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Gen Chem Notes Lesson 1-6

Clinical Chemistry 2 (Arellano University)

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
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TOPIC  Texture
 Color
SUBTOPIC  Odor
 Hardness
Subtopic  Density

LESSON 1 & 2: MATTER AND STATES OF EXTENSIVE PROPERTY OF MATTER

MATTER  Are dependent so much on the amount or
WHAT IS MATTER? quantity of matter
 Is anything that occupies space and has mass. Characteristics of Extensive Property
 Volume
 Mass
 Length
 Area
PROPERES OF MATTER
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 There is a change in the composition of the
matter
 New substance is produced
WHAT IS NOT MATTER? Characteristics of Chemical Property
 Energy  Flammability
 Heat  Corrosiveness
 Sound  Reactivity
 Light
LESSON 4: CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Metals Metalloids
WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?
Elements
 Is the Study of Matter and the Changes it
Non-Metals
Undergoes
Substance
Acids Salts
STATES OF MATTER
Compounds
MOLECULES IN SOLIDS Bases
 Tightly Packed Classification of
 Has a Definite Shape Matter
Homogeneous
 Fixed Volume Mixture
Heterogeneous
MOLECULES IN LIQUIDS WHAT IS AN ATOM?
 Loosely Packed  The smallest units of matter that retains all of the
 Do not have a Definite Shape chemical properties of an element.
 Fixed Volume
SUBSTANCE
MOLECULES IN GASES  Is a form of matter that has a definite (constant)
 Very Loosely Arranged composition and distinct properties.
 Have neither a Definite Shape nor a Fixed
Volume Two types of Substance
PLASMA  Elements
 Consists of free charged particle  Metals
 Non-Metals
LESSON 3: PROPERTIES OF MATTER  Metalloid
WHAT ARE PROPERTIES?  Compounds
 Distinguishing Characteristics to Identify a  Acids
Certain Material  Bases
 Salts
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
WHAT ARE METALS?
Intesive
 Metals are hard
Physical
Properties  They are ductile (They can be hammered w/o
Properties of breaking them)
Extensive
Matter  They are good conductor of heat and electricity
Chemical
Properties
Example: Al, Ca, Ag, Cu, Au and Fe.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
WHAT ARE NON-METALS?
 Without changing the composition or identity of a  Non-metals easily breaks.
substance  They cannot be hammered and molded w/o
 No new material is produced breaking.
 They are insulator
INTENSIVE PROPERTY OF MATTER
 Dependent on the kind or quality of matter Example: O, S and N
Characteristics of Intensive Property

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WHAT ARE METALLOIDS?  The precipitates remain settled or remain

 They behave like metals and non-metals. suspended throughout the mixture.
 They have the same appearance as metals.
A mixture of silver chloride and potassium nitrate can be
Example: Silicon (Used in semiconductor industry and separated by filtration
microchips)
DISTILLATION
WHAT ARE ACIDS?  Is a process whereby a liquid is converted into
 Acids are substances which ionize in water to vapor by boiling and the vapor is condensed
produce hydrogen ion (H+) back to liquid by cooling.
 Tastes sour
CRYSTALLIZATION
Example: Vinegar, extracts or juices.  Is a method to separate a soluble solid from
its solution based from the different solubility
WHAT ARE BASES? of solids in water at 25 degrees Celsius.
 Bases are substances which ionize to produce  Generally, the solubility of most solids increases
hydroxide ions in water at the temperature increases.
 Tastes bitter  Therefore, when a so-called saturated solution is
Example: Baking powder, shampoo, and lotion. cooled, the solubility of the solid substance will
decrease and the excess solid will crystallize.
WHAT ARE SALTS?
 Salts are crystalline compounds formed by the DECANTATION
reaction of an acid and base  Is a process of separating a solid from a
liquid, by pouring off the liquid, after allowing
Example: Salts the solid to settle in the liquid.

SUBSTANCE DISSOLUTION
 Is a combination of two or more substances in which  Is another method in which a mixture of a
the substances retain their distinct identities. soluble and insoluble solid substance can be
separated by using an appropriate solvent.
Two types of Mixture  The solvent chosen will either dissolve any of the
 Homogeneous solid substances in the mixture.
 Heterogeneous  The one that is not soluble in the chosen solvent
WHAT IS HOMOGENEOUS? can be removes by filtration.
 Salts are crystalline compounds formed by the
For example, a mixture of table salt and sand can be
 Homo – One or Uniform
separated by dissolution, using water as the appropriate
 Geneousis – Throughout
solvent for table salt.
 There is only one phase (Solid, Liquid, Gas)
 Solutions are homogeneous CHROMATOGRAPHY
 Is a versatile technique for separating mixtures, it
Example: Sugar in Water. lies on the strategy that lets the mixture flow
WHAT IS HETEROGENEOUS? over a material that retains some
 Hetero – Two or more phases or unequal components more so different components
 Geneousis – Throughout flow over the material at different speeds.
 Different components are easily recognized.  It has two components: the mobile phase (is the
 Two or more phases of matter can be seen. liquid solvent) and the stationary phase (is the
 Suspensions are heterogeneous. liquid soaked in a material).

Example: Mixture of Oil and Water. SUBLIMATION

 is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or
PARTS OF A SOLUTIONS other medium to a solid surface (called the
"matrix" or "support").
SOLUTE  Is a process of changing solid to the gaseous
 The substance (or substances) that will be dissolved form w/o passing through the liquid state.
into
LESSON 5: MEASUREMENT the Naphthalene can be separated from table salt by
solvent. sublimation.

SOLVENT
 The medium into which other substances will be
dissolved into

METHODS OF SEPERATING MIXTURES MEASUREMENT

INTO THEIR COMPONENT SUBSTANCES  Is the act of process of measuring any object.
Different subjects can be measured and today
FILTRATION we have our standards in measuring these
 Is a process used to separate an insoluble objects.
solid (precipitation) from a mixture.

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 Mass, Length, Temperature, Time, Amount of

substance, Electric Current and Luminous  There are objects that float in water and there
Intensity, all of these have their own units of are some that sinks. Does this depend on the
measurement. size of the object? Is it the component of the
 Proposed by the General Conference of Weight object? There are different factors that affect an
and Measures in 1960, they introduced the SI objects tendency to float, one of these factors is
Density.
Units (Système international d'Unités.)

ACCURACY AND PRECISION Formula:

 Accuracy and Precision are associated with
measurement. These two pertain to the = density
closeness of a measurement but there is = mass
difference between the two. = volume
WHAT IS ACCURACY?
UNITS USED IN DENSITY
 Refers to how close a measurement is to the
 gram per cubic centimeter,
true or accepted value.
 gram per milliliter,
WHAT IS PRECISION?  thousand kilograms per cubic meter
 Refers to how close the measurements of the 1 g/cm3 1 g/mL = 100 kg/m3
same item are to each other. Example:

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN Students were tasked to measure the mass and volume
CALCULATIONS of a block of wood and obtained the measurements of:
 Significant Figures are digits in a measured or mass = 79.4 grams and V = 29.8 mL. The students were
calculated quantity. asked to get the density of the wood

METHODS OF SEPERATING MIXTURES 79.4 grams

INTO THEIR COMPONENT SUBSTANCES p=
29.8 mL
ALL NON-ZERO DIGITS ARE SIGNIFICANT
 Example: 1.234 g has 4 significant figures; 1.2 g p=2.66 gram/ mL
has 2 significant figures Or
p=2.7 gram/ mL
ZEROES BETWEEN NON-ZERO DIGITS ARE LESSON 6: ATOMS, MOLECULES AND
SIGNIFICANT IONS
 Example: 3.07 mL has 3 significant figures; 1002
kg has 4 significant figures DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
JOHN DALTON
 Born 6 September 1766 Died July 27 1844 was
LEADING ZEROES TO THE LEFT OF THE FIRST NON- an English chemist, mathematician, philosopher,
ZERO meteorologist and physicist.
 Example: 0.012 g has 2 significant figures; 0.001  He is best known for his pioneering work in the
°C has 1 significant figure. development of modern atomic theory
TRAILING ZEROES THE ARE ALSO TO THE RIGHT OF Hypotheses about the nature of matter on which Dalton's
A DECIMAL POINT IN A NUMBER ARE SIGNIFICANT Atomic Theory is based:
 Example: 0.0230 mL has 3 significant figures; FIRST HYPOTHESIS
0.20 g has 2 significant figures  Elements are composed of extremely small
particles called atoms. All atoms of a given
element are identical, having the same size,
WHEN A NUMBER ENDS IN ZEROES THAT ARE NOT mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one
TO THE RIGHT OF A DECIMAL POINT, THE ZEROES element are different from the atoms of all the
ARE NOT NECESSARILY SIGNIFICANT other elements.
 Not Necessarily – Not always, or not in every
situation. Synonyms: Sometimes, but not often. SECOND HYPOTHESIS
Occasionally  Compound are composed of atoms of more than
 Example: 190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant one element. In any compound the ratio of the
figures 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, 5 significant numbers of atoms of any two of the elements
figures presents is either an integer or simple fraction.
THIRD HYPOTHESIS
THE POTENTIAL AMBIGUITY IN THE LAST RULE CAN  A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
BE AVOIDED BY THE USE OF STANDARD combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does
EXPONENTIAL, OR SCIENTIFIC NOTATION not result in their creation or destruction.
 Example: 50,600 calories; 5.06x104 (3 Significant
Figures), 5.060x104 (4 Significant Figures), BASIC LAWS OF MATTER
5.0600x104 (5 Significant Figures)
LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION
DENSITY AND DENSITY MESUREMENT  The second hypothesis suggests that, in order to
 Is the mass of a substance per unit volume form a certain compound, we need not only

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atoms of the right kind of elements, but specific up of even smaller particles, which are called
numbers of these atoms as well. subatomic particles.

 This idea is an extension of a law published in ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1799 by Joseph Proust, a French chemist.  For some time, people thought that atoms were
the smallest particles and could not be broken
 Proust's Law of Definite Proportions states that into anything smaller.
different samples of the same compound always
contain its constituent elements in the same THREE TYPES OF SUBATOMIC
proportion by mass. PARTICLES
PROTONS
 Thus, if we were to analyze sample of water  Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford
obtained from different sources, we would find in in the year 1919, when he performed his gold foil
each sample the same ratio by mass of experiment. He projected alpha particles (helium
hydrogen to oxygen. It stands to reason, then, nuclei) at gold foil, and the positive alpha
that if the ratio of the masses of different particles were deflected.
elements in a given compound is fixed, the ratio
of the atoms of these elements in the compound  He concluded that protons exist in a nucleus and
also must be constant. have a positive nuclear charge. The atomic
number (Z) or proton number is the number of
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION protons present in an atom. The atomic number
 Dalton's second hypothesis supports another determines an element. (e.g., 6C)
important law, the law of multiple proportions.
According to the law, if two elements can ELECTRONS
combine to form more than one compound, the  Electrons were discovered by John Joseph
masses of one element that combine with a fixed Thomson in 1897. After many experiments
mass of the other elements are in ratios of small involving cathode rays, JJ. Thomson
whole numbers. demonstrated the ratio of mass to electric charge
of cathode rays.
 Dalton's theory explains the law of multiple
proportions quite simply: Different compounds  He confirmed that the cathode rays are
made up of the same elements differ in the fundamental particles that are negatively-
number of atoms of each kind that combine. charged; these cathode rays became known as
electrons.
For example, carbon forms two stable compounds with
oxygen, namely, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.  Electrons are located in an electron cloud, which
Modern measurement techniques indicate that one atom is the area surrounding the nucleus of the atom.
of carbon combines with one atom of oxygen in carbon Electrons can be abbreviated as “e- “.
monoxide and will two atoms of oxygen in carbon dioxide.
Thus, the ratio of oxygen in carbon monoxide to carbon  For a neutral element the number of Electrons is
dioxide is 1:2 this result as is consistent with the law of equal to the number of protons.
multiple proportion.
NEUTRONS
LAW OF CONSERVATION PROPORTION  Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick
 Dalton's third hypothesis is another way of in 1932, when he demonstrated that penetrating
stating the law of conservation of mass, which is radiation incorporated beams of neutral particles.
that matter is that matter can be neither created
nor destroyed. Because matter is made of atoms  Neutrons are located in the nucleus with the
that are unchanged in a chemical reaction, it protons. Along with protons, they make up
follows that mass must conserved as well. almost all of the mass of the atom.

 Dalton's brilliant insight into the nature of matter  The number of neutrons is called the neutron
was the main stimulus for the rapid progress of number and can be found by subtracting the
chemistry during the nineteenth century proton number from the atomic mass number
(A).
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
 The atoms in the reactants are rearranged to  The neutrons in an element determine the
form new compounds, but none of the atoms isotope of an atom, and often its stability.
disappear, and no new atoms are formed.

THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM

 On the basis of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, we can
define an atom as the basic unit of an element
that can enter into chemical combination. Dalton
imagined an atom that was both extremely small
and invisible. THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 However, a series of investigations that began in  Protons, neutrons and electrons are not evenly
the 1850s and extended into the twentieth distributed in an atom.
century clearly demonstrated that atom usually
possess internal structure; that is, they are made
The protons and neutrons exist
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The electrons are spread out around

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
the edge of the atom. They orbit the
nucleus in layers called shells.
NOTES AND PRELIM REVIEWER

 Cation – loses one or more electrons. (Positive

charge Ion)

K19 K19 atom K + ion

Proton 19 19

Electron 19 18

 Anion – gains one or more electrons. (Negative

How are electrons arranged? charge Ion)

Cl17 Cl atom Cl- ion

1st shell holdsa
maximum of2 Proton 17 17
electrons
Electron 17 18
2nd shell holdsa
maximum of 88
electrons proton = atomic number
proton = electron
3rd shell holdsa neutrons = mass number atomic number
maximum of 88 mass number = protons + neutrons
This electron arrangement is writtenelectrons
as 2,8,8.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IONS
ISOTOPE  An Ion can also be classified as monoatomic and
 Is a variation of the same elements with different polyatomic.
number of neutrons in their nucleus.  Monoatomic Ions contain only one atom.
 Most elements have two or more isotopes Examples: Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Br1-, S2-, N3-
 Polyatomic on the other hand are ions containing
more than one atom.
Examples: NH4+, OH-, NO3-, SO42-, PO43-

LESSON 7: CHEMICAL FORMULA

WHAT IS A MOLECULE?
 Is a term used to refer to 2 or more atoms which
are bonded.
ATOM WHAT IS A COMPOUND?
 The basic unit of an element that can enter  Are substances made of two or more different
chemical combination. elements chemically combined in a set ratio.
 Atom are the basic units of matter and the
defining structure of elements. WHAT IS A CHEMICAL BOND?
 Are substances made of two or more different
MOLECULES elements chemically combined in a set ratio.
 A molecule is an aggregate of two or more
atoms in a definite arrangement held together by
covalent bonds.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLECULES
 The A molecule can be a compound or an
element. It may contain: CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 Atom of the same element (Ex. H2) or  Used how the ratio of elements in a compound.
 Atoms of two or more elements joined The elements present in a compound are
in a fixed ratio (Ex. H2O). identified with the element's symbol.
 Molecules are electrically neutral  If more than 1 atom of an element is in the
 Molecules can be diatomic which means compound, it is shown with a subscript.
contains only two atoms.  If the substance contains more than 1 molecule,
Example: Cl2, N2, HCl, CO it is shown with a coefficient
TYPES OF FORMULAS
 Molecules can be polyatomic which means WHAT IS MOLECULAR FORMULA?
containing more than two atoms.  A molecular formula shows the exact number
Example: H2O, NH4, CO2 of atoms of each element in a molecule.
 It presents the actual formula of a molecules. In
IONS the case of glucose, its molecular formula is
 An Ion is an atom or group of atoms that has C6H12O6
gained net positive or negative charge. Atoms
become Ions when it loses or gains an electron. WHAT IS EMPIRICAL FORMULA?
 The empirical formula shows the simplest
TYPES OF CHARGED IONS whole-number ratio of the atoms present in a

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compound. It is written by reducing the

subscripts in the molecular formulas to the Examples:
smallest possible whole numbers.
Al3+ O2-
Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
Al2O3 Criss Cross Method
C6H12O6 CH2O
Pb4+ O2-

Tip for Empirical Formula: Find the largest number where Pb2O4 Criss Cross Method
you can divide the given and still get a whole number

 There are times that the formula can also be the PbO2 Reduce to smallest ratio
same as the molecular formula.

Molecular Formula Empirical Formula Zn2+ NO3-

Criss Cross Method
H2O H2O Zn (NO3)2
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
(CHEMICAL NAMING)
Examples for Molecular to Empirical Formula:
NAMING OF COMPOUNDS:
Molecular Formula Empirical Formula  Ionic
C6H12O6 CH2O  Covalent

N2H4 NH2 NAMING IONIC

C6H6 CH COMPOUNDS

C2H6O C2H6O TYPES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

 Binary Ionic Compounds
WHAT IS STRUCTURAL FORMULA?  Ionic compound containing metals with variable
 A structural formula uses lines to represent charges
chemical bonds and shows how the atoms in a
molecule are connected to each other. BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Consists of two elements, a metal and a non-
MOLECULAR MODELS metal
HOW TO NAME BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS:
 A three-dimensional representation of molecules
that are used to represent compounds.
a. Name the cation. Metal cation take their names
from the elements.
b. Name the anion. The anion is named by taking
the first part of the element name and adding the
suffix “–ide”

Format: Cation + Anion –ide

Examples:
WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA OF
IONIC COMPOUNDS NaCl
Na = Sodium; Cl = Chlor + ide
RULES IN WRITING THE FORMULA OF IONIC
COMPOUNDS:
Sodium Chloride
a. Identify the charge of the cation and the anion
b. Criss-cross Method. Write the symbol and the
subscript of the ions.
MgBr2
c. The subscript of the cation is numerically equal Mg = Magnesium; Br = Brom + ide
to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of
the anion is numerically equal to the charge on
the cation. If the charges are numerically equal,
Magnesium Bromide
then no subscripts are necessary.
Al2O3 – Aluminum Oxide
REMEMBER:
Ca3P2 – Calcium Phosphide
 Ionic compounds are Electrically Neutral. SrI2 – Strontium Iodide
 The Formulas of Ionic Compounds are their Ca3N2 – Calcium Nitride
empirical formulas, the subscripts must always
be reduced to the smallest ratios.
AlF3 – Aluminum Fluoride

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HOW TO NAME IONIC COMPOUND CONTAINING

METALS WITH VARIABLE CHARGES:
 Certain metal, especially the transition metals
have more than 1 charge.
 When naming compounds involving metals with
variable charges, the charge associated with the
metal cation in the compound must be
determined.

METHODS IN NAMING IONIC COMPOUND

CONTAINING METALS WITH VARIABLE CHARGES:

Stock System
a. Determine the charge of the metal in the
compound.
b. Name the metal followed by a Roman numeral in
parentheses immediately following the name of
the metal. The Roman numeral represents the
charge of the metal.
c. Name the nonmetal with the ending -ide

Format: Cation (Roman numeral) + Anion –ide

FeCl3 WHAT IS TERNARY IONIC COMPOUND:

 Ternary Ionic Compounds are composed of
Fe Cl3 three or more different elements. The most
common types of ternary ionic compounds
consist of a metallic cation and polyatomic anion
Fe3+ Cl-  Metallic cation + Polyatomic anion

FeCl3 = Iron (III) Chloride a.

Cu2S2
Cu2 S2

Cu2+ S2-

CuS = Copper (II) sulfide

HOW TO NAME TERNARY IONIC COMPOUND:
MnO2  Name the cation. Metal cation take their names
from the elements. If the cation is polyatomic ion,
Mn2O4 use the name of ion e.g., NH4+ (ammonium)
 If the metal cation has a variable charge, indicate
the charge by using a roman numeral enclosed
Mn+4 O-2 Combine then reduce in parentheses or use the “–ous” and “–ic”
ending.
 Use the name of the polyatomic anion. e.g., OH-
MnO2 = Manganese (IV) Oxide (hydroxide), CN- (cyanide), PO43- (phosphate)

Classical System Format: Cation (stock sys. ) + Polyatomic anion

a. Assign the ending “-ous” to the cation with fewer

positive charges and the ending “-ic” to the
cation with more positive charges.
b. This method of naming ions has distinct
limitations. There are metallic elements can
assume three or more different positive charges
in compounds, thus it is more convenient to use
the roman numerals in naming metals with
variable charges

Format:
Original name Cation-ous (if lesser charge) + anion-ide

Original name Cation-ic (if greater charge) + anion-ide

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NAMING COVALENT LESSON 8: STOICHIOMETRY

COMPOUNDS
WHAT IS ATOMIC MASS?
WHAT ARE COVALENT COMPOUNDS:  It is the mass of one individual unit of a
 Covalent compounds are composed of non – substance.
metallic elements.  It simply means mass of an atom comes from
 Nonmetal + nonmetal proton and neutron

HOW TO NAME COVALENT COMPOUNDS: Example:

a. Naming binary covalent compounds is similar to
naming binary ionic compounds. Write the name Fluorine (F) 9 protons and 10 neutrons = 19 units
of the first element in the formula first, and the
second element is named by adding –ide to the Aluminum (Al) 13 protons + 14 neutrons = 27 units
end of the element’s name.
b. In naming binary molecular compounds, we use Chlorine (Cl) 17 protons + 18 neutrons = 35 units
Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of OR 17 protons + 20 neutrons = 37 units
each element present.
WHAT IS RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS?
Prefix-name of 1st element + prefix-name of 2nd element  The relative atomic mass of an element is the
-*ide* average of the weight of all isotopes in a
normal environment on the Earth's crust.
 Atoms that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons are known as
ISOTOPE.
 Isotopes have different atomic masses

Example:
CHLORINE (Cl)
17 protons + 18 neutrons = 35 units
17 protons + 20 neutrons = 37 units

proton = atomic number

proton = electron
neutrons = mass number atomic number
mass number = protons + neutrons

WHAT IS AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS?

 The average atomic mass of an element is a
weighted average calculated by multiplying
the relative abundances of the element's
isotopes by their atomic masses and then
summing the products.
 The term average in the definition of atomic
mass signifies that the atomic mass of the given
element is the average of atomic masses of all
the known isotopes of that element in the
ratio of their occurrence in nature.
Example:

CHLORINE (Cl)
100 ATOMS OF CHLORINE SAMPLE

Chlorine, for instance, exists as 2 isotopes: Cl-35, Cl-37

 75% of Cl-35
 25% of Cl-37

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 Pressure is the force applied on a surface per unit

area. Atmospheric pressure, also known as air
pressure, is the force exerted by the air above a
surface as gravity pulls it towards Earth. A
barometer, invented by the Italian physicist Torricelli,
is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure.

WHAT IS GAS PRESSURE?

 Pressure is defined as force per unit area (P = F/A),
measured in pascals.

This formula relates pressure to force and area. When a

person stands on a surface, their feet exert pressure,
influenced by the person's mass and the feet's surface
area. Holding a heavy object increases pressure due to
greater force.

 Gas molecules, including those in Earth's

atmosphere, exert pressure under the influence of
gravity. This concept also applies to small gas
samples, such as those in a balloon. Overall,
pressure is a result of force applied over an area
and is observed in various contexts, from everyday
activities to atmospheric conditions.

 Gas pressure is the result of collisions between gas

particles and an object, as illustrated in the context
of a balloon.

 The collisions maintain the balloon's inflation, and if

the particles were to stop moving, the balloon would
deflate. The pressure inside a hot air balloon is
influenced by temperature changes.

When the molecules heat up, they move faster, leading

to more forceful collisions with the balloon's inner walls
and an increase in pressure. The expansion of the air
inside the balloon due to heating allows the balloon to
float. As the air molecules move faster and the pressure
rises, the balloon becomes fully expanded, signaling
readiness for flight.

PRESSURE UNITS AND CONVERSIONS OF GAS

PRESSURE
WHAT IS A BAROMETER?
 Invented by the Italian physicist Torricelli
 A Barometer measures gas pressure by the height
of the column of mercury.
 One unit of gas pressure is the millimeter of
mercury (mmHg).

WHAT IS MOLE CONCEPT?

 It means that 1 mole is equal to 6.022x1023
 1 mole of any element is equal to 6.022x1023 WHAT IS A TORR?
 An equivalent unit to the mmHg is called the torr,
Example: in honor of the inventor of the barometer,
Evangelista Torricelli.
5 x 6.022x1023 ----> 5 moles
2 x 6.022x1023 ----> 2 moles WHAT IS A PASCAL (Pa)?
9 x 6.022x1023 ----> 9 moles  The Pascal (Pa) is the standard unit of pressure. A
pascal is a very small amount of pressure, so the
most useful unit for everyday gas pressures is the
LESSON 9: GAS PRESSURE
kilopascal (kPa).
WHAT IS PRESURE?
 A kilopascal is equal to 1000 pascals.

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WHAT IS ATMOSPHERE (atm)? of the French scientist and balloon flight pioneer
 Atmosphere (atm) is another commonly used unit Jacques Alexandre César Charles.
of pressure. The Standard atmospheric pressure is
defined as 1 atm of pressure and is equal  Charles’s law states that the volume of a given
to 760mmHg and 101.3kPa. amount of gas is directly proportional to its
 Atmospheric pressure is also often stated as temperature on the kelvin scale when the pressure
pounds per square inch (psi). The atmospheric is held constant.
pressure at sea level is 14.7psi.
Charle’s Law Formula:
Unit Gas of
Unit Conversion
Pressure V1 V2
Millimeter of
mmHg 760 mmHg = ; P is a constant
Mercury T 1 T2
Torr Torr 760 torr WHAT IS GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW (Pressure and
Kilopascal =
Pascal Pa kPa (1,000) Temperature)?
101.3 kPa  Gay-Lussac’s Law states that a gas's pressure is
Atmosphere 1 atm = 760 directly proportional to temperature. We assume a
atm constant volume and a constant number of moles.
mmHg / torr =
Atmospheric 101.3 kPa =
psi
Pressure 14.7 psi  In Gay-Lussac’s Law, as pressure increases or
decreases, the temperature also increases or
EXPRESSING THE GAS LAWS IN EQUATION decreases.
FORM
 This law was formulated by the French chemist
Joseph Gay-Lussac in the year 1808. The
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT GAS LAWS?
mathematical expression of Gay-Lussac’s law can
WHAT IS BOYLE’S LAW (Volume and Pressure)? be written as follows:
 The relationship between the volume and pressure
Gay-Lussac’s Law Formula
of a given amount of gas at constant temperature
was first published by the English natural P 1 P2
philosopher Robert Boyle over 300 years ago. = ; V is a constant
T1 T 2
 It is summarized in the statement now known as
Boyle’s law: The volume of a given amount of gas P2 T 1 P1 T 2
held at constant temperature is inversely P1= T 1=
proportional to the pressure under which it is
T2 P2
measured.
P1 T 2 P2 T 1
 It states that as volume decreases, pressure
P2= T 2=
T1 P1
increases, and vice versa.

Boyle’s Law Formula:

P1 V 1=P2 V 2 ; T is a constant

WHAT IS AVOGADRO’S LAW (Moles of Gas and

Volume)?
WHAT IS CHARLE’S LAW (Volume and  The Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro advanced
Temperature)? a hypothesis in 1811 to account for the behavior
 The effect of temperature on the volume of a given of gases, stating that equal volumes of all gases,
amount of a confined gas at constant pressure are measured under the same conditions of
true in general: The volume increases as the temperature and pressure, contain the same
temperature increases, and decreases as the number of molecules.
temperature decreases.
 Over time, this relationship was supported by
 The relationship between the volume and many experimental observations as expressed
temperature of a given amount of gas at constant by Avogadro’s law: For a confined gas, the
pressure is known as Charles’s law in recognition volume (V) and number of moles (n) are directly

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proportional if the pressure and temperature both Boyle's law to find the volume of gas when pressure
remain constant. changes.

Avogadro’s Law Formula: WHAT IS CHARLE’S LAW?

 Gives the relationship between volume and
V1 V2 temperature if the pressure and the amount of gas
= ; P∧T are a constant are held constant:
n1 n2
a.) If the Kelvin temperature of a gas is increased,
V 2 n1 V 1 n2 the volume of the gas increases. (P, n
V 1= n1 =
n2 V2 Constant)

V 1 n2 V 2 n1 b.) If the Kelvin temperature of a gas is decreased,

V 2= n2= the volume of the gas decreases. (P, n
n1 V1 Constant)

 If the amount of gas in a container is increased, V1 V2

the volume increases. If the amount of gas in a = ; P is a constant
container is decreased, the volume decreases. T 1 T2
This is assuming of course that the container has
expandible walls. V 2T 1 V 1T 2
V 1= T 1=
LESSON 10: GAS LAWS T2 V2
WHAT IS BOYLE’S LAW?
 States that the volume of a given amount of gas held
V 1T 2 V 2T 1
at constant temperature varies inversely with the V 2= T 2=
applied pressure when the temperature and mass T1 V1
are constant;

P1 V 1=P2 V 2 ; T is a constant

P2 V 2 P2 V 2
P 1= V 1=
V1 P1
P1 V 1 P V
P 2= V 2= 1 2
V2 P2

LESSON 10: GAS LAWS

WHAT IS BOYLE’S LAW?
 States that the volume of a given amount of gas held
at constant temperature varies inversely with the
applied pressure when the temperature and mass
are constant;

P1 V 1=P2 V 2 ; T is a constant

P2 V 2 P2 V 2
P1= V 1=
 Boyle's Gas Law states that the volume of a gas is V1 P1
inversely proportional to the pressure of the gas
when the temperature is held constant. P1 V 1 P V
P2= V 2= 1 2
 Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
V2 P2
discovered the law and for it he is considered the
first modern chemist. This example problem uses

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H^ψ=Eψ

ψ is called a wave function;

H^ is known as the Hamiltonian operator;

E is the binding energy of the electron

- Schrodinger's mathematical equation views

 Boyle's Gas Law states that the volume of a gas is electron as a "cloud" of negative charge having a
inversely proportional to the pressure of the gas certain geometric shape.
when the temperature is held constant.

 Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627–1691)

discovered the law and for it he is considered the
first modern chemist. This example problem uses
Boyle's law to find the volume of gas when pressure
changes.

WHAT IS CHARLE’S LAW?

 Gives the relationship between volume and
- The darker the area, the greater is the probability
temperature if the pressure and the amount of gas
of finding the electron in that area.
are held constant:
 Werner Karl Heisenberg discovered that for a very
c.) If the Kelvin temperature of a gas is increased,
small particle like the electron, its location cannot be
the volume of the gas increases. (P, n
exactly known and how it is moving.
Constant)
- This is called Uncertainty Principle.
d.) If the Kelvin temperature of a gas is decreased,
Uncertainty Principle states that you can't locate
the volume of the gas decreases. (P, n
the exact position of an electron at any given
Constant)
time (too small, too fast).
V1 V2
= ; P is a constant
T 1 T2
WHAT ARE ATOMIC ORBITALS?
V 2T 1 V 1T 2  Atomic Orbitals is the region of space around the
V 1= T 1= nucleus where the electron is most likely to be
T2 V2 found.

V 1T 2 V T
V 2= T 2= 2 1
T1 V1

LESSON 11: QUANTUM MECHANICS

WHAT IS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL?
 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
views electrons within an atom as waves, not only
as particles as previously believed.  The principal energy levels are broken down into
sublevels. These sublevels define the orbital shape
 This theory postulates that, while electrons are (s, p, d, f).
discrete particles, because of their size and mass
they behave more like a wave than like particles.
WHAT IS THE SCHRODINGER MODEL OF
Three physicists led to the better model of an atom HYDROGEN ATOM?
(Quantum Mechanical Model):  Quantum mechanical description of hydrogen has
proven that the Bohr's model of electrons is
 Louie de Broglie (1924) proposed that the electron incorrect. It states that we don't know exactly where
could be thought as particle and as a wave. the electron is, but with high probability, we can
conclude that the electron is most likely to be found
 Erwin Schrodinger formulated a model of the atom in an orbital.
that assumed the electrons could be treated at
matter waves. Schrödinger's wave equation is as
follows:

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 The value of this quantum number can be determine

using the formula n-1 ("n" represents the principal
quantum number)
 Has value ranging from 0 to 2

 Erwin Schrodinger used the wave idea to develop a

mathematical equation to describe the hydrogen
atom. He discovered that:
- Electrons move around the nucleus in "a
cloud" not "in orbits"

- Orbital helps us predict the area where we can  It is defined in chemistry that if l=0, it is called as s
find electrons. orbital, l=1 is a p orbital, l=2 a d orbital, and l=3 an f
orbital. The first p orbital (l=1) is in the second
- The closer position to the nucleus, the higher electron shell (n=2), the first d orbital (l=2) is in the
chance to find the electrons. third shell (n=3), and so on. The set of orbitals that
WHAT IS QUANTUM NUMBERS? have the same n and l values is called a subshell.
 It determines the location and arrangement of
electrons in electron cloud.
 It also describes the different atomic orbitals.

According to Pauli Exclusion Principle, each electron

in an atom has an exclusive set of quantum numbers
and no two electrons can have the same combination of
four quantum numbers (Silberberg, 2013).

MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)

 Describes the spatial orientation or specific orbital of
an electron
 Its value depends on the angular momentum
number where, it can be from the range of a
negative integer, zero (0) to a positive integer.

THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

 Describes the energy of an electron
 Refers to energy level of an electron and the size of
the orbital an electron is likely to be found
 Denoted with symbol n
 Has value of any positive integer starting from 1. As
the value of n increases, the farther it is from the
nucleus of an atom
 The larger the value of n, the greater is the energy SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)
and the larger is the orbital  Each orbital may hold up to two electrons with
 The group of orbitals with the same value of n is opposite spin directions.
called an electron shell (e.g. all the orbitals that have  Electrons are not really spinning in a physical sense;
n=2, for example, are said to be in the second shell) this is just a representation of the idea that there are
two possible values for the spin quantum number.
ANGULAR / AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (I)  When an electron is assigned to spin up, it is
 Refer to the shape of the orbitals represented by an upward arrow and a value of
 It also strongly influences bond angles and chemical +1/2.
bonds  If an electron is spinning down, it is represented by a
downward arrow and a value of -1/2

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LESSON 12: ELECTRON

CONFIGURATION
WHAT IS AN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION?
 It is the arrangement of electrons within the orbitals
of an atom to determine its electronic property.

 The number of valence electrons of each element is

equal to its group number on the Periodic Table
(Brown, 2015).
WHAT IS THE GROUND-STATE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION?
 It is the most stable arrangement of electrons in an
atom
 All the electrons in an atom reside in the lowest
energy orbitals possible in this arrangement.

 Elements with the same number of valence

electrons tend to have similar chemical properties
and they are grouped together.

WHAT IS A VALANCE ELECTRON?

 Are the outermost electrons of an atom.
 They are the highest energy electrons in an atom
and are the most reactive.
 Valence electrons can be gained, lost, or shared to
form chemical bonds unlike the inner electrons
which do not participate in reactions. THE PRINCIPLES AND RULES IN DETERMINING THE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF AN ELEMENT

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
 "Aufbau," in German, means "building up."
According to this principle, electrons are filled in the
following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p...

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HUND’S RULES
 Hund's rule states that before additional electrons
with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals,
single electrons with the same spin must occupy
each equal-energy orbital first (Silberberg, 2013).

LESSON 13: ELECTRON

CONFIGURATION AND PERIODIC
TABLE

Valence Electrons = Group Number

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
 States that no two electrons can have the same
combination of four quantum numbers. A maximum
of two electrons may occupy a single orbital, but
only if the electrons have opposite spins.

WHAT IS THE PERIODIC VARIATION IN ATOMIC

PROPERTIES?

THE FIVE TRENDS IN ATOMIC PROPERTIES

MAGNETIC PROPERTY OF AN ATOM ELECTRONEGATIVITY

 The behaviour of an atom in relation to magnetic  To attract or to bind with electrons
fields is influenced by its electron configuration. This
behaviour is also called as the magnetic property
of an atom and is dependent on the number of
electrons an atom has that are spin paired.

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 These chemical bonds are what keep the atoms

IONIZATION ENERGY together in the resulting compound.
 Energy needed to become a positive ion
 Energy needed to remove an electron from an atom
Flavonoid isorhamnetin

WHY DO ATOMS BOND?

 The answer is that atoms are trying to reach the
most stable or lowest-energy state that they can.

 Atoms become more stable when their orbital of the

outermost energy level or valence shell is filled with
ELECTRON AFFINITY eight electrons, satisfying the octet rule.
 Ability to become a negative ion

CHEMICAL BONDING AND ATOM'S STABILITY

ATOMIC RADIUS  If atoms do not have a stable arrangement, they
 Distance between two nuclei reach stability by gaining, losing, or sharing
electrons via chemical bonds.

 In chemical bonding, only valence electrons are

involved.

METALLIC CHARACTER
 The ability of an atom to lose an electron

LESSON 13: CHEMICAL BONDING

WHAT IS AN CHEMICAL BONDING?

 Chemical bonding refers to the formation of a
chemical bond between two or more atoms,
molecules or ions to give rise to a chemical
compound.

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ATOM'S STABILITY LEWIS DOT SYMBOL

 Gilbert Newton Lewis was a prominent American
 Atoms become stable when their outermost shell is researcher in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
filled to capacity. century.
 Stable atoms like noble gases tend not to react or  It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot
combine with other for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
 The dots are placed on the four sides of the
CHEMICAL BONDING AND ATOM'S STABILITY
symbol-top, bottom, left, and right and each side
can accommodate up to two electrons.
 It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot
IONIC BONDING for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
 Bond between metals and non-metals
 An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side  The choice on which sides to place two electrons
(Group 1(A) and Group 2(A) of the periodic table rather one electron is arbitrary since all four sides
and non-metals on the right side (except noble are equivalent.
gases, group 8A) interact.
 It is recommended that we spread out the dots as
Note: Noble gases are stable. They don't need to bond
much as possible.
with other atoms anymore.

 In general, we cannot write simple Lewis’s dot

symbols for the transition metals, lanthanides, and
 An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side actinides because they all have incompletely filled
(Group 1(A) and Group 2(A) of the periodic table inner shells.
and non-metals on the right side (except noble
gases, group 8A) interact

 Once the electrons have been transferred to the

non-metal, both the metal and the non-metal
become ions- atoms that have charges.

 The metal becomes positively charged and the

nonmetal becomes negatively charged.

 An ionic compound is formed when the two

oppositely charged ions attract each other.

 For instance, positively charged sodium ions and

negatively charged chloride ions attract each other OCTET RULE AND BOND FORMATIONS
to make sodium chloride, or table salt.  Octet rules does not generally apply to the d or f
THE LEWIS STRUCTURE AND BOND FORMATION electrons. Only the s and p electrons are involved in
the octet rule, making it useful for the main group
elements (elements not in the transition metal or
inner-transition metal blocks).
GILBERT NEWTON LEWIS
 Gilbert Newton Lewis was a prominent American Some exceptions to the octet rule:
researcher in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
century. Boron and Aluminum readily form compounds in which
they have six valence electrons, rather than the usual
 In 1916, Gilbert Lewis introduced a simple way to eight predicted by the octet rule.
show the bonding between atoms in a molecule
Noble gases are known as stable elements as evidenced
though Lewis’s electron dot symbol and Lewis
by their general lack of reactivity. All the noble gases
structures.
except Helium have eight valences.

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LESSON 14: COVALENT BONDING

WHAT IS COVALENT BONDING?

 is sharing of electrons between 2 or more
nonmetals to achieve octet rule.
 Covalent bonding makes molecules.

There are two kinds of molecules:

1. Binary molecular compounds

 Molecules consist of covalent bonds
between atoms of two different non-metals.
MOLECULAR COVALENT BONDS AND LEWIS
Because they are covalently bonded, these STRUCTURES
non-metals can combine in different
proportions (example: SO2; & SO3).
 All elements will have 8 electrons around it through
a combination of shared and unshared electrons.

2. Diatomic molecules
 Molecules formed by two of the same atom
– (H2, N2, O2, F2, Clz, Br2, and l2).
 There are a few exceptions: H only needs two
electrons, Be-4 electrons and B-6 electrons.

Recall Recall that prefixes are used so that the numbers

of each element in the compound can be known.

Most covalent bonds involve the sharing of:

2 electrons - 1 pair - single covalent bond
(example: H-H)
4 electron - 2 pairs - double covalent bond
(C=O)
6 electrons -3 pairs - triple covalent bond

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WHAT IS THE VALANCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR

REPULSION (VSEPR)?
 It is a model that predicts the shapes/geometry of
molecules and ions by assuming that the valence
shell electron pairs are arranged as far from one
another as possible.

How to Determine the Lewis Structure and Molecular

Geometry of a Covalent Compound

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POLARITY OF MOLECULES

WHAT IS POLARITY

 Polarity results from the uneven distribution of

partial charges between various atoms in a
compound. A whole molecule can have a separation
of charges depending on its molecular structure and
the polarity of its bonds.

1. Polar molecule - a molecule in which one end of

the molecule is slightly positive and the other end is
slightly negative, hence, a dipole is formed.

2. Non-polar molecule a molecule with no separation

therefore, no positive or negative poles are formed.

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Steps in Determining Molecular Polarity

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PROPERTIES OF COVALENT STRUCTURES

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