In the first half of the Chunqiu period, the feudal system was a stratified

society, divided into ranks as follows: the ruler of a state; the feudal lords
who served at the ruler’s court as ministers; the shi (roughly translated as
“gentlemen”) who served at the households of the feudal lords as stewards,
sheriffs, or simply warriors; and, finally, the commoners and enslaved
people. The state ruler and the ministers were clearly a superior class, and
the commoners and enslaved people were an inferior class; the class
of shi was an intermediate one in which the younger sons of the ministers,
the sons of shi, and selected commoners all mingled to serve as
functionaries and officials. The state rulers were, in theory, divided into five
grades; in reality, the importance of a ruler was determined by the strength
of his state. The ministerial feudal lords, however, often had two or three
grades among themselves, as determined by the lord-vassal relationship. In
general, each state was ruled by a group of hereditary feudal lords who
might or might not be of the same surname as the state ruler. The system
was not stable in the Chunqiu period, and everywhere there were changes.

The first important change occurred with the advent of interstate

The first to achieve this leadership was Huangong (reigned 685–643 BCE),
the ruler of the state of Qi on the Shandong Peninsula. He successfully
rallied around him many other Chinese states to resist the pressure of non-
Chinese powers in the north and south. While formally respecting the
suzerainty of the Zhou monarchy, Huangong adopted a new title of
“overlord” (ba). He convened interstate meetings, settled disputes among
states, and led campaigns to protect his followers from the intimidation of
non-Chinese powers.

After his death the state of Qi failed to maintain its leading status. The
leadership, after a number of years, passed to Wengong of Jin (reigned 636–
628 BCE), the ruler of the mountainous state north of the Huang He. Under
Wengong and his capable successors, the overlordship was institutionalized
until it took the place of the Zhou monarchy. Interstate meetings were held
at first during emergencies caused by challenges from the rising southern
state of Chu. States answering the call of the overlord were expected to
contribute and maintain a certain number of war chariots. Gradually the
meetings became regular, and the voluntary contribution was transformed
into a compulsory tribute to the court of the overlord. The new system of
states under the leadership of an overlord developed not only in northern
China under Jin but also in the south under Chu. Two other
states, Qin and Qi, though not commanding the strength of the formidable
Jin and Chu, each absorbed weaker neighbors into a system of satellite
states. A balance of power thus emerged among the four states of Qi, Qin,
Jin, and Chu. The balance was occasionally tipped when two of them went to
war, but it was subsequently restored by the transference of some small
states from one camp to another.

A further change began in the 5th century BCE, when the states of Wu
and Yue far to the south suddenly challenged Chu for hegemony over the
southern part of China, at a time when the strong state of Jin was much
weakened by an internecine struggle among powerful magnates. Wu got so
far as to claim overlordship over northern China in an interstate meeting
held in 482 BCE after defeating Chu. But Wu’s hegemony was short-lived; it
collapsed after being attacked by Yue. Yue held the nominal overlordship
for only a brief period; Jin, Qin, and Qi were weakened by internal
disturbances (Jin split into three contending powers) and declined; and a
series of defeats paralyzed Chu. Thus, the balance-of-power system was
rendered unworkable.

A half century of disorder followed. Small states fell prey to big ones, while
in the big states usurpers replaced the old rulers. When the chaos ended,
there were seven major powers and half a dozen minor ones. Among the
seven major powers, Zhao, Han, and Wei had formerly been parts of Jin; the
Qi ruling house had changed hands; and Qin was undergoing succession
problems. The only “old” state was Chu. Even Chu, a southern state, had
become almost completely assimilated to the northern culture (except in
art, literature, and folklore). The minor powers had also changed: some had
retained only small portions of their old territories, some had new ruling
houses, and some were new states that had emerged from non-Chinese
tribes. The long interval of power struggle that followed (475–221 BCE) is
known as the Zhanguo (Warring States) period.
Social, political, and cultural changes
The years from the 8th century BCE to 221 BCE witnessed the painful birth of
a unified China. It was a period of bloody wars and also of far-reaching
changes in politics, society, and intellectual outlook.
The decline of feudalism
The most obvious change in political institutions was that the old feudal
structure was replaced by systems of incipient bureaucracy under
monarchy. The decline of feudalism took its course in the Chunqiu period,
and the rise of the new order may be seen in the Zhanguo period. The Zhou
feudalism suffered from a continual dilution of authority. As a state
expanded, its nobility acquired vassals, and these in turn acquired their own
vassals. The longer this went on, the more diluted the family tie became and
the more dependent the ruler became on the combined strength of the
vassals. At a certain point, the vassals might acquire an advantageous
position, and the most dominant figures among them might eclipse the king.
The Zhou royal house perhaps reached the turning point earlier than the
other feudal states. As a result, the Zhou royal domain and its influence
shrank when Pingwang moved his court to the east. The ruling houses of
other states suffered the same fate. Within a century after the Zhou court
had moved to the east, the ruling houses in most of the feudal states had
changed. In some cases a dominating branch replaced the major lineage,
and in others a powerful minister formed a strong vassaldom and usurped
the authority of the legitimate ruler. Bloody court intrigues and power
struggles eliminated many established houses. The new power centers were
reluctant to see the process continue and therefore refused to allow further
segmentation and subinfeudation. Thus, the feudal system withered and
finally collapsed.