zone, q', is calculated as q'
= Pu/ Bs, where Puis the ULS column load, B the footing width and s an equivalent width of footer
strip for the column in question. Commonly, the value of s is taken as the width of the column (in
the longitudinal direction) plus about 0.75d on each side of that column.
Step 7: Evaluate dowel steel. The requirements are the same as for spread footings.
Step 8: Provide a drawing showing final design. This drawing is to show sufficient detail from
which one may construct.
3.3.2. Trapezoid-shaped Footings

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 34

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

A combined footing will be trapezoid-shaped if the column that has too limited a space for a spread
footing carries the larger load. In such a case, the resultant of the column loads (including
moments) will be closer to the larger column load, and doubling the centroid distance as done for
the rectangular footing will not provide sufficient length to reach the interior column.
Correspondingly, the soil pressure would not be uniform (recall that our typical objective is
uniform soil pressure). For very large column spacing (e.g., say greater than 7m), a strap
(cantilever) footing may be a somewhat more economical (i.e. Less material) solution to such a
problem. For smaller column spacing, a trapezoid-shaped footing, as shown in fig. 4.6.1 for a two-
column arrangement, is usually deemed suitable.

Figure 4.6.1 Trapezoid-shaped footing

Referring to fig. 4.6.1, the area, A, is
A  a  b L 2

From x   Ax  A , we get
x
aLL 2  b  a L 22 L 3
aL  b  a L 2
x  L 3a  2b  a  b 
For the pressure to be uniform, the resultant of the column loads coincides (is collinear) with the
resultant of pressure at the centroid (C) as shown.
The following is a summary of the procedure for the design of trapezoid-shaped footings:
Given: Included in the given data are column information (loads, sizes, location, and spacing),
length of footing (L), soil bearing values (qa), concrete strength (fck), and grade of reinforcement
(fyk).
Objective: The goal is to determine footing dimensions (width, thickness), steel reinforcement
(bar sizes, spacing, placement, details, dowels), and relevant details for construction.
Procedure: The design is predicated on the assumption that the footing is rigid and that the soil
pressure is uniform. The basic steps are:

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 35

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Step 1: Convert the column loads to ultimate loads via Pu= 1.3(DL) + 1.6(LL); then convert the
allowable soil pressure to ultimate; that is, qu= (Pul+ Pu2) qa/(PI+ P2).
Step 2: Determine dimensions a andb via simultaneous solutions of two independent equations.
A  a  b L 2
x  L 3a  2b  a  b 
Thus, we solve for a and b.
Step 3: Draw the shear and moment diagrams. The footing is treated as a beam, loaded with a
uniform soil pressure (upward) and column loads (downward), which are treated as concentrated
loads. Note that while the pressure is uniform, the pressure force for-unit length varies with the
width [e.g., at the narrow end, the load is a(qu); and b(qu) at the wide end, etc.].
Step 4: Determine footing depth based on shear. Critical sections are usually checked for wide-
beam shear at the narrow end and punching shear at the wide end.
Step 5: Determine the flexural reinforcing steel. Because the width varies, it is advisable to
determine -As at several points; the same is now required for + As since it is typically governed by
min.
Step 6: Determine the steel in the short direction. Assume an average length for the cantilever
length; determine the equivalent lengths as for rectangular footings.
Step 7: Determine dowel steel, as for rectangular combined or spread footings.
Step 8: Provide a drawing with details for construction. Here some judgment is necessary to
accommodate the steel arrangement in view of the variable width along the footing.
3.4. Strap Footings
A strap footing (cantilever footing) is a composite of two spread (isolated) footings connected by
a rigid beam or strap, as shown in fig. 4.6.1. The strap connects an eccentrically loaded footing
(e.g., footing 1) with an interior footing, subsequently resulting in a uniform soil pressure and
minimum differential settlement.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 36

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

The strap is designed as a rigid beam connected to the footings such that it overcomes rotational
effects on eccentrically loaded footings; it is assumed to experience no soil pressure. This is
accomplished by either forming the strap above the ground or by pouring the strap over a
compressible formation, such as loose or spaded soil or semi-rigid styro foam. Hence, the shear is
a constant between the footings; the moment varies linearly.
The footings are treated as isolated footings. The interior footing (e.g., footing 2) is generally
square-shaped and is designed as a spread footing, with appropriate negative (top) longitudinal
steel provided to resist the negative moment transmitted via the strap. While this spread-footing
approach also applies to footing 1, one carefully scrutinizes the zone near column 1 for some
additional transverse steel requirements, as typically included for rectangular or trapezoid-shaped
footings discussed in the preceding sections.
The following procedural summary illustrates the recommended approach for a strap footing
design.
Given Typically, included in the given part of the problem are column data (loads, sizes,
reinforcement, location, and spacing), allowable soil bearing, q., concrete strength (fck), and grade
of reinforcement (fyk).
Objective: The goal is to (a) determine the footing dimensions (length, width, and thickness)
proportioned such that the soil pressure is reasonably uniform and differential settlement is
Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 37
 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

minimal, (b) design the strap, (c) design the footings, and (d) show a drawing with pertinent details
for construction purposes.
Procedure: The design assumes no soil pressure under the strap (other than that necessary to
support the weight of the strap; hence, the weight of the strap is neglected). The footings are
designed as isolated footings subjected to column loads and strap reactions.
Step 1 (a) Convert to Puand qu, as previously described.
(b) Try a value for e. This establishes the position of R1

(c) From equilibrium (i.e., ∑M= 0 and ∑Fy= 0), determine the values for R1 and R2.
By taking moment about R2

Where, P1 is the column load.

Ws- is the weight of the strap.(May be neglected)
From ∑Fy= 0,

Step 2 Determine footing dimensions, L and B. Note that q will be uniform when R coincides with
the centroid of that footing. Also, for minimum differential settlement, q should be the same for
both footings.

Step 3 Draw the shear (V) and moment (M) diagrams.

Step 4 Design the strap as a beam. Use maximum SF and M in the section between footings. Affix
the strap to the footings to effectively prevent footing rotation.
Step 5 Design the footings as spread (isolated) footings with reinforcement in both directions
including -As steel to accommodate the negative moment. Some special assessment for the
transverse steel near column 1 is recommended.
Step 6 Provide the final drawing showing details for construction.
3.5. Analysis and Design of Mat Foundations.
Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 38
 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

A mat (raft) foundation is a structural reinforced concrete slab that supports a number of columns
distributed in both horizontal directions or supports uniform pressure, as from a tank. Rafts are
used to bridge over soft spots if the spots are very localized, and to reduce the average pressure
applied to the soil.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 39

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

4.8.2. Rigid Method of design

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 40

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 41

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

bh3 hb 3
Ix  and I y 
12 12

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 42

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 43

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

CHAPTER 4
Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining walls
Retaining Walls: are structures used to provide lateral stability of earth or other material where
conditions disallow the mass to assume its natural slope.
[Link] Types of Retaining Walls
1. Gravity Retaining wall
Made of plain concrete or stone masonry. The stability of gravity retaining walls depends upon its
weight. It is trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of the wall.
No tensile stress in any portion of the wall and it is economically used for walls less than 6m high.
2. Cantilever wall
Made of reinforced concrete material that consists of a thin stem and a base slab. It is inverted T-
shaped in section with each projecting acts as a cantilever. Economically used for walls 6 to 7.5m
high.

3. Counter Fort Retaining Wall

Are similar to cantilever retaining walls. They have thin vertical concrete slabs known as
counterforts that tie the wall and the base slab together. The purpose of the counterforts is to reduce
the shear and the bending moments. It is ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0m

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 44

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 4.2 Counterfort Wall

4. Buttress Wall
Same as counter fort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the backfill

Figure 4.3 Buttress Wall

4.2. Common Proportions of Retaining Walls
The usual practice in the design of retaining walls is to assign tentative dimensions and then check
for the overall stability of the structure. Note that the top of the stem of any retaining structure
should not be less than 0.3 m for proper placement of concrete. The depth, D, to the bottom base
of the slab should be a minimum of 0.6 m. However, the bottom of the base slab should be
positioned below the seasonal frost line.
For counterfort retaining walls, the general proportion of the stem and the base slab is the same as
for cantilever walls. However, the counterfort slabs may be about 0.3 m thick and spaced at center-
to-center distances of 0.3H to 0.6H.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 45

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 4.4 Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall for initial stability
checks: a) Gravity wall; b) Cantilever wall
[Link] on Retaining Walls
The forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls include
Active and passive earth pressures, dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of
soil mass that is considered to act on the retaining structure, Surcharge including live loads, if any
Water pressure, if any contact pressure under the base of the structure.
[Link] of Retaining Walls
Retaining walls should be designed to provide adequate stability against sliding along its base,
overturning about its toe, foundation bearing failure, deep-seated shear failure (overall or deep
foundation failure) and excessive settlement.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 46

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 4.5 Failure of retaining wall: (a) by overturning; (b) by sliding; (c) by bearing capacity
failure; (d) by deep-seated shear failure
4.4.1. Sliding stability

Figure 4.6 Sliding stability along the base

The passive force shown on figure is also a horizontal resisting force.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 47

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Where,

Therefore,
Factor of safety 1.5 for granular soils.
Factor of safety 2.0 for cohesive soils.
4.4.2. Overturning Stability
The factor of safety against overturning about the toe expressed as:

To calculate the resisting moment, ∑ MR (neglecting Pp), a Table such as 4.1 can be prepared. The
weight of the soil above the heel and the weight of the concrete or masonry are both forces that
contribute to the resisting moment. Note that the force Pv also contributes to resisting moment. Pv
is the vertical component of the active force Pa, or

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 48

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 4.7 Overturning stability assuming that Rankine is valid

Table 4.1 Procedures for calculating ∑ MR

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 49

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

4.4.3. Foundation stability

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 50

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

CHAPTER 5
Design and Analysis of Soil Retaining Structure
The design and construction of retaining structures forms an integral part of many civil engineering
projects. They comprise a number of elements and may restrain the soil by virtue of their mass, or
because they are embedded, propped and/or anchored. To design a retaining structure it is
necessary to understand the soil and its behavior, the ground water conditions, how wall is
constructed and how the soil and the structure interact.

Figure 5.1: Retaining Wall

5.1. Classification of Retaining Walls
In general retaining walls classified into two major categories further subdivisions:
1. Conventional retaining walls
1. Gravity retaining walls 3. Cantilever retaining walls
2. Semi-gravity retaining walls 4. Counter fort retaining walls
2. Mechanically stabilized earth walls (MSE)

Figure 5.2 Classification of Retaining Wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 51

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

O’Rourke & Jones classification

O’Rourke & Jones (1990) classified earth-retaining structures into two broad categories:
1. Externally stabilized systems: are those that resist the applied earth loads by virtue of their
weight & stiffness.
2. Internally stabilized systems: reinforce the soil to provide the necessary stability.
• Reinforced soils e.g. MSE
• In-situ reinforcement e.g. soil nailing

Earth-retaining
structure

Externally Internally
stabilized stabilized
systems systems

In-situ
In-situ walls Gravity walls Reinforced soils
Reinforcement

Cantilevered Braced

Tied-Back

5.2. Design of conventional Retaining wall

The stability of a gravity wall is maintained mostly by its weight and partly by the passive
resistance mobilized by the soil at the front of the wall. There are two phases of design in retaining
wall:
1st the LEP known, the structure as a whole is checked for stability, overturning, sliding, and
bearing capacity failures.
2nd each component of the structure is checked for strength, and the steel reinforcement of each
component is determined.
Design Steps; Determine:
1. earth pressures
2. resultant thrust behind wall
3. soil reactions at base of wall (footing)
4. location of resultant soil reaction on base
 take moments of all forces about toe of wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 52

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Note:- N must be located within the middle third of the base to avoid tensile stress under the heel,
the contact pressure at the toe must be equal to or less than the allowable bearing pressure and the
settlement of the toe must be within the tolerable limits.
5.2.1. Gravity and Cantilever Walls
In designing retaining walls, an engineer must assume some of the dimensions proportioning. If
the stability analysis yields undesirable results, the section can be changed and rechecked. The
figures in the next slide shows the general proportions of various retaining-wall components that
can be used for initial check.

Global stability (e.g. sliding and overturning) and

Internal stability (e.g. structural adequacy of the stem and base of the wall).

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 53

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.4 Gravity and Cantilever Retaining Wall

5.2.2. Counterfort Retaining Wall
Long cantilever retaining walls are often supported along their length by counterforts to increase
their rigidity and strength. The general proportioning of the stem and the base slab is the same as
for cantilever walls. However, the counterfort slabs may be about 0.3 m thick and spaced at center-
to-center distances of 0.3H to 0.7H.
5.3. Application of Lateral Earth Pressures Theories to Design
5.3.1. Cantilever Retaining Wall
In the case of cantilever walls, the use of Rankine’s earth pressure theory for stability checks
involves drawing a vertical line AB through the point A as shown in the next slide. In the analysis
of the wall’s stability, the force Pa(Rankine), the weight of the soil above the heel, and the weight Wc
of the concrete all should be taken into consideration. The assumption for the development of
Rankine active pressure along the soil face AB is theoretically correct if the shear zone bounded
by the line AC is not obstructed by the stem of the wall.
The angle, η, that the line AC makes with the vertical is:


1 1  sin   '
  45    sin  
' 
2 2 2  sin  

Figure 5.5 Cantilever Retaining Wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 54

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

5.3.2. Gravity walls

Similar analysis can be carried out for gravity walls in Rankine’s theory. Coulomb’s active earth
pressure theory can also be used for gravity walls with the consideration of only Pa(Coulomb) and Wc
.

Figure 5.6 Gravity Wall

5.4. Failure Mechanism of Retaining Walls
A retaining wall may fail in any of the following ways:
a. It may overturn about its toe.
b. It may slide along its base.
c. It may fail due to the loss of bearing capacity of the soil supporting the base.
d. It may undergo deep-seated shear failure
e. It may go through excessive settlement.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 55

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.7 Forces Acting on Cantilever Retaining Wall

Figure 5.8 Reactions and Soil Bearing Stress

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 56

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.9 (a) Sliding and (b) Overturning

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 57

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 58

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 59

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 60

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 61

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Structural Design Process

Select the overall dimensions (height, embedment, footing length and position, and estimated
footing & wall thicknesses) based on stability (sliding and overturning) and soil strength
(max/min bearing pressures) using service level loads.
Check slab (wall and footing) thicknesses using shear criteria and factored loads. Adjust
thicknesses as necessary, rechecking stability and soil strength of the values change.
Select the flexural steel for the three cantilever slab elements using factored loads.
Select the temperature and shrinkage steel for wall and footing.
Draw the resulting wall cross section (to scale!)

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 62

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

5.5. Mechanically Stabilized Retaining Walls

Recently, soil reinforcement has been used in the construction and design of foundations, retaining
walls, embankment slopes, and other structures. Depending on the type of construction, the
reinforcements may be galvanized metal strips, geotextiles, geogrids, or geocomposites.
Reinforcement materials such as metallic strips, geotextiles, and geogrids are now being used to
reinforce the backfill of retaining walls, which are generally referred to as mechanically stabilized
retaining walls.

Figure 5.10 Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining Walls

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 63

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

The beneficial effects of soil reinforcement derive from: (1) the soil’s increased tensile strength
and (2) the shear resistance developed from the friction at the soil reinforcement interfaces. Such
reinforcement is comparable to that of concrete structures.
Improved Earth Walls or Internally Stabilized Systems
Improved earth walls consist of stabilized backfill soil and facing elements. Improvement of the
soil (apart from compaction) is carried out either by means of chemicals such as cement or lime or
other chemicals or by using inclusions. Woven. Soils stabilized by cement or lime normally fall
into the category of a Mohr-Coulomb material with improved shear strength parameters.
Soil reinforcement
A mechanically stabilized soil is reinforced by strips or grids that may be metallic, polymeric or
organic. A mixture of soil and polymeric elements of fine diameter and small length has also been
used. The main objective is to transfer the tensile stresses to reinforcement elements. Anchored
earth systems combined by soil reinforcement have been developed and applied successfully in
highway construction.
5.6. Considerations in Soil Reinforcement
Metal Strips: In most instances, galvanized steel strips are used as reinforcement in soil.
Non-biodegradable Fabrics: Non-biodegradable fabrics are generally referred to as geotextiles.
5.6.1. Reinforcement Material
There are two types of materials used
1. Metallic reinforcements: Typically mild steel (galvanized / epoxy coated)
2. Nonmetallic reinforcement: Generally polymeric materials (polypropylene, polyethylene or
polyester)

Figure 5.11 Galvanized Steel Strips

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 64

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.12 Galvanized Wire Mesh

Figure 5.13 Geogrids

5.7. Primary uses Geo-textiles
Geo-textiles have four primary uses in foundation engineering:
1. Drainage: The fabrics can rapidly channel water from soil to various outlets, thereby providing
a higher soil shear strength and hence stability.
2. Filtration: When placed between two soil layers, one coarse grained and the other fine grained,
the fabric allows free seepage of water from one layer to the other. However, it protects the
fine-grained soil from being washed into the coarse-grained soil.
3. Separation: Geo-textiles help keep various soil layers separate after construction and during
the projected service period of the structure. For example, in the construction of highways, a
clayey sub-grade can be kept separate from a granular base course.
Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 65
 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

4. Reinforcement: The tensile strength of geo-fabrics increases the load-bearing capacity of the
soil.
5.8. Geogrids
Geogrids are high-modulus polymer materials, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, and are
prepared by tensile drawing. The major function of geogrids is reinforcement. Geogrids are
relatively stiff netlike materials with openings called apertures that are large enough to allow
interlocking with the surrounding soil or rock to perform the function of reinforcement or
segregation (or both).
5.8.1. Geogrid types
Geogrids generally are of two types:
1. Uniaxial and 2. Biaxial
Uniaxial TENSAR grids are manufactured by stretching a punched sheet of extruded high-density
polyethylene in one direction under carefully controlled conditions - results in a product with high
one-directional tensile strength and a high modulus.
Biaxial TENSAR grids are manufactured by stretching the punched sheet of polypropylene in two
orthogonal directions. This process results in a product with high tensile strength and a high
modulus in two perpendicular directions.

Figure 5.14 Geogrids: (a) uniaxial; (b) biaxial (Note: 1—longitudinal rib; 2—transverse bar; 3—
transverse rib; 4—junction)
5.9. General Design Considerations
The general design procedure of any mechanically stabilized retaining wall can be divided into
two parts:
1. Satisfying internal stability requirements 2. Checking the external stability of the wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 66

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

The internal stability checks involve determining tension and pullout resistance in the reinforcing
elements and ascertaining the integrity of facing elements. The external stability checks include
checks for overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failure.
5.10. Retaining Walls with Metallic Strip Reinforcement
Reinforced-earth walls are flexible walls. Their main components are
1. Backfill, which is granular soil
2. Reinforcing strips, which are thin, wide strips placed at regular intervals, and
3. A cover or skin, on the front face of the wall
The simplest and most common method for the design of ties is the Rankine method.

Figure 5.15 Tie and Skin

Figure 5.16 Component of Earth Retaining Wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 67

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

5.11. Sheet Pile Walls

Steel sheet piles were originally used for temporary cofferdams. Since 1930 they have been used
for permanent maritime works, such as quay walls, jetties, locks, dikes, dry docks and floodwalls.
However, their use was limited by a lack of understanding their structural behavior. Steel sheet
piles are also used for bridge abutments, retaining walls in cuts and underpasses for railroads and
highways, support elements in underground parking.

Figure 5.17 Sheet pile Walls

Figure 5.18 Schematic view of the quay wall

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 68

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.19 Sheet piling used to expand a bridge’s width, while maintaining highway and river
traffic
5.11.1. Types of Sheet Piles
Wooden sheet piles: are typically 2”x12” tongue-and-groove boards. They are only useful for
very low walls with a free height of H 3 m. Currently they are only used to stabilize the walls of
temporary trenches in order to install sewers and other utilities. They are placed to a working stress
of ƒw = 0.65 to 0.95 fy.
Pre-cast concrete panels.
Steel sheet piles: are the most commonly used because they are the only type that can be driven
into soft rocks or gravelly soils. They are driven or vibrated into position with high working ƒw =
0.60 - 0.90 fy. The advantages of using steel sheet piling for walls are: they are resistant to high
driving stresses, relatively of light weight, pile length can be increased by welding a new sheet on
top of the driven sheet, and they can be removed from the ground when finished, and reused.
Aluminum sheet piles.
Plastic sheet (PVC) piles.

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 69

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Figure 5.20 Sheet Piles

Figure 5.21 Sheet-piling used to divert a river while building a dam and locks on the White River
in Arkansas
5.11.2. Shape Classifications

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 70

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

Types of interlocks

Earth anchors (tiebacks) are tensile members that apply a stabilizing forces onto the slope. They
generally consist usually of steel rods or post-tensioning cables. Their anchoring must be

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 71

 Ambo University Woliso Campus, Faculty of Technology, Civil Engineering Department 2019/20 GC

sufficiently extended well beyond the critical failure surface. They are more expensive than
internal bracing, such as struts or rakers, but provide an uncluttered excavation and increase the
safety of the site.

This anchored steel sheet pile wall uses double channel beams for wales. The anchors are Dywidag
(threaded) bars bearing on steel plates.
5.11.3. Construction methods
Sheet pile walls (SPW) may be divided into two basic categories:
1. Cantilever and 2. Anchored
Construction method generally can be divided into 2 categories:
a. Backfilled structure b. Dredged structure

Foundation Engineering I: Lecture Notes for Civil 3rd yr Page 72