Disclaimer: The contents of this module are a collection of reading materials

culled from various websites and books. Because of the importance of each

presentation to the Social Work Profession, this cannot be altered or

paraphrased. The authors should be given credit for their work, which is cited

in the reference section.

 MODULE 2: SOCIAL WORK THEORIES AND
HELPING METHOD

OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE:

Theories provide a foundation for understanding how people learn as well as a

means of explaining, describing, analyzing, and forecasting learning. A theory,
in this sense, assists us in making more informed decisions about the design,
development, and delivery of learning. In this module, you will learn the
importance of theories, the traditional and Generalist Approach to Social Work
Practice, Planned Change, its elements and strategies, Traditional Social Work
Theories and Critical Progressive Social Work Theories.

There are various learning theories and methods of assistance. Learning theories
provide frameworks for understanding how information is used, knowledge is
created, and learning occurs. Furthermore, in social work, method is defined as
a systematic and planned approach to assisting people. The primary goal of
social work is to solve psycho-social problems in individuals, groups, and
communities through the conscious application of knowledge in social work
methods, tools, techniques, and skills. In this task, the social worker must be
equipped with all of the necessary social work methods to assist people in
resolving their own problems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Recognize the significance of theories in helping process.

2. Understand the Distinction Between the Traditional and Generalist
Approaches to Social Work Practice
3. Identify the elements and strategies that will be used in the planned
change.
 4. Learn about traditional social work theories as well as critical progressive
social work theories.

CONTENTS:
The module is divided into four lessons, which are as follows:
Lesson 1 – Importance of Theories
Lesson 2 – The Traditional and Critical Progressive Social Work Theories
Lesson 3 – The Social Work Helping Models and Approaches
Lesson 4 – The Generalist Social Work Practice
Lesson 5 – Planned Change (Elements and Strategies)

DURATION: 2 weeks
 LESSON 1: THE IMPORTANCE OF THEORY

LESSON PROPER:
The primary mission of social work as a helping profession is to assist clients in
meeting their needs and improving their well-being. In order to effectively
respond to clients’ needs and demands, professional social workers are equipped
with a wide range of knowledge. Before delving into the various theories, it is
important to understand what social work theory is.

Defining Social Work theory

There are at least four basic components to developing theories: developing
concepts, facts, hypotheses, and principles (Turner, 1996). Facts are information
gathered, tested, or researched in relation to phenomena, and evaluated for
influence and correctness; hypotheses are the structural way of using the
information to link observations for testing and evaluation; and principles are
the stated research outcomes and findings (Turner, 1996). When it comes to
defining theory, however, there is no such clear and consistent path. Theory,
according to Tripodi, Fellin, and Meyer (1969), is an interlocking set of logically
related hypotheses that “seeks to explain the interrelationships among empirical
generalizations”. According to Barker (1999), theory is a set of correlated
concepts, hypotheses, and constructs based on observations and facts that aim
to explain a specific phenomenon. Theory is a set of interconnected concepts
(Lipsey, 1993). They give meaning and explanations to specific events and assist
in the resolution of relevant problems. When the components, functions, and
nature of theory are combined, definitions of theory become complicated and
pluralistic. The following are seven definitions of theory that demonstrate the
wide range of possibilities for defining theory.
 Definitions of Theory
Authors Definition
Tripodi, Fellin, & Meyer (1969) Theory consists of an interlocking set
of hypotheses that are logically
related, and it seeks to explain the
inter-relations among empirical
generalizations.
Lipsey (1993) Theory is a framework of
interconnected concepts that gives
meaning and explanation to relevant
event and supports new insights and
problem-solving efforts.
Tolson, Reid, & Garvin (1994) Theories are set of concepts and
constructs that describe and explain
natural phenomena.
Turner (1996) Theory is a model of reality
appropriate to a particular discipline.
Such a model helps us to understand
what is, what is possible, and how to
achieve the possible.
Barker (1999) Theory is a group of related
hypotheses, concepts, and constructs,
based on facts and observations that
attempts to explain a particular
phenomenon.
Thyer (2001) Theories are attempts to
retrospectively explain and to
prospectively predict.
Kendall, Adler, Adler, Cargan, & Theory is a set of logically, interrelated
Ballantine (2008) statements that attempts to describe,
explain, and (occasionally) predict
social events.

Social work employs theories from a variety of disciplines and professions,

including sociology, gerontology, psychology, economics, and others. Human
behavior in the social environment (HBSE) theories and practice theories are the
two main terms used to describe theories in the social work profession. According
to Thyer (2001), HBSE theories are general theories that can be used to explain
and predict a wide range of human behaviors. They can assist
social workers in developing a thorough understanding of their
clients and environments. Thyer's definition of HBSE theory is frequently cited
and used in social work literature (Munro, 2002). Connolly and Harms (2012)
went on to say that HBSE theories should include both theories of the inner
world (e.g., psychodynamic approaches) and theories of the outer world (e.g.,
structural inequalities). Practice theories, on the other hand, are primarily
concerned with how conceptual theories can be used to inform empirical
practices. Knowledge about clients' problems and their contexts is linked to
knowledge about professional intervention in practice theories (Simon, 1994).
Following a review of the literature, it became clear that the line separating HBSE
theories and practice theories is becoming increasingly blurred in use and
teaching. These two types of theories are inextricably linked and overlap. Many
definitions of theory in social work frequently include some social work
functions, which is the primary distinction between definitions of theory in
general and definitions of theory in social work. The eight definitions of theory in
social work from the literature that demonstrate this point are as follows: They
work together to identify the role of theory in social work.

Definition of theory in Social Work

Authors Definition
Simon (1994) Practice theory links knowledge about
an identified problem and its context
with knowledge about an intervention
with a conceptual format that is
oriented towards action and rooted in
previous research.
Thyer (2001) Theories pertain to explaining and
predicting various aspects of human
behaviors.
Greene (2008) Theories helped social workers explain
why people behave as they do, to
better understand how the
environment affects behavior, to guild
their interventions, and to predict
what is likely to be the result of a
particular social work intervention.
 Towland (2009) A theory helps to explain a situation
and perhaps, how it came about.
Howe (2009) Theories are particular ways of
making sense. They help social
workers see regularities and familiar
patterns in the muddle of practice.
Babbie & Rubin (2010) A theory is a systematic set of
interrelated statements intended to
explain some aspect of social life or
enrich our sense of how people
conduct and find meaning in their
daily lives
Teater (2010) Theory is an essential ingredient in
practice that guides the way in which
social workers view and approach
individuals, groups, communities,
and societies. Theory helps to predict,
explain, and assess situations and
behaviors, and provide a rationale for
how the social worker should react
and intervene.
Miley, O’Melia, & DuBois (2011) A theory represents a plausible
explanation about the relationship
between a set of facts and a framework
for change.

Identifying the Role of Social Work Theory in Practice

The role of theory in practice continues to be an on-going discussion in the
profession. There are two major camps in the dialogue of theory application in
practice. One camp insists theory-free in practice, and the other emphasizes
theory-driven in practice. The theory-free camp eliminates the role of social work
theory in practice. Thyer (2001) states most etiological theories and intervention
theories are wrong, so it is neither essential nor necessarily desirable for practice
to be theoretically driven. Rosen and colleagues (1995) found that there were
rarely any clear theoretical reasons in practitioners’ rationales for practice
decisions. In contrast, the theory-driven camp emphasizes the indispensable role
of social work theory for practice. Boisen and Syers (2004) think
“social work education rests on the assumption that competent social work
practice is grounded in the intentional use of theory. Practice informed by theory
distinguishes professional social work from informal forms of helping” (p. 205).
Again, irrespective of the fierce the dialogue, an agreement has been made that
there is no dichotomous answer to end the debate claiming social work practice
must be either theory-free or theory driven. In recent years, however, there has
been a trend that theory and practice should be integrated, which implies that
social work theory should play certain roles in practice.

Lam (2004) states that “not only are social workers expected to be informed about
relevant theories, but they must apply these theories to practice so that
unfavorable conditions in our society can be ameliorated” (p. 317). As a matter
of fact, Puolter (2005) thinks learning and applying social work theory in practice
is an on-going reflective evaluation of practice guided by current and emerging
theoretical knowledge and research to learn when and how to add or replace
theory and practice strategies for practice effectiveness. This bridge emphasis
that practitioners are engaged in a quest of self and practice-correction and
improvement done most effectively through the use and replacement of tested
and researched strategies and approaches found in theory application (Sung-
Chan & Yuen-Tsang, 2008).

Benefits of Applying Social Work Theory to Practice

Due to the positive roles of theory in practice mentioned above, there is no doubt
that applying theory to practice is beneficial to social workers. The value of theory
application in practice is that it: (1) explains clients’ situations and predicts their
behaviors; (2) provides a starting point for social workers; (3) helps social workers
have an organized plan to their work and reduces the wandering that can happen
in practice; (4) offers social workers a clear framework in a chaotic situation and
provides accountability to their work; (5) gives social workers a
perspective to conceptualize and address clients’ problems with
appropriate interventions; and (6) identifies knowledge gaps about practice
(Walsh, 2010; Turner, 1996; Gilson & DePoy, 2002; Kendall, et al., 2008, Royse,
2011). Without the integration of theory and practice, social workers are easily
and overly affected by their own attitudes, moods, and reactions, which may
result in infectiveness, inefficiency, even harm clients (Walsh, 2010). For
example, the theory of ego psychology, which assumes clients better achieve
their goals if they reflect on their ways to address life challenges, can guide social
workers to utilize the intervention strategy called person-situation reflection to
help clients understand their situations and solve their problems (Walsh, 2010).

Using critical race theory, social workers can have an individual-context

perspective to rethink power differentials, understand cultural diversity,
empower marginalized populations, and promote social justice, all of which are
emphasized by the 2008 CSWE Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards
(Ortiz & Jani, 2010). Or with the aid of ecological theory, social workers are able
to have a whole picture of systems and member functioning and find out effective
ways to develop reciprocal transactions and relations between clients and their
environments (Ashford & LeCroy, 2010). As such, it is obvious that social work
theory can serve as anchoring frame and theoretical underpinnings in directing
social work practice.

Social work theories assist social workers in analyzing cases, understanding

clients, developing interventions, predicting intervention outcomes, and
evaluating outcomes. While theories are constantly evolving in response to new
evidence, referring to social work theories that have been used in the past allows
social workers to investigate causes of behavior. They can then assist their
clients in locating the best solutions. Learning about different social work
theories helps remind social workers that their personal assumptions and beliefs
should be put on hold during social work practice.
 Instead of applying their own attitudes, reactions, and moods to client
work, social workers should use evidence-based theories to investigate issues
and drive their practice. Social work theory serves as a foundation for social
workers to develop interventions and plan their work. It enables social workers
to approach client issues through a research-based lens.The theories assist
social workers in better understanding complex human behaviors and social
environments that influence the lives and problems of their clients. A solid
understanding of theory aids social workers in their work by providing them with
a sense of direction, purpose, and control through the use of research-based
scientific evidence in theory.

Choosing the right theory for the situation at hand is one of the challenges of
putting social work theories into practice. It can be challenging to apply a single
theory to complex client issues. It is frequently more practical to draw on
knowledge from multiple theories and use that understanding to design
multifaceted interventions.
 LESSON 2: The Traditional and Critical
Progressive Social Work Theories

LESSON PROPER:
Theories provide direction for therapeutic and social interventions. It influences
how we view clients and conduct assessments, interventions, and research.
Theories in this module can be divided into two types. The first category is
Traditional Social Work Theories, and the second category is Critical and
Progressive Social Work Theories. Let us first go over the following Traditional
Social Work Theories.

Traditional Social Work Theories

1. General Systems Theory. All of the social sciences could be integrated

using systems as a unit of analysis. Human systems are intricately
connected and must be viewed holistically. They are interelated and
interdependent. The systems theory explains change and the goal is to
maintain balance within each system.

Three types of system

1. Informal systems – family, friends, neighboorhoods
2. Formal systems – school, employers, state structures
3. Social systems – church, ckubs, association, trade unions

4 systems in the change process (Pincus & Minaham, 1973)

1. Action System. All of the people with whom the change agent system
works to achieve the change efforts.
2. Change agent. Social worker, agency,
formal/informal resources.
 3. Client system. Individuals, groups, communities who seek help.
4. Target system. Individuals, groups, communities whom the change
agent system and client system is trying to change.

2. Ecological Systems Theory. Whereas systems theory is primarily

concerned with explaining change, ecological/ecosystems theory examines
individual’s relationship within the communities and the wider society. It
focuses on how human beings and their environment accommodate each
other. Harmony between individuals and their environment is achieved
through mutual interactions, negotiation, and compromise.

Bronfenbrenner’s Five Types of Environmental Systems

The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different
environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in
varying degrees. These systems include:

1. The micro system – All the roles and relationships that a person has
in their immediate environment. Attention is focused on family, school,
neighboorhood, church, workplace, and othe places which have an
immediate and persistent impact on the individual.

2. The mesosystem – The interactions among two or more micro system

environments. Example: Someone brings home problems in the
workplace.

3. The exosystem – All of the external social settings where things

happen that tangentially affect the individual. It refers to the parts of
the environement which impact an individual’s development, even
though they do not directly interact with the individual.
Example: Ban on jeepneys affects commuters.
 4. The macro system – All the larger cultural and social factors that affect
the other levels of person’s environment hence, the person’s
development. Example: Attitude towards persons of diverse SOGIE
resulting to discrimination.

5. The chronosystem – Patterns of change over the life course. This may
also involve the soci-historical contexts that may influence a person.
Example: Divorce, birth, or death change family dynamics.

It helps us understand why we may behave differently when we compare

our behavior in the presence of our family and our beahavior when we are
in school or at work.

3. Person in Environment Perspective (PIE). The PIE approach views the

individual and his/her multiple environments as a dynamic, interactive
system, in which each component simultaneously affects and is affected
by the other (Hare, 2004). The purpose of this theory is to have an
assessment tool that all social worker could use, regardless of agency
setting, to describe, classify, and code problems presented by clients (Larls
& Wandrei, 1992). PIE offers a uniform system for describing, classifying,
and coding participants’ presenting problem. However, the focus is
participant’s problems rather than strengths.

The PIE System: Assessment Tool

Factor 1 – what are the problems and strenghts in social functioning

presented by this client?
 Factor 2 – what problems/needs exist in the social institutions in this
community that are affecting the client? What resources and strengths are
available?

Factor 3 – what mental health problems are present? What are strengths
does the client present?

Factor 4 – what physical health problems are noted? What are the client
strengths in this area?

4. Strengths Perspective. Shift towards seeing clients in light of their

capacities, talents, competencies, possibilities, vissions, values, and
hopes.
- Resilience – the notion that people survive and thrive despite risk
factors for various types of problems – was highlighted (Early &
GlenMaye).
- It views people as having a range or experiences, characteristics, and
roles that contribute to who that person is (Saleebey, 1997).
- Focus on collaboration and partnership between social worker and
client.
- The social worker illuminates the strengths that exist and helps clients
create a vision of what life would look like when they no longer have the
problem.

CRITICAL AND PROGRESSIVE THEORIES

1. Empowerment Theories. Social workers respect the knowledge, skills,

and values of the client systems and promote client strengths to help
create opportunities to increase one’s sense of power or the
ability to act on what matters. It explains the process and
 efforts made by marginalized individuals or community to exert control
and influence their choices, transforming them into desired outcomes
touching on both personal ang communal life (Rappaport, 1987;
Zimmerman, 2000). Empowerment practice reflects a commitment to self-
determination, client participation, and the openness of practitioners and
services to being influenced by their clients. If nothing else, by being
sensitive to power the practitioner may avoid oppressive actions in their
practice.

2. Feminist Perspectives

Perspective Focus of Study

Liberal Feminism  Focused on women
becoming free by gaining
access to the same
opportunities as men.
 Opposed limitations on
women’s educational and
employment chances and
demanded equal
opportunities.
Radical Feminism  Patriarchy (men’s power
and privilege), as a social
system, is the root of
women’s oppression
Black Feminism  Voices of women of color
are often excluded from
feminist theorizing
  Highlights racism and
black women’s experience
to the history of slavery
Postmodern Feminism  Construction of social
categories of sex and
gender through language
and discourse
 Reject socially-created
categories

Socialist & Marxist  Focus on intersections

between class and gender
oppression
 Under capitalism, women
are “reserve army of labor”,
exploited for free labor at
home.

Feminist Social Work

Social work practice that takes women’s experience of the world as the starting
poit of it analysis and by focusing on the links between a woman’s position in
society and her individual predicament, responds to her specific needs, creates
egalitarian relations in ‘client-worker’ interactions and addresses structural
inequalities (Lena Dominelli)
 Woman-centered approaches which advocate sensitive gendered
responses to the needs of women clients and women worker.
 Challenges gender-blind theories and practices.
 3. Liberation Theories and Empowerment Education. Aims to educate
individual’s to move from oppression to liberation and taking collective
action to change oppressive cultural and social structures. Empowerment
education for critical consciousness or liberation theology in 1950-1960
were influenced by Paulo Freire. In pedagody of the oppresed, Freire said
that those who educate, facilitate, or help in any way – be it social workers,
research teams from universities, and so forth – must first learn to listen
to and work with those whom they are helping.

Conscientization is the process of becoming aware of social and political

contradictions and then to act against the oppressive elements of our
sociopolitical conditions.

Liberation Theory in Social Work Practice

Social Create
worker analytical
encourage perspective
client to to
speak from understand
experience root causes

The purpose of education should be individual liberation so that learners can

be both subjects and actors in their own lives.

4. Radical and Structural Social Work

 Radical and Structural Social Work is influenced by Marxist theories

concerened with the broad socioeconomic and political dimensions of
society (specifically capitalism) and their impact in creating unequal
relations.
  It is based on a perspective that society is composed of groups with
conflicting interests who compete with resources, power, and the
prevalence of their own view of the world.

 It does not ignore individual problems, instead it shifts the focus to

structures.

 Personal problems are connected to broader societal conditions

characterized by inequalities of power and lack of access to resources
(Moreau, 1979)

5. Eco-Critical Theory

 Emerged in 1990s in response to the need to expand ecological and

ecosystem theory to focus on environmental justice, sustainability and
inclusiveness.
 Influenced by environmental movements.
  Social workers focus on the problems, challenges, and resources
affecting the relationship between clients’ living environment and
welfare.
 Social workers should begin to see “individual well-being as embedded
in community, which is embedded in earth” (coates, 2003).

Social Work Theories reflect three views: (Payne,2005)

Reflective- Individualist- Socialist-Collective

Therapeutic Views Reformist Views Views

• Attempts to work on • Social workers • Social workers

changing clients preserve social order empower individuals,
[participants without and provide support groups, and
taking into account to those who need it communities to
social and structural engage in co-
so that clients can learning, dialogue,
inequalities maintain stability, and collaborative
• Assists clients gain fulfill their potential action toward
power over their and live with the changing their
feelings and take current system. Seek realities and
control of their lives to change the client transforming the
within the system systems that
without taking into perpetuate
account the system oppression
itself Individuals cannot be
fully empowered
unless society is
transformed.
 LESSON 3: SOCIAL WORK HELPING
MODELS AND APPROACHES

LESSON PROPER:

In this chapter different social work models and approaches to provide the
social worker with an overall guide particularly in her planning and actual
interventive work are discussed. Depending on the nature of the client's
problem situation, the worker can choose one (or more) of these models or
approaches as her helping "strategy:"

I. For individuals, groups and communities: Direct Provision Model;

Intercession-Mediation Model; Mobilizing the Resources of Client
Systems to Change their Social Reality; Crisis Intervention Approach;
and Problem-Solving Model.
II. For individuals and groups: Task-Centered Model; Psychosocial
Approach; Functional Approach; Behavioral Modification; and Family
Intervention.
III. For groups: Developmental Approach; Interactionist Approach; and
Remedial Approach.
IV. For communities: Community Development Model; Social Planning
Model; Social Action Model.
V. Indirect Models of Intervention: Working with the Elite;
Documentation/Social Criticism; Advocacy.

1. THE DIRECT PROVISION MODEL

The poverty situation in the Philippines calls for the direct provision of
various forms of material assistance to different needy
and disadvantaged individuals and groups which we find
in practically all parts of the country. Many agencies' social services are
concentrated on this activity while countless others have it as an
important aspect of their programs.

The direct provision of material aid should not be equated with "dole outs"
which means alms, or the giving of money or goods in charity. When
undertaken by a social worker, the systematic steps in the social work
helping process of assessment, planning, plan implementation
(intervention), evaluation and termination are observed. How much time
and effort will be involved in doing these will depend on the nature of the
problem. The process of helping one family that wants to take advantage
of the government's "Balik-Probinsiya" program will be very different from
the process of helping one entire barangay that needs to be relocated after
the occurrence of a natural disaster that destroyed all of the residents'
houses. However, the helping process is basically the same for the two
situations.

The goal of this model, according to Schneiderman, is the enhancement of

client social functioning through the direct provision of material aid useful
in eliminating or reducing situational deficiencies. Others refer to this as
"resource provision, where "resources may be mobilized, created, directly
furnished; the client may be advised and counseled in making optimal use
of them."

Schneiderman states that this model involves the direct administration of

existing programs of material aid which, in turn, involve any one or all of
the following activities: (l) case-by-case involvement of the client in the
study and evaluation process (determination of need and of forms of need-
meeting); (2) a determination of eligibility within the
administering agency's terms of reference; (3) a judgment
that the provision of the service or benefit will promote the client's best
interest (that it will not have counter-productive consequences which
could be overlooked by the untrained observer); and (4) recruiting,
selecting, training, supporting, collaborating with personnel offering direct
care (e.g., homemakers, foster parents, adoptive parents, health
personnel, trainers, day care workers, etc.)

Programs of material aid abound in the country today — temporary

financial assistance, employment, shelter, medical care, skills training,
etc. The realities in the Philippines render such programs relevant at all
times. Certain parts of the country are particularly needful of this
intervention, like the typhoon-prone provinces in the South during the
rainy season, or places where people depend on seasonal jobs for their
livelihood. One social worker's description of her activities captures the
essence of this model of intervention:

The thrust of our work in the region are three programs of' our agency: the
self-employment assistance program or "SEAP " (which offers capital for a
small business venture), practical skills development. and the establishment
of day care centers. Most of our clients avail of the SEAP — those who go
into the sari-sari store business. tricycle drivers, even our cultural minorities.
The fishermen apply for Financial assistance since the catch here is
seasonal. We have also established sheltered workshops among the aged;
we have five groups with six members in each group. Our house-to-house
survey was conducted with the of barangay official and indigenous
community leaders who revealed that there are many malnourished pre-
school children in the area. Responding to the request of the barangay
officials, I recommended the provision of a service. We
organized the mother’s club of eighteen members which
 undertook the preparation of the food for children in the day care center and
contributed towards payment of honorarium for the volunteer day care
worker. We then conducted a training workshop, the Volunteer Resource
Development, where we invited resource persons like a midwife, the
sanitary inspector, the barangay captain, and military personnel. We also
provided training in mat-weaving and embroidery. We also found out that
there was a big number of out-of-school youth in the community. Through
our agency's youth development worker, we organized them (15 to 22
members) into a group so we could render our program along population
awareness and sex education. We made youth aware that they can avail of
SEAP if they group themselves, thereby making good use of their time and
skills, and develop cooperation and participation.

The completion of the work involved in this form of intervention may lead to the
use of another helping model or approach, if the social worker sees this as
appropriate or necessary.

2. INTERCESSION MEDIATION

The Intercession-Mediation model of intervention involves the process of

negotiating the "service jungle" for clients, whether singly or in groups. The
worker here "connects" the client to need services in the system until he has
availed of them. Worker activities here include, but also go beyond, the mere
giving of direction or information as to where needed services are available.
Worker plays a variety of roles in the client's behalf— helper, interpreter,
facilitator, expeditor, escort, negotiator, broker, etc. to insure rapid service
delivery. Schneiderman adds to these "the utilization of non-consensual
strategies such as direct confrontation, administrative appeal,
and the use of judicial and political systems, appropriate." In
relation to this, the legal model, rather than the medical model (with which social
work has been associated) seems most appropriate for the social worker to use.
For, in this form of intervention, he, like the lawyer, takes a partisan interest in
the client and his cause. He becomes an intercessor-advocate. There are
countless situations in our setting which would demand such a role from the
social worker: working women who are denied labor benefits by their employers,
juvenile offenders who are arrested, the illegally detained, neglected prisoners
who should already quality for parole privileges, slum dwellers who are being
illegally evicted, uneducated farmers who are being exploited by their landlords,
abandoned wives and children who are entitled to legal support from their
spouses/ fathers, victims of usury, widows/widowers whose claims for
insurance benefits are in the dead files of insurance offices for lack of supporting
documents, etc. In these situations, the advocate may have to "argue, debate,
bargain, negotiate, and manipulate the environment on behalf of the client . . .
the effort is to win for the client; advocacy efforts are frequently directed towards
securing benefits to which the client is legally entitled."

The need for the social worker as intercessor-mediator is particularly relevant to

the needs of the multi-problem Filipino client. A study of the public assistance
clientele of the Department of Social Welfare showed that the average was five
problems/needs for every family that applied and which was found eligible for
public assistance by the agency. These comprised the need for material aid, and
the problems of being jobless or with irregular or occasional work, with meager
income or no source of support at all, unskilled or with limited and no schooling
and with family Members ill, handicapped, or sickly. While these same problems
were prevalent with the aged, handicapped and minors, additional problems of
chronic illness, disability, senility, abandonment, family troubles, and the
accompanying emotional tensions, make the multiplicity of their problems and
needs presented up to eight." The situations of these clients do
not call for long-term clinical treatment but for the immediate
solution of their problems which is mandatory for their survival. These multi-
problem clients qualify for most health and welfare services available under the
existing social welfare system. However, many of them are not aware of these
services, and even if they are, they do not know how to access these services.
What is needed is a third party who will mediate between service demand and
service supply and, where appropriate, assist the agency to provide more
adequate and responsive services to clients. The practitioner's authority to
intervene in this manner springs from the client's needfulness, which cannot be
ignored by a profession which has for its main concern the adequate social
functioning of people, and therefore, responsibility for problems relevant to it.

3. MOBILIZING THE RESOURCES OF CLIENT SYSTEM TO

CHANGE THEIR SOCIAL REALITY

This model of intervention is premised on the belief that problems are not always
due to personal inadequacies but, often, to deficiencies in the social reality, and
that if people are to be helped, the target of attack should be the latter. Some
realities in the Philippine life-scene, such as the lack of basic amenities like
water, low-cost housing, inadequate material assistance, employment
opportunities, facilities for basic medical care, etc. make it imperative for social
work practice to intervene in ways that seek to change or modify the nature of
the reality itself, with the stresses and pathologies they impose on people. A
method of intervention in which the worker helps, guides or enables the client
(individual, group or community), with the use of the client's own resources, to
change or modify his social reality is called for. The use of client's own resources
is underscored, in changing aspects of his/their social reality which can and
should be changed. Our attention has been repeatedly called to the need place
priority on this form of intervention.
 3. CRISIS INTERVENTION

The seemingly unending crisis situations that confront people in our country
require our social work practitioners to use an approach that is appropriate and
therefore truly helpful. My presentation of the Crisis Intervention Approach has
been drawn from the writings of several people who have written extensively on
this subject.

CRISIS AND CRISIS INTERVENTION

Crisis theory is known to have developed out of work in a public health setting
and orientation with a truly interdisciplinary approach involving medicine, social
work, psychology, and psychiatry. The theory is based on the idea that there
is no such thing as a “problem-free” state and life is a series of recurring
developmental crisis. A crisis is defined as an "upset in a steady state,” - an
emotional reaction on the part of an individual, family, or group to a threatening
life event. To be in a state of crisis means that there is temporary disturbance in
one's equilibrium characterized by immobilization of problem-solving abilities
and other aspects of daily functioning. It is not considered a disease or pathology
but a situation that can happen to anyone in the course of life, and therefore
should be received as an opportunity for growth.

Crisis intervention is a process for actively influencing the psycho-social

functioning of individuals and groups, during a period of acute disequilibrium.
It involves crisis-oriented, time limited work, usually two to six weeks in
duration. It is a mode of brief treatment that can be used in any social work
setting and with any target population under stress. To be really effective, crisis
intervention should be available within 24 to 72 hours after application or
referral for assistance.
In the Philippines, crisis intervention is being used in admission and emergency
wards of hospitals, telephone "hot lines" and "walk-in centers," women's desks
in police stations. crisis centers for women and children, drug rehabilitation
centers, and in the emergency services of public welfare agencies, such as crisis
oriented services to families and groups who are victims of natural disasters.

Intake procedures, waiting lists, and the separation of the processes of study,
diagnosis and treatment are not necessarily observed in the crisis approach.

Crisis intervention involves a warm, emphatic reaching out, and what is called
a "search and find approach." Participation is always voluntary and the client
should be committed to the change process. Crisis intervention with families
and groups includes the following target population: (l) individuals in crisis; (2)
those associated with persons in crisis; and (3) those in collective crisis. It is
deemed appropriate for people of all ages, ethnic groups and social classes. It
only requires that the client should be in a state of crisis or affected by persons
in crisis, willing to seek help or be referred for help, and able to sustain a
relationship with a helping person for the brief period of treatment.

THE HELPING PROCESS IN CRISIS

Naomi Golan offers a treatment model that is rooted in the problem-solving

theory of casework and developed as part of the short-term, task-centered
approach to practice. The model divides intervention into three phases —
assessment, implementation and termination. The following is Golan's
description of these phases.
Assessment of the Situation

This first phase involves mainly an evaluation of five components of a client's

situation to determine whether a crisis exists and what its current status is.

1. The hazardous event. This is a specific, stress producing occurrence,

either an external blow or internal change, that occurs to an individual
or family in a state of relative stability in its biopsychosocial situation,
initiating a chain of reverberating actions and reactions. Such events
can be classified into:

a. Anticipated and predictable. These are two kinds, the normal

developmental critical periods when a person is particularly vulnerable
(e.g., adolescence or middle adulthood), and transitional Stages when
the person has to take on new roles, learn new tasks, and adjust to new
circumstances (e.g., getting married, moving to a new place).

b. Unanticipated and accidental events. These are the unpredictable

changes that can occur to anyone, at any stage in life, with little or no
advance warning. They usually involve some actual or threatened loss
(to the person or a significant other) of a person, a capacity, or a
function (e.g., loss of a spouse), or the sudden introduction of a new
person into the social orbit (e.g., the premature birth of a child). They
may happen to entire communities as in the case of natural disasters
or sociopolitical events or economic-environmental catastrophes.

2. The vulnerable and upset state. This refers to the subjective reaction of
the individual or family to the initial blow, both at the time it occurs and
subsequently. Each person responds in a unique way, depending on
whether the event is perceived as a threat to instinctual
needs or to emotional or physical integrity, or as a loss of a person or an
ability, or as a challenge to survival growth, mastery of self-expression.
These reactions can result in a high level of anxiety, feelings of depression
and mourning, shame, guilt, anger, hostility, and confusion.

Golan states that inquiry into the vulnerable state should also include
queries as to how the individual has tried to deal with the difficulties
created by the hazardous event prior to seeking help, and the tent to which
such efforts event prior to seeking help, and the extent to which such
efforts were effective.

3. The precipitating factor or event. This is the link in the chain of stress—
provoking happenings that bring tension to a peak and convert the
vulnerable state into one of crisis. It may coincide with the initial
hazardous event or it may be a negligible incident not even directly or
consciously linked to it. It is often viewed as the presenting problem
and thus becomes the immediate focus for engagement of the client.
4. The state of active crisis. This refers to the individual's subjective
condition once tension has stopped; the homeostatic mechanisms no
longer operate, and disequilibrium has set in. This is the criterion for
deciding whether or not to use the crisis intervention approach. This
lasts from four to six weeks, when the person experiences psychological
and physical turmoil, including aimless activity, disturbances in body
functions, mood, mental content, and intellectual functioning. This is
followed by a painful preoccupation with the events that led to the
crisis.
5. The state of reintegration or reorganization. This is the adjustment,
either adaptive and integrative or maladaptive and destructive, that
takes place as disequilibrium gradually subsides.
The initial interview is crucial for crisis intervention. The worker focuses
immediately on the "here and now," finding out the essential details of the
precipitating event, its scope and severity, and the persons involved. She
does a preliminary sweep of the applicant’s current condition, both
subjectively as reported by the client and/or collateral, and objectively as
observed in the interview: his dysfunctions in feelings, thoughts, behavior
and physical condition. She checks out the significant role networks to
determine how widespread the disturbance is, its main effects, and previous
efforts taken to deal with the situation.

The worker then attempts to identify the Original hazardous event and to
trace the subsequent blows that may have aggravated the effects of the initial
impact. She encourages the client to ventilate the feeling of loss, guilt, fear,
anxiety, sadness, etc. She probes the significance of the crisis to the client
and its links to previous unsolved conflicts. Once the emotional tone is
lowered and the client's anxiety has been somewhat abated, he and the
worker get down to discuss resolution of the crisis situation.

The practitioner should be clear about her goals in doing crisis intervention.
Lydia Rapoport lists the following goals for this approach:

1. Relief of symptoms;
2. Restoration to the optimal pre-crisis level of functioning;
3. Understanding of the relevant precipitating events that contributed to the
state of disequilibrium;
4. Identification of remedial measures that can be taken by the client and the
family or that are available through community resources;
5. Recognition of the connection between the current stress and past life
experiences and conflicts;
 6. Initiation of new models of perceiving, thinking, and feeling and
development of new adaptive and coping responses that can be useful
beyond the immediate crisis situation.

The last two goals are indicated when the individual’s personality and social
situation are favorable and there is an opportunity to do them. All these goals
aim to cushion the impact of the stressful by offering immediate emotional first
aid and by strengthening the person in coping and integrative struggles through
on-the. spot therapeutic clarification and guidance.

Can anybody do crisis intervention? Jacobson and his associates answer this
question as they suggest two treatment approaches:

l. The generic approach. This is for specific situational and maturational crises
which do not require assessment of the psychodynamics of the individuals in
crisis. It can be done by a paraprofessional, a non-mental health professional,
or a community care-giver.

2. The individual approach. Designed for use by mental health professionals, this
approach emphasizes assessment of the interpersonal and intrapsychic process;
of each person in crisis, with particular attention' given to the unique aspects of
the particular situation and the solution specifically tailored to help the client
return to a new steady state.

Implementation of Treatment

This "middle phase" is about setting up and working out specific tasks (primarily
by the client, but also by the worker and significant others), designed to solve
specific problems in the current life situation, to modify previous
inadequate or inappropriate ways of functioning and to learn new coping
patterns.

Golan presents two categories of tasks involved in Crisis Intervention which may
be carried out concurrently:

1. Material-arrangement tasks which are concerned with the provision of

concrete assistance and services; and

2. Psychosocial tasks which are concerned with dealing with client's

feelings, doubts, ambivalence, anxieties, and despair, which arise while
trying to carry out what both worker and client agree need to be done.

The following treatment techniques are used in crisis intervention:

1. Sustaining techniques with reassurance and encouragement

predominant, to lower anxiety, guilt, and tension, and to provide
emotional support.
2. Direct influence procedures like giving advice (particularly when the
client is feeling overwhelmed and needs help in choosing a course of
action); advocating a particular course of action; and warning clients of
the consequences of maladaptive resolution of the situation.
3. Direct intervention in extreme situations such as threats of or
attempts at suicide or where the client is deteriorating rapidly.
4. Reflective discussion techniques as the client becomes more
integrated, e.g., of her current and recent past situation and patterns of
interaction.
Many other techniques can be used by a worker with an “eclectic” orientation.
Behavioral modification techniques like positive reinforcement, shaping,
modeling and desensitization are some of these.

Golan of course, calls our attention to the need to do environmental work and
activity with collaterals — within the agency itself, other professionals in the
community, as well as other support systems — to achieve rapid reintegration
for the person in a is situation.

Termination

As the end of the time-limited helping relationship nears, worker and client
review their progress, focusing on key themes and basic issues. Emphasis is
placed on the tasks accomplished, the adaptive coping patterns developed, and
the ties built with persons and resources in the community. Future activity
when the client will be on his own, is planned. The case ends with the worker
making herself available on an "as needed" basis should new crisis occur.

Golan points out that in the crisis approach, the worker's stance is active,
purposive, and committed, conveying the message that she knows what she is
doing and is willing to take risks.

4. THE PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL

Helen Harris Perlman, the main proponent of the Problem-Solving Approach (or
"Model") in social work. acknowledged that although many individuals and
theories influenced her thinking it was the social psychologist and educator-
philosopher John Dewey who spurred her interest in the matter
of how people think and managed to cope. Se in fact adopted
Dewey’s term “problem-solving" as the name for a concept of social work practice,
that is, a departure the (then) already established Freudian-based
psychodynamic "diagnostic" school of thought in social casework.

There Was among an all-but unquestioning acceptance of the iron determinism

of the person's past. and very little recognition of the moving forces in his current
life experiences. There was overemphasis on his “sickness” or failures, little
observation or grasp of his "health”. Our interviewing focused upon the client's
recounting of his problems, his history, along with ventilation of the emotional
freightage that accompanied them; our responses were compassionate and
supportive, which often served some healing purposes, to be sure, but scarcely
prepared the client for grappling with his present-day difficulties. In many
instances the client's sense of psychological dependency grew.

ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH

As Perlman states, the usual active elements of the model are: a person beset by
a problem seeks help with that problem from a place (either a social agency or
some other social institution) and is offered such help by a professional social
worker who uses a process which simultaneously engages and enhances the
person's own problem-solving functions, and supplements the person's own
problem-solving resources.

The Person

The person is viewed as a product of inherited and constitutional makeup in

continuous transaction with potent persons and forces in life experiences. The
person is thus a product of the past, but in no sense is viewed as a finished
product. Each is seen as a product-in-process of becoming.
Among the important perspectives of this model is its view of
the personality as an open system continuously responsive to "input" and
"feedback" from outside itself. Another is the recognition that while the person is
a living “whole,” a biological-psychological-social system, the social worker does
not set out to either diagnose or treat the person wholly. Based on this
perspective, partialization (i.e., centering of attention on relevant and selected
parts of what is presented to view) becomes necessary for purposes of action. A
third perspective is that which takes the person as more than a personality
disturbance or psychological problem. This "more" consists of the motivation and
capacities for being engaged in working in some new way on problems.

The Problem

The model is based upon the presence of, and the identification between a help-
seeker and helper of a problem for which help is being either sought or offered.

The problem is simply a problem in the current situation of the help-seeker

which disturbs or hurts the latter in some way. This is usually Some difficulty
in person-to-person or person-to-task relationships. This problem must be
defined early clear before the eyes of both help-seeker and helper, between client
and caseworker and that it should circumscribed enough so that an already
overwhelmed ego need not retreat from it. It should also be current and
accessible enough so that the client’s effort to cope with it in some new way
learned within the casework interviews, has some chance of making a dent in it
or in feelings about it.

Another important perspective on the problem is “partialization” and

focus. A piece of what is often felt as an overwhelming problem is less
threatening to a person who has it; it seems more manageable.
 The Place

This model takes into consideration the place which casework as a mode of
helping people with problems. This means the particular organization, agency
or social institution, the purposes of which define its functions, services, and
its areas of social concern (All models/approaches share this perspective.)

The Process
The problem-solving process consists of the following operations:

1. The problem must be identified by the person. i.e., be recognized, named,

and placed in the center of attention.
2. The person's subjective experience of the problem must be identified, i.e.,
how it is felt, seen, interpreted, what it does, and what is being done with
it — to cause, exacerbate, avoid, and deal with it.
3. The causes and effects of the problem and its import and influence upon
the person-in-life space must be identified and examined.
4. The search for possible means and modes of solution must be initiated
and considered, and alternatives must be weighed and tried out in the
exchange of ideas and reactions that precede action.
5. Some choice or decision must be made as a result of thinking and feeling
through, what means seem most likely to affect the problem or the
person's relation to it.
6. Action taken on the basis of these considerations will test the validity and
workability of the decision.

These operations comprise what Perlman described in 1957 as the steps of

Study, Diagnosis and Treatment.
RELATIONSHIP, DIAGNOSIS AND GOAL

Two factors are important in the problem-solving approach — relationship and

the involvement and effect of "significant others" (persons and social
circumstances within the help seeker's problematic network). These two
determine the nature and outcome of the caseworker's problem-solving efforts.
Relationship is used by Perlman to mean all relationships between caseworker
and client. She points out that whatever is the problem, the helping relationship
should combine caring, concern, acceptance, and expectation of the client with
understanding, knowhow and social sanction.

A central assumption in this model is that the person's inability to cope with
the problem independently is due to some deficit in or absence of one or a
combination of the following problem-solving means:

1. The motivation to work on the problem in an appropriate way;

2. The capacity to work on the problem in an appropriate way;
3. The opportunity available and applicable to the presented problem.

Diagnosis in this model focuses on (l) the person's motivation, capacity and
opportunity, including an assessment of what factors and forces deter or thwart
these, and (2) the persons in the client's problematic role network.

There is no special "target group" of persons or pro ems that is addressed by the
problem-solving model. This model does not distinguish between treatment of
environmental problems from treatment of psychological problems because in its
view, it is always the person who is being helped in relation to what is found
stressful.
The primary goal of the model is to help a person cope as effectively as possible
with problems in carrying on social tasks and relationships which are
perceived, felt as stressful, and found insuperable without outside help. The
hoped-for by-product of this is seen as also one goal in the model — the goal of
equipping a person with a way of coping with problems that may come in the
future.

4. PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH

The Psychosocial Approach in social work used to be associated with the

Freudian theory of personality and was referred to as the "organismic approach"
and the "diagnostic school of thought." Today, however, it is essentially a systems
theory approach in social work which can be applied to individuals and groups
with actual or potential problems in their psychosocial functioning. (Florence
Hollis' writings on this theory are the main sources of materials for this
presentation.)

The approach is a systems theory approach because it is concerned with both

the inner realities of human beings (hence, its continued use of Freudian and
other personality and ego psychology theories) and the social context in which
they live. Diagnosis and treatment are addressed to the person-in-situation
gestalt or configuration. The person being helped or treated is seen in the context
of interactions or transactions with the external world and effort is taken to
understand the segment of the external world with which the person is in close
interaction. Another emphasis of the approach is that treatment must be
differentiated according to e client's need, hence, the term —"differential
treatment” approach.
It requires the worker to understand the client's need and to respond
accordingly.

The client's inability to function adequately is viewed being caused by

inadequacies either-in the person, or the situation or both. Thus, the worker
must engage in fact-gathering and come up with a professional opinion called
diagnosis or assessment.

The help provided in this approach is a process which will enable change to
occur in the person or in the situation, or both. This process involves
communication among the client (or clients), the worker, and significant others,
and the provision of certain concrete services that may be needed.

Phases in the Psychosocial Approach

A. Initial Phase. The following components can proceed simultaneously or

in sequence depending on the client's need and the worker's judgment:

1. Understanding the reasons for the contact;

2. Establishing a relationship which will enable the client to use the

worker's help;

3. Engaging the client in the treatment (two primary aspects of this

are motivation and resistance);

4. Beginning treatment itself (writers who identify with this

approach submit that treatment begins on the first interview);

5. Psychosocial study (gathering the information n for the

psychosocial diagnosis and guidance of the
treatment).
B. Assessment of the Client in His Situation. Throughout the history of the
Psychosocial Approach, its emphasis has been on both the individual and his
situation as factors to be understood in diagnosis and as elements in which
change can be brought about. The diagnostic process consists of a critical
scrutiny of a client situation complex and the trouble concerning which help is
sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the nature or the difficulty
with increasing detail and accuracy.

Three types of diagnosis are used in this approach:

1. Dynamic: an examination of how different aspects of the client's

personality interact to produce his total functioning; the interplay
between the client and other systems; the dynamics of family interaction.

2. Etiological: the cause or origin of the difficulty, whether preceding events

or current interactions; usually multiple factors in the person-situation
configuration.

3. Classificatory: An effort to classify various aspects of the client's

functioning and his place in the world including, if possible, a clinical
diagnosis. This may include classifying individuals according to
socioeconomics class, race, ethnic background and religion; social class
status by way of education, occupation and income; by intelligence; area
in which the problem exists such as "parent-child adjustment classifying
the situational aspect of the person-situation complex, such as in terms
of degrees of adequacy and inadequacy of various aspects of the situation
or situation systems. e.g., housing/school system. employment system,
as it impinges on the Client.
“Clinical diagnosis" refers to classifying based on personality disturbance, e.g.,
psychosis, psychoneurosis. character disorder, etc. ("Clinical Social Workers” in
the United States are trained to use diagnostic classification and to treat clients
accordingly. Clinical social work practitioners are licensed to private practice
just like psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, but unlike psychiatrists,
social workers cannot prescribe medication). Hollis states that the
combination of dynamic, etiological and clinical diagnosis gives the fullest
possible guidelines to what treatment steps are most likely to be effective.

Goals and Treatment Planning. This concerned with how improvement can be
effected. Goals are seen as to the composite of what the client sees and desires
for himself and what he sees as possible and helpful. The worker takes into
consideration the factors of time, agency, function and worker skill.

Goals may be ultimate, which may mean they are vague or general at the start,
or proximate, i.e., clear and specific, involving the themes to be worked on and
the specific objectives to be attained in the immediate future.

C. Treatment. The ultimate objective of social work in the Psychosocial

Approach is to alleviate the client's distress and decrease the malfunctioning
in the person-situation system.

The dysfunction in the person-situation gestalt is primarily interpersonal so chat

the aim is to bring about better interpersonal adaptations. Therefore, attention
should focus on both the interpersonal system (e.g., parent-child, husband-wife)
and the personality system of the individual(s) who compose the interpersonal
system.
The Treatment Process. Change in the Psychosocial Approach is brought about
in two ways: Indirect Treatment and Direct Treatment.

1. Indirect treatment. The worker intervenes directly in the environment of the

client by:
a. Obtaining needed resources which can her in the following roles: resource
provider: re source locator; interpreter of client's needs; mediator; advocate:
resource creator; and/or

b. Modifying the client's situation when change in the client’s situation or

environment is necessary.

2. Direct treatment. This client himself, or what Hollis describes as “the influence
of mind upon mind."

Hollis developed six procedures of intervention:

1. sustaining (supportive remarks)

2. direct influence (suggestion and advice)
3. catharsis or ventilation (discharge of pent-up and emotionally-charged
memories)
4. reflective consideration of the current situation configuration (helping the
client under. stand better present functioning in current relationship)

5. encouragement of client to reflect on dynamics of his response patterns or

tendencies (helping the client to think about behavior causes)
6. encouragement of client to think about the development of response
patterns or tendencies (helping the client understand the
contribution of the on current functioning).
Treatment is conducted sometimes through individual interviews. sometimes in
interviews in which or more of the individual, involved are seen together and
interact with each other as well as with the worker. Both modes are now often
used in the same case. Family treatment is an approach used by workers who
belong to the psychosocial school of thought but it is not included in this
introductory material about the Psycho-Social Approach.

5. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION

Behavioral Modification is an approach intended to improve the social

functioning of individuals, families, groups, and organizations by helping them
learn new behaviors and eliminating problematic ways of behaving. Knowledge
about this approach is very important for social workers because most of their
interventive efforts are undertaken in order to change or modify some aspect of
the behavior of their clients or the behavior of others who are participants in
their professional activities.

The approach is based on behavioral theory, the key premise of which is that
people repeat behaviors that are rewarded and abandon behaviors that are not
rewarded or for which they get punished. The theory is that because behavior is
shaped and patterned by its consequences, then the client's immediate
environment can be modified so that desired behaviors result and are rewarded
while dysfunctional ones are eliminated.

Understanding of the three elements of social learning is essential to the practice

of Behavioral Modification.

1. Target behavior: the behavior that will be the focus of the

intervention; it is important to know what behavior needs
 to be strengthened/increased or weakened/ decreased in terms of
frequency, duration, or intensity. Thus, the approach emphasizes
observation, data collection, and careful measurement before, during and
after the intervention.

2. Antecedent behavior: the behavior(s) and event(S) that occur prior to the
problem behavior.

3. Consequent behavior: the behavior(s) and event(s) that occur after the
problem behavior.

The antecedent and consequent behaviors are the ones controlling or

maintaining the problem behavior. These antecedent and consequent behaviors
can be altered through the use of specific behavioral techniques. Among these
techniques are the following:

Conditioning: the learning of a behavior on condition that it is associated with

another event. This comes in two forms:

1. Classical conditioning: the learning of a behavior because it is

associated in time with a specific stimulus with which it was not
formerly associated (e.g., a child who has been hospitalized shows fear
when, brought to a health center, he sees someone in a white coat,
which, formerly a neutral object, he now associates with pain).

2. Operant conditioning: refers co learned behavior which takes place

because it operates upon or affects the environment (i.e., a behavior
that is followed by a response or outcome that is pleasurable to the
person is likely to be repeated, but less likely to be
repeated if the response is not pleasurable or is
 unpleasant, e.g., a shy person who is praised for expressing his views
during a group discussion is likely to speak again, but if ridiculed, is
not likely to speak again)

 Reinforcement: anything that strengthens a target behavior, or that

increases the likelihood that a target behavior will occur more frequently
than in the past. There are two forms of reinforcement: a) positive
reinforcement which involves adding, presenting or giving something to
the client for the purpose of increasing the target behavior (e.g., reward
points, certain privileges, recognition, praise, appreciation) and b)
negative reinforcement which involves subtracting or removing
something that is unpleasant or aversive to the client which will result
in strengthening or increasing the target behavior.

 Punishment: the presentation of an unwanted or unpleasant stimulus

(e.g., criticism, blame, being ignored) that will have the effect of
suppressing or reducing the strength of a target behavior. The use of
certain forms of punishment is discouraged, and even prohibited by
some agencies (e.g., physical punishment) because of ethical and legal
considerations.

Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement which strengthens

the target behavior; punishment weakens the target behavior.

 Extinction: refers to the withdrawal of whatever reinforces a target

behavior, which will tend to discourage the occurrence of the behavior.

The practitioner can choose from a large group of behavioral modification

techniques depending on her objective, i.e. acquisition of desired
behavior (e.g., response shaping, classical conditioning, behavioral rehearsal,
model presentation), strengthening already existing behavior (e.g., positive
reinforcement, rule making, stimulus shaping, position structuring), or reducing
behavior by weakening or eliminating it (extinction, punishment, systematic
desensitization, flooding and satiation).

The worker's use of behavioral modification involves attention to certain

procedural details:

1. Initial socialization. Some behavioral practitioners explain to the

client the procedures of their modification regimen and the
principles of behavioral modification.
2. The contract. Most behavioral practitioners make explicit what
is to be worked on, with written contracts which are better than
general implied agreement, or no agreements at all.
3. Commitment. The client's commitment to cooperate fully in the
modification regimen will encourage ent compliance with the
requisites of modification, thereby increasing the likelihood of
achieving success.

Social Worker Roles

The social worker can perform any of the following roles in her use of behavioral
modification techniques:

1. Direct Modifier. The worker is the agent of modification in which she herself
directly uses a technique like positive reinforcement to increase a child’s
behavior relating to observing rules.
 2. Behavioral instigator. The worker arranges or influences a situation so that
behavior will be modified, such as introducing a point or rewards system
to encourage task performance in a youth home.
3. Teacher. The worker teaches behavioral modification techniques to clients,
parents, related professionals and other professionals.

6. REMEDIAL APPROACH

Remedial Approach is all about individual through small groups. It focuses on

the use of guided group processes in treating and rehabilitating individuals
whose behavior is disapproved or who have been disadvantaged by society. This
would include the physically or mentally handicapped, offenders, emotionally
disturbed, isolated or alienated persons, and those lacking in effective
socialization.

This approach is based on the theory of groupwork as “social treatment," which

Robert D. Vinter and his colleagues at University of Michigan first conceptualized
and developed during the early 1960s. It is the "basics" of the original theory that
will be presented here because, in the author's opinion, it is a simpler and useful
framework for a treatment or therapy-oriented approach to social work with
small groups in our setting. The “Organizational Model" that is also described in
the social work literature is an off-shoot of the Remedial Approach

The Approach

In this remedial or social treatment approach, the group is conceived as small

social system whose influences can be guided in planned ways to modify client
behavior. It is recognized that small groups generate social forces which can be
utilized to effect change in the interest of clients.
Robert Vinter considers the group session to be of fundamental importance, and
the group is both a means of treatment and context of treatment. As a means, it
is the vehicle through which peer interactions and influences can be used to
affect client participants. As a context, it provides opportunities for direct
worker-client interactions which can help effect change. However, contact with
or assistance to clients does not take place only within the treatment group.
Workers see clients outside group sessions and engage in other helping activities
on behalf of group members. Workers also intervene, directly or indirectly, as
needed, in problematic social situations in which clients are involved, to
ameliorate others' interactions with clients, to improve opportunities for clients,
or to remove barriers and constraints. It is also held that the treatment group
itself may be helped to change these external realities that adversely affect its
members.

THE TREATMENT SEQUENCE

Vinter presents the following major stages of the treatment sequence in this
approach:

1. Intake. This is the process by which a potential client achieves client

status. For the client, this involves some kind of presentation of himself
and his problem or "need" as he experiences it. For the worker, this
involves some assessment of the client and the problem (a "preliminary
diagnosis") and of the resources available to resolve the problem.

2. Diagnosis and treatment planning. This involves a more comprehensive

and exacting assessment by the worker of the client's problem(s), his
capacities for help and change, and of the various
resources that might be useful. This stage also involves a
 preliminary statement of the treatment goal (i.e., the desired changes
which can result if the intervention effort is successful) and a preliminary
plan of the way the helping process will be undertaken and the direction
in which it will be guided. This stage culminates in the worker's writing of
a concrete statement that crystallizes the assessment of the client and
makes explicit the objectives to be pursued and the ways by which they
will be implemented.

3. Group composition and formation. The worker assigns clients to groups,

putting together in the same group persons she believes can be served
together. The purposes for the group are set in accordance with the
treatment goals for the individual members. The worker begins the
establishment of relationships with the group members and helps the
group to start its program.

4. Group development and treatment. The worker seeks the emergence of

group goals, activities, and relationships which can render the group
effective for the treatment of its members. The worker guides the group's
interaction and structures its experience to achieve the specific goals for
each of its members. It is these individual treatment goals which determine
the particular nature and degree of group cohesion, client self-
determination, governing procedures. and type program that the group will
undertake.

5. Evaluation and termination. Services to clients in groups are usually

terminated when it is apparent that the treatment goals have been
substantially achieved. ne decision to terminate necessitates a review of
the progress made by each member, and an estimation of whether
continuation of the group would be worthwhile.
This requires the worker to return to the original diagnostic statements and
treatment goals.

STRATEGY OF INTERVENTION

Vinter contends that the worker must not only know the expected treatment
outcome but must also have approaches and techniques that will help achieve
these outcomes. He calls this the worker's strategy of intervention. In the social
treatment group, he sees the need for the worker to employ several modes of
intervene on or means of influence:

1. Direct means of influence. These are interventions to effect change through

immediate interaction with a group member. The face-to-face worker-client
contact may be in or outside the group sessions. The following are the four types
of direct means of influence:
a. Worker as a central person — object of identification and drives. The worker is
a major source of influence because of her preeminence in the treatment group,
both because of her position in the structure and because of her psychological
effect on the members (i.e., who worker is and how worker interacts with the
members).
b. Worker as symbol and spokesman — agent of legitimate norms and values. The
worker personifies these values and norms. Worker speaks for them and
sometimes creates them especially for newly formed groups in which group
standards often have to be established. Worker also sets limits and controls on
individual and group behavior and applies positive or negative sanctions.
including ejecting members from the group, if necessary.
c. Worker as motivator and stimulator — definer of individual goals and tasks.
Work with the group provides the practitioner many opportunities
to motivate and stimulate individual members toward specific ends or activities.
The practitioner can also use the relationship with the client to motivate the
latter to undertake certain tasks. Resources (e.g., group activities, "props" or
objects) can be controlled and incentives or rewards, as well as interaction
techniques (e.g., encouraging, suggesting, proposing, expressing enthusiasm)
can be used to motivate and stimulate clients.
d. Worker as executive-controller of member's roles. Each group develops its own
structure of roles, responsibilities and positions and members have their distinct
positions in these structures. The worker directly interacts with the members
and the group to modify the individual's role or position within the group's
structure based on the treatment objectives. Worker also assists a member in
the discharge of a given task, assists a member to perform more effectively or
differently in a given position, or changes a member's role behavior by raising
his/her self-esteem.

2. Indirect means of influence. There are practitioner interventions that modify

group conditions which in turn affect one or more members. The worker here
acts on and through the group, its processes, and its program.

a. Group purposes. The purposes for which the a. Group purposes, group was
formed (e.g., activity group, orientation group, diagnostic group) have
significance for the nature and development of each group and the experiences
of the members. Among other things, the purposes set for the group determine
worker actions which affect the group, shape the group's program and activities,
and affect the client's attraction to and satisfaction with the group.
b. Selection of group members. The worker's goals and purposes for the group
serve as general guide for group composition. Why the group was established
and what it is expected to accomplish are determinants of
membership selection. The worker also seeks the kind of group
that can have maximum impact on its individual members. For this reason, the
compatibility or complementarity of personality attributes and interest among
members of the same group are given consideration in membership selection.
c. Size of group. The worker must determine the approximate group size for
the desired effects for clients as defined by their individual treatment goals.
Workers are not always able to set the initial size of the group, but there are
opportunities to influence the size of the continuing group as members drop out
and others are added.
d. Group operating and governing procedures. The worker can influence the
group’s operating and governing procedures. Treatment goals and other specific
group characteristics warrant deliberate variations in the degree of autonomy
given to each group, its procedures and formal organization, and in worker
control practices.
e. Group development. The worker helps group develop through time as an
effective instrument of treatment or service, with cumulative impact on its
members. The worker must act continuously co effect treatment at any given
moment and to facilitate the long-run development of a cohesive and viable
group.

3. Extra group means of influence. This refers to the modification of the

behavior or attitudes of persons in the client's social environment or large
social systems within which both clients and other individuals occupy statuses
which may in turn lead to positive changes in the group member's own
behavior and attitudes. Such "extra-group means of influence" can be exerted
on parents, teachers, employers, institutional staff, or anyone else whose
influence is important to the client's social functioning. This intervention helps
to make it more likely that client changes that are observed in the group will
be carried over outside the group, and that the attitudes or behavior of
significant others will produce new client behavior.
 7. COMMUNITY ORGANIZING

Community organizing work is a very important field of social work practice in

the Philippines. The interest in it was spurred greatly by the developmental
thrust in social welfare that was advocated in the sixties and the declaration of
Martial Rule during the seventies. These events made many social workers
realize the need to shift emphasis from the one-to-one mode helping people to
more mass-oriented, community-based practice in order to reach a greater
number of needy and disadvantaged people in society.

There are many different models, approaches and strategies that guide social
workers in their work with communities. Three of these models will be presented
here: Locality Development (Model A), Social Planning (Model B), and Social Action
(Model C). They will be presented as distinct orientations to bring about,
purposive community change. (During the 1950s and early 1960s, community
organizing was associated mainly with Community. Chest-related efforts in
raising funds and coordinating the activities of its member agencies to avoid
duplication of services).

Viewing these three models in their "ideal" form will facilitate better
understanding of the activities being undertaken by a variety of CO agencies in
our country today, i.e., they may be characterized as reflecting one or another
model. Jack Rothman who developed these models however recognizes that in
reality there may be "variants or mixed forms which may constitute separate
models."

LOCALITY DEVELOPMENT

Locality development presupposes that community change may be pursued

optimally through broad participation of a wide spectrum of
people at the local community level in goal determination and
action. Its most prototypic form will be found in the literature of a segment of the
field commonly termed community development. As stated in a UN publication
"community development can be tentatively defined as a process designed to
create conditions of economic and social progress for the whole community with
its active participation and the fullest possible reliance on the community's
initiative. (Social Progress through Community Development, New York: United
Nations, 1955). Themes emphasized in locality development include democratic
procedures, voluntary cooperation, self-help, development of indigenous
leadership, and education.

SOCIAL PLANNING

The social planning approach emphasizes a technical process of problem-solving

with regard to substantive social problems, such as delinquency, housing, and
mental health. Rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change has a
central place in this model. Community participation may vary from much to
little, depending on how the problem presents itself and what organizational
variables are present. The approach presupposes that change in a complex
industrial environment requires expert planners who, through the exercise of
technical abilities, including the ability to manipulate large bureaucratic
organizations, can skillfully guide complex change processes. Planners,
especially in social work, are concerned with establishing, arranging, and
delivering goods and services to people who need them. Building community
capacity or fostering radical or fundamental social change does not play a central
part.

SOCIAL ACTION

The social action approach presupposes a disadvantaged segment of the

population that needs to be organized, perhaps in alliance with
others in order to make adequate demands on the larger
community for increased resources or treatment more in accordance with social
justice or democracy. Its practitioners aim changes in major institutions or
community practices. They seek redistribution of power. resources. or decision-
making community or changes in basic policies of formal organizations.
 LESSON 4: The Generalist Social Work
Practice

LESSON PROPER:

The generalist practice perspective is the focus of undergraduate social work

education. This means that the social worker has a diverse theoretical
foundation and employs a systems framework to assess a variety of potential
intervention points. The fundamental responsibility of social work practice is to
guide planned change through the problem-solving process. This means that
social workers recognize that problems can occur at all levels of living (e.g.,
individual, family, group, and community) and that interventions to address
these problems can also occur at different levels.

GENERALIST PRACTICE

When looking at generalist practice primary theories, the first question that may
come to mind is what is generalist practice? Generalist practice introduces
students to the basic concepts in social work which includes promoting human
well-being and applying preventative and intervention methods to social
problems at individual (micro), group (mezzo), and community (macro) levels
while following ethical principles and critical thinking (Inderbitzen, 2014).

Now that you have some insight on what generalist practice is, we should discuss
what a social work generalist does. A social work generalist uses a wide range of
prevention and intervention methods when working with
families, groups, individuals, and communities to promote
human and social well-being (Johnson & Yanca, 2010). Being a social work
generalist practitioner prepares you to enter nearly any profession within the
social work field, depending on your population of interest (Inderbitzen, 2014).

MICRO, MEZZO, MACRO LEVELS OF SOCIAL WORK

Micro level social work is the most common practice scenario and happens
directly with an individual client or family; in most cases this is considered to be
case management and therapy service. Micro social work involves meeting with
individuals, families or small groups to help identify, and manage emotional,
social, financial, or mental challenges, such as helping individuals to find
appropriate housing, health care, and social services. Micro-practice may even
include military social work like helping military officials and families cope with
military life and circumstances, school social work which could involve helping
with school related resources, Individual education plans, and so on or a mental
health case manager to help individuals understand and cope with their mental
illnesses. The focus of micro level practice is to help individuals, families, and
small groups by giving one on one support and provide skills to help manage
challenges (Johnson & Yanca. 2010).

Mezzo level social work involves developing and implementing plans for
communities such as neighborhoods, churches, and schools. Social workers on
the mezzo level interact directly with people and agencies that share the same
passion or interest. The big difference between micro and mezzo level social work
is that instead of engaging in individual counseling and support, mezzo social
workers administer help to groups of people. Examples of work and interest that
mezzo social workers could be involved in include the
establishment of a free food pantry within a local church to help with food
resources for vulnerable populations, health clinics to provide services for the
uninsured, or community budgeting/financial programs for low income families.
Many mezzo social work roles exist; however social workers generally engage in
micro and mezzo practice simultaneously (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2015).

Macro level social work is very distinct from micro and mezzo level. The focus
of macro level social work is to help vulnerable populations indirectly and on a
larger scale. The responsibilities for social workers on a macro level typically are
finding the root cause or the why and effects of citywide, state, and/or national
social problems. They are responsible for creation and implementation of human
service programs to address large scale social problems. Macro level social
workers often advocate to encourage state and federal governments to change
policies to better serve vulnerable populations (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2015).
Social workers that work on the macro level are often employed at non-profit
organizations, public defense law firms (working pro-bono cases), government
departments, and human rights organizations.

While macro social workers typically do not provide therapy or other assistance
(case management) to clients, they may interact directly with the individuals
while conducting interviews during their research that pertains to the
populations and social inequalities of their interest. Although, social work is
broad and allows practitioners to move within the micro, mezzo, and macro
levels. All social workers begin at the micro level to understand the inequalities,
disadvantages, and the needed advocacy for vulnerable populations.
 LESSON 5: The Planned Change

PLANNED CHANGE
• is change inevitable?
• most of the changes in our lives are planned. agree or disagree?

Planned change – a change originating from a decision to make a deliberate

effort to improve the system and to obtain the help of an outside agent in
making this improvement.

• change efforts must be painstakingly assembled and built little by little,

piece by piece.
• change must be constantly supported, nurtured, restarted, repaired, and
rebuilt.
• RESISTANCE to change is also a characteristic of humans and their social
system. they resist change especially if its rapid or upsetting to familiar
patterns.
• AMBIVALENCE – a condition of both wanting and not wanting a particular
change.
ex: a battered wife who wants to leave her husband but afraid of being
financially incapable to provide her children’s needs.
• help clients sort through their perceptions of the risks and rewards
associated with change.
• change force vs. resistant force
• Motivation – a state of readiness to take action, consists of the pull of
hope and the push of discomfort. Change requires the balance of the two.
• Capacity – various abilities and resources that clients or other people in
the client’s environment bring to the change process.
 • Opportunity – various conditions and circumstances within the client’s
environment that invite and support change.
• client situation – that segment of the client’s total existence, experience,
and circumstances that are the focus of the planned change effort.
a. observed/objective situation - the client’s situation as observed by
people in the client’s environment.
b. perceived/subjective situation - the situation that is felt by and uniquely
interpreted by the client.

Always remember: START WHERE THE CLIENT IS.

• It is necessary for the worker to understand the client’s concern and
situation from the client’s point of view.

GUIDELINES for SW PRACTICE

1. Social Worker must give primary to the client’s problem or concern as it is
defined, perceived, and experienced by the client.
2. Social Worker must focus on the aspects of the situation and environment
that most immediately and directly affect the client.
3. Social Worker must recognize the multitude of forces pushing and pulling on
the client.
4. Social Worker must be prepared to intervene at one or more levels.
5. Social Worker must be prepared to use variety of techniques, approaches, and
services.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CLIENT’S NEED FOR CHANGE

1. Individual change - coping with a crisis; coping with physical or emotional
illness; adjustment to changes that occur within the family; to learn more
effective and more socially acceptable ways of behaving and coping with
responsibilities and problems.

2. Family and Group Change - to adapt to the addition or

loss of family members; adapt to changing social and
economic realities.
 3. Organizational Change - to bring the organization’s accomplishments
more in line with its VMG; to make better use of personnel; to introduce
new technology; to respond to powerful external factors.
4. Community Change - to adjust to shifts in demographics; to cope with
shifts in dominant values, political climate, and political power; to respond
to a crisis.

ACTORS in PLANNED CHANGE

1. Change Agent System
2. Client System
3. Target System
4. Action System

PLANNED CHANGE MODEL

The planned change process was introduced to the social work profession in
1957 by Helen Harris Perlman. The Planned Change Model is the development
and implementation of a plan or strategy to improve or alter a pattern of
behaviors, a condition, or circumstance to improve a client’s well-being or
situation (Kirst-Ashman, 2012).

The Planned Change Model consists of a seven-step process which includes:

 Engagement
 Assessment
 Planning
 Implementation
 Evaluation
 Termination
 Follow-up
The Engagement phase is the first interaction between the social worker and
their client. The engagement stage does not have a predetermined time frame; it
can last for a couple of minutes to a few hours depending on the client and the
circumstances. It is very important during the engagement phase that the social
worker displays active listening skills, eye contact, empathy and empathetic
responses, can reflect to the client what has been said, and uses questioning
skills (motivational interviewing). It is appropriate to take notes during the
engagement phase for assessment purposes or for reflection. Remember, during
the engagement phase, the social worker is building a level of rapport and trust
with the client.
The Assessment phase is the process occurring between social worker and
client in which information is gathered, analyzed and synthesized to provide a
concise picture of the client and their needs and strengths. The assessment
phase is very important as it is the foundation of the planning and action phases
that follow.

During the assessment stages, there are five key points:

 identifying the need problem (concern)
 identify the nature of the problem
 identify strengths and resources
 collect information
 analyze the collected information
(Johnson & Yanca, 2010)

The Planning phase is when the client and social worker develop a plan with
goals and objectives as to what needs to be done to address the problem. A plan
is developed to help the client meet their need or address the problem (Johnson,
& Yanca, 2010). The planning phase is a joint process where the worker and the
client identify the strengths and resources gathered from the
assessment phase. Once the strengths and resources are
identified, the social worker and the client come up with a plan by outlining
goals, objectives, and tasks to help meets the clients goal to address the need or
problem. During the planning phase, keep in mind that the goals should be what
the client is comfortable with and finds feasible to obtain. The social worker’s
most important job during this phase is to help the client identify strengths and
resources, not to come up with the client’s goals for them.

The Implementation/Action phase is when the client and social worker

execute a plan to address the areas of concern by completing the objectives to
meet the client’s goals. The action phase is also considered a joint phase as the
social worker and the client act! The worker and the client begin to work on the
task that were identified in the planning phase (Johnson & Yanca, 2010). The
worker and the client are responsible for taking on different parts of the identified
task; for example, the social worker may find a local food pantry or help with
food assistance program if the client needs food. The client may work on making
a grocery list of foods that will make bigger portions for leftovers to make food
last longer for the family. However, the worker and the client are jointly working
together to obtain the goal of providing food for the client and their family.

The Evaluation Phase/Termination phase is a constant. The worker should

always evaluate how the client is doing throughout the process of the working
relationship (Johnson & Yanca, 2010). When the plan has been completed or the
goals have been met, the client and social worker review the goals and objective
and evaluate the change and/or the success. If change or progress has not been
made the client and social worker will review the goals and objectives and make
changes or modifications to meet the goal. Once the goals have been met,
termination of services follows if there are no further need for services or other
concerns to address. Sometimes termination happens before goal completion,
due to hospitalizations, relocation, losing contact with a client, financial
hardships, or the inability to engage the client.
The Follow Up phase is when the social worker reaches out to the client to make
sure they are still following their goals, using their skills, and making sure the
client is doing well. The follow up may not always be possible due to different
situations such as death, relocation, and change in contact information, to name
a few.

The diagram below shows the process of the Planned Change Model when
working with clients.

Stages of Planned Change

Activity: Partner up with a classmate. Role play one person being the social
worker and the other being the client. Come up with a problem or concern and
try to go through the planned change process. I do not expect you to get through
the whole process, but at least try to get through the first three stages. Remember
to be creative and have fun while doing so!!
EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE (EBP)

According to David Sackett, evidence based practice is the conscientious, explicit

and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of
a client. When working with clients it is important to combine research and
clinical expertise. In the field of social work there is constant research being
conducted to assess various assessment and treatment modalities. The research
that is conducted provides the evidence that we as social workers use to help
our clients improve their living situations and concerns. Lastly, keep in mind
that our clients are the experts on their own lives. We must keep in mind what
their personal values are and what their preferences are for the outcome of their
life situation. This is very important and often can become frustrating as a social
worker as we think we know what is right for our client, but it may not be their
personal preference.

When working with clients and evidence based practices it is important to know
that research is constant surrounding evidence based practices, and as a
practicing social worker it is very important to stay abreast of the constant
change of new information and changes. It is important to do your own research,
and most importantly always respect your clients’ personal values and
preferences.

Should you have questions or need clarification, you may reach your teacher at
[email protected], 0951-312-5730, or 177-114.

Stay Safe. God bless!

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