What forces shape the earth’s It includes all activities of all living organisms that breaks

down rocks.
crust? - Quarrying
Exogenic forces: -operating on crust -break down - Mining
crust. - Constructive works
Endogenic forces: -operating under crust -build crust. - Deforestation
External forces Landforms formed due to
Weathering: Breaking down of rocks weathering of rivers.
Erosion: Transportation of weathered/rock materials
1. Valley
Deposition: Laying down of weathered rock materials
-forms when a river (wind /glacier) breaks down, the softer
*Weathered rock materials consist of rocks, sand, mud &
rocks of a mountainous area
dust
-valley is the lower part and the spur the higher parts, next
*Scree: broken rock material on a slope
to it
*Silt: very fine broken rock material transported by rivers
2. Waterfall
*River load: material transported by a river
-when a river erodes the softer lower parts of a landscape
Agents of weathering, erosion, and
and creates a cliff in its course
deposition: -the river runs over this cliff which is refer to as a waterfall.
 River activities
3. Rapid
 Wind activities
-the river erodes the softer surrounding rocks, causing the
 Glacier activities
harder rock cropping out in its course
 Wave activities
4. Gorge and Canyon
Types of weathering: -these are deep, steep sided valleys in the upper course of
A. Physical: natural forces e.g. ice/water & temperature a river
changes that break down rocks -a gorge’s sides are cliffs that usually forms waterfalls
1. Freeze thaw action: -may also form if the landscape is uplifted by internal
-when water as a liquid freeze, it expands- if it happens in forces
the cracks of rocks, the expansion breaks rocks apart. Landforms formed due to weathering and deposition in the
-happens in continental climates with great temperature middle & lower courses:
ranges2. Exfoliation: flaking off the outer layers of rocks. Meanders and oxbow lakes
-occurs in dry areas, which has a big temperature range 1. Erosion causes the outside bends to get closer
- day-time high temperatures cause rocks to expand, while until there’s only a small bit of land left between
cold night temperatures cause rocks to shrink the bends which is called the neck.
- this daily physical, size changes are limited to the outer 2. The river usually breaks through this land, usually
layer of rock, which eventually flakes/peels off during a flood and the river flows along the
- the flaking is due to a crack that develops between the shortest course.
outer layer and the part below it 3. Deposition eventually cuts off the meander
Chemical weathering: forming an oxbow lake.
rock minerals chemically react with elements/compounds Levees
in air/water. - levees are embarkments of silt along the bank of a river
1. Carbonation -CO₂, from air - Levees form along slow flowing rivers
pollution/organic soil material mixes - Every time a river leaves its channel sediment is deposited
with water to form a weak carbonic acid 1. Thickest and coarsest sediments deposited at
-any rock that contains calcium dissolves in this acid and is channel edges. Thin and fine sediments deposited
carried away in solution over outer parts of flood plain.
-occurs to a greater extend in colder, continental climates 2. Natural levees are built up by many floods.
2. Oxidation:
-metals in rocks are oxidized, - rusting when it mixes with O₂
-this weakens the rock and causes it to break down
3. Hydrolysis: Delta
-a chemical reaction between water and silicates in granite - Deposition occurs as the river loses velocity when it
sandstone enters the sea
-silicates absorb H₂O to form clay which washes away - Heaviest material is deposited first and the lightest last
- Distributaries form as the main river channel splits into
C. Biological weathering:
smaller channels
- Delta is built up in layers Landforms formed by weathering, erosion, and deposition
Landforms formed due to by wind.
1. Mushroom rock
weathering, erosion, and Rock boulder in wind desert area. Wind carrying sand and
deposition by sea waves, small rocks abrade the bottom of the rock.
Repeated wind action erodes more of the boulder away.
currents and tides
Mushroom rock is formed. Further erosion can cause the
1. Headlands/capes & bays:
rock to fall in.
-formed where there are different rocks with different
2. Yardang
resistance -softer, less resistant rocks will erode faster to
Yardangs are narrow, streamlined ridges that are usually
form bays, while the more resistant rocks will form the
three to four times longer than they are wide. Strong winds
headlands
(blowing in one direction) carry sand in suspension, which
-weathered rock materials will be deposited in bays to form
erodes rocks by abrasion. Softer rock is eroded faster than
beaches
harder rock, so ridges of hard rock are created (yardangs).
2. Marine cliffs
The ridges aren't always continuous.
- Waves erode the coast and form a small notch
- The erosion continues until the notch gets bigger 3. Sand dunes
- The section of rock above the notch cannot be supported DUNE FORMATION
anymore and collapses. * Winds carry sand over the desert landscape → deposits
- The slope becomes steeper of sand collect on some obstruction → over time a sand
- A cliff is formed dune will take shape.
- The former base of the cliff remains as a wave cut platform Long, gentle slope on windward side and steep slope on
Longshore drift leeward side slip face.
Longshore drift is a process responsible for moving
significant amounts of sediment along the coast. This
usually occurs in one direction as dictated by the prevailing
wind. For example, the prevailing wind along the
Holderness Coast is north- easterly. As the result waves
break on to the beach obliquely at an angle of around 45
degrees. The swash moves beach material along the beach
and the backwash, under gravity, pulls the material back
down the beach at right angles to the coastline. Over time
this creates a net shift of material along the coast.
Longshore drift transports
material along the coast.
Spit
A spit forms when material is deposited due to a reduction
in energy where the sea meets a river.
Salt marsh forms as sit, and mud is deposited in the
sheltered estuary.
Spit develops a hook due to changes in wind direction.
Sand dunes form along the spit, vegetation colonises the
dunes stabilising them.

5. Sand Bar
Bar formation
A bar is a ridge of material that is connected at both ends
to the mainland. It is located above sea-level. If a spit
continues to grow lengthwise, it may ultimately link two
headlands to form a bay bar. These are composed either of
shingle, as in the case of the Low Bar in Cornwall, or of
sand, such as the nebrung of the Baltic coast.
What forces shape the Exogenic forces (break along slow-flowing rivers.
Earth's crust? down crust) and endogenic How are oxbow lakes Erosion causes outside
forces (build crust). formed? bends in a river to get
What are exogenic forces? Forces operating on the closer until a neck remains;
crust that break it down. during a flood, the river
What are endogenic Forces operating under the breaks through, forming an
forces? crust that build it up. oxbow lake.
Name the external forces Weathering, erosion, and How does deposition Deposition occurs as a
related to the Earth's crust. deposition. create a delta? river loses velocity when
Define weathering. The breaking down of entering the sea, with
rocks. heaviest material
What is erosion? The transportation of deposited first;
weathered rock materials. distributaries form as the
Explain deposition. The laying down of main river channel splits.
weathered rock materials. What are headlands and bays Different rock resistance, with
What materials are Rocks, sand, mud, and formed by? softer rocks eroding to form
bays and resistant rocks
included in weathered rock dust.
forming headlands;
materials? weathered materials deposit
What is scree? Broken rock material found in bays to create beaches.
on a slope. Explain longshore drift. It's the process of sediment
Define silt. Very fine broken rock movement along the coast,
material transported by driven by prevailing winds,
rivers. where waves break obliquely
What is river load? Material transported by a and create a net shift of
river. material along the coast.
Name the agents of River activities, wind
How does a spit form? A spit forms when material is
weathering, erosion, and activities, glacier activities,
deposited due to a reduction
deposition. and wave activities.
in energy where the sea
What are the types of Physical (freeze-thaw meets a river, often
weathering? action, exfoliation), developing a hook due to
chemical (carbonation, changing wind directions.
oxidation, hydrolysis), and What are sand bars? Sand bars are ridges of
biological. material connected at both
Explain freeze-thaw action. Water freezes, expands, ends to the mainland, located
and breaks rocks in cracks, above sea level, and
often occurring in composed of sand or shingle.
What is a mushroom rock? A mushroom rock is a boulder
continental climates.
in a wind desert area formed
What is exfoliation in Flaking off the outer layers
by wind carrying sand and
weathering? of rocks due to
small rocks that erode the
temperature changes in
bottom of the rock,
dry areas.
eventually leading to its
Describe oxidation in Metals in rocks rust when distinctive shape.
chemical weathering. exposed to oxygen,
weakening, and breaking What are yardangs? Yardangs are narrow, streamlined
down the rock. ridges formed by wind erosion,
where softer rock is eroded
Explain hydrolysis in Water reacts with silicates faster than harder rock, creating
chemical weathering. in rocks to form clay, which elongated ridges.
washes away. How are sand dunes formed? Sand dunes are formed when
Water reacts with silicates It includes all activities of winds carry sand over a desert
landscape, depositing sand on
in rocks to form clay, which living organisms that break
obstructions and shaping dunes
washes away. down rocks, such as with a long, gentle slope on the
quarrying, mining, windward side and a steep slope
constructive works, and on the leeward side, known as a
deforestation. slip face.

Name some landforms Valleys, waterfalls, rapids,