The Qin empire (221–207 BCE)
The Qin state
The history of the Qin dynasty may be traced to the 8th century BCE.
According to the Qin historical record, when the Zhou royal house was
reestablished at the eastern capital in 770 BCE, the Qin ruling house was
entrusted with the mission of maintaining order in the previous capital. This
may be an exaggeration of the importance of the Qin rulers, and the Qin
may have been only one of the ruling families of the old states that
recognized Zhou suzerainty and went to serve the Zhou court. The record is
not clear. In the old annals Qin did not appear as a significant power until
the time of Mugong (reigned 659–621 BCE), who made Qin the main power
in the western part of China. Although Qin attempted to obtain a foothold in
the central heartland along the Huang He, it was blocked by the territories
of Jin. Qin failed several times to enter the eastern bloc of powers and had
to limit its activities to conquering, absorbing, and incorporating the non-
Chinese tribes and states scattered within and west of the big loop of the
Huang He. Qin’s success in this was duly recognized by other powers of the
Chunqiu period, so that the two superpowers Chu and Jin had to grant Qin,
along with Qi, the status of overlord in its own region. The eastern powers,
however, regarded Qin as a “barbarian” state because of the non-Chinese
elements it contained.
Qin played only a supporting role in the Chunqiu power struggle; its
location made it immune to the cutthroat competition of the states in the
central plain. Qin, in fact, was the only major power that did not suffer
battle within its own territory. Moreover, being a newly emerged state, Qin
did not have the burden of a long-established feudal system, which allowed
it more freedom to develop its own pattern of government. As a result of
being “underdeveloped,” it offered opportunity for eastern-educated
persons; with the infusion of such talent, it was able to compete well with
the eastern powers, yet without the overexpanded ministerial apparatus
that embarrassed other rulers. This may be one reason why Qin was one of
the handful of ruling houses that survived the great turmoil of the late
Chunqiu period.
A period of silence followed. Even the Qin historical record that was
adopted by the historian Sima Qian yields almost no information for a
period of some 90 years in the 5th century BCE. The evidence suggests that
Qin underwent a period of consolidation and assimilation during the years
of silence. When it reemerged as an important power, its culture appeared
to be simpler and more martial, perhaps because of the non-Chinese tribes
it had absorbed.
Struggle for power
Until the 5th century BCE, China was dominated by the central-plain power
Wei, a successor to Jin, and by the eastern power Qi, a wealthy state with a
new ruling house. Qin remained a secondary power until after the great
reforms of Xiaogong (361–338 BCE) and Shang Yang (Wei Yang).
Shang Yang, a frustrated bureaucrat in the court of Wei, went westward
seeking a chance to try out his ideas. In the court of Qin he established a
rare partnership with the ruler Xiaogong and created the best-organized
state of their time. Shang Yang first took strong measures to establish the
authority of law and royal decree. The law was to be enforced impartially,
without regard to status or position. He convinced Xiaogong that the rank of
nobility and the privileges attached to it should be awarded only to those
who rendered good service to the state, especially for valor in battle. This
deprived the existing nobility of their titles and privileges, arousing much
antagonism in the court.
One of his most influential reforms was that of standardizing local
administration. It was a step toward creating a unified state by combining
various localities into counties, which were then organized into prefectures
under direct supervision of the court. This system was expanded to all of
China after unification in 221 BCE.
Shang Yang also encouraged production, especially in agriculture. Farmers
were given incentive to reclaim wasteland, and game and fishing reserves
were also opened to cultivation. A shortage of labor was met by recruiting
the able-bodied from neighboring states, especially from Han, Zhao, and
Wei. This policy of drawing workers to Qin had two consequences: it
increased production in Qin, and manpower was lost in the neighboring
states. In order to increase incentives, the Qin government levied a double
tax on any male citizen who was not the master of a household. The result
was a breakdown of the extended-family system, since younger children
were forced to move out and establish their own households. The nuclear
family became the prevalent form in Qin thereafter. As late as the 2nd
century BCE, Han scholars were still attacking the Qin family structure as
failing to observe the principle of filial piety, a cardinal virtue in the
Confucian moral code. Shang Yang also standardized the system of weights
and measures, a reform of some importance for the development of trade
and commerce.
Qin grew wealthy and powerful under the joint labors of Xiaogong and
Shang Yang. After Xiaogong’s death, Shang Yang was put to death by
enemies at the Qin court. Tablets of the Qin law substantiate the survival of
Shang Yang’s policies after his death.
What remained of the Zhou royal court still survived, ruling over a
fragmentary domain—poor, weak, and totally at the mercy of the
contending powers. It was commonly felt that China ought to be unified
politically, although the powers disagreed as to how it was to be done and
who would be the universal king. Huiwang, son of Xiaogong, claimed the
royal title in 325 BCE. The adoption of the royal title by Qin was of course a
challenge to Qi and Wei. Qin pursued a strategy of dividing its rivals and
individually defeating them. Qin appealed to the self-interest of other
powers in order to keep them from intervening in any military action it was
taking against one of its neighbors. It befriended the more distant states
while gradually absorbing the territories of those close to it.
Within half a century, Qin had acquired undisputed predominance over the
other contending powers. It continued maneuvering in order to prevent the
others from uniting against it. A common topic of debate in the courts of the
other states was whether to establish friendly relations with Qin or to join
with other states in order to resist Qin’s expansion. The Qin strategists were
ruthless: all means, including lies, espionage, bribery, and assassination,
were pressed into the service of their state.
For a time, the eastern power Qi had seemed the most likely to win. It
defeated Wei, crushed Yan in 314 BCE, and annexed Song in 286 BCE. But Qi
was overturned by an allied force of five states, including Qin. Zhao, the
power with extensive territory in the northern frontier, succeeded Qi as the
most formidable contender against Qin. In 260 BCE a decisive battle
between Qin and Zhao destroyed Zhao’s military strength, though Qin was
not able to complete its conquest of Zhao for several decades.
