INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY OF LIE DETECTION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:
1. explain the basic principles of polygraph examination.
2. understand and explain the physiological and psychological mechanisms
underlying deception detection.
3. categorize and comprehend the various forms of lies and the types of individuals
who engage in lying.
4. understand the structural and functional divisions of the human nervous system.
5. To identify and analyze non-verbal behaviors and physiological responses that
may indicate deception

POLYGRAPHY (Lie Detection) – It is the scientific method of detecting deception with

the use of a polygraph instrument.

POLYGRAPH (Truth Verifier) – a scientific instrument which is specially designed to

record the Psycho and physiological changes which is occur with the body of the subject
especially when accompanied by lying. Polygraph records the following changes: Blood
pressure, Pulse rate, Respiration, Skin resistance. The word Polygraph originated
from the Greek Word Poly means “Many” and Graph means “Writing Chart.”

LIE DETECTOR – it is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. The instrument
was so named because it makes various ink recordings of a person’s body functions
which will be interpreted by the polygraphist to determine whether the subject has been
lying or not.

Concepts of Polygraph Examination:

1. Used to test an individual for the purpose of detecting deception or verifying the
truthfulness of his statements.
2. It is done by recording identifiable physiological reactions of the subject, such as;
blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance.
3. The effectiveness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of deceptions is based
on the theory that “a conscious mental effort on the part of a normal
person to deceive causes involuntary physiological changes that are in
effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its well-being.”
The concept that a conscious mental effort to deceive causes
involuntary physiological changes is rooted in the body's response to
stress, which is often akin to its reaction to imminent danger. When a
person consciously attempts to deceive, their body undergoes physiological
changes due to the stress associated with maintaining the deception. This stress
triggers the body's "fight or flight" response, which is a natural reaction to
perceived threats or dangers.
1
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

 Fear – is an emotional response to specific danger that appears to beyond a

person defensive power.

Physiological Changes Associated with Deception

1. Increased Blood Pressure and Pulse Rate: The body's cardiovascular system
responds to stress by increasing blood pressure and heart rate, preparing the body
to either confront the threat or flee from it.
2. Changes in Respiration: Breathing patterns may become more rapid or irregular as
the body prepares for action.
3. Electrodermal Activity (Skin Resistance): The skin's electrical conductivity changes
due to increased sweat gland activity, which is a common response to stress.
4. Muscle Tension: Efforts to control nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions or
body language, can lead to increased muscle tension

The physiological changes associated with deception are similar to those experienced
when facing a real threat. The body perceives the act of deception as a form of
psychological danger, triggering a protective response. This response is mediated by the
autonomic nervous system, which automatically adjusts bodily functions to prepare for
potential threats

Objectives of a Polygraph Examination:

1. Obtain additional investigation leads to the facts of the case/offenses.
2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth.
3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime and whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify other persons involved (accomplices of crime)
5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.
6. Eliminate the innocent suspects.

Uses of the Polygraph Examination:

1. Aid in investigating criminal incidents and issues.
2. Speeds up the process of investigation.
3. Eliminates innocent suspects.
4. Diagnostic Test. This test is conducted to a person suspected of involvement on a
particular issue under investigation. The examinee is tested based on the available
facts, circumstances or evidence of the allegation to determine his possible
involvement or non-involvement. The purpose of diagnostic test is to obtain a
conclusion that will serve as basis for a decision.
 Single-issue or Event-specific test. A test that deals with the examinee’s
direct participation in particular test issues or cases (murder, arson, robbery,
etc.)
 During the a single-issue test, the polygraph result of an employee
suspected of stealing valuable items indicated no significant response
2
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

to relevant questions on the collected polygraph chart. Positive

numerical scores were assigned to the relevant questions, reaching the
required cut-off scores for No Deception Indicated.
 Multifaceted test. A type of polygraph examination that covers the
polygraph subject’s level of involvement in a crime or issue being
investigated. A test format where the relevant questions focus on various
aspects of the same crime.
 The multifaceted examination of employees administered to test an
alleged pilferage revealed negative numerical scores upon evaluating
the polygraph charts of the examinees. The post-test interviews
uncovered significant information on how the pilfered items were taken
out of the company.

5. Screening Test or Multiple Issue Test. This type of test is administered to

determine whether the examinee denies involvement in relevant issues of an
agency or a company’s concern the purpose of this test is to collect essential
information and investigate the potential participation of the examinee in the
current matter. While screening test serve as a strong foundation for decision-
making in high-risk personnel hiring, they should not be solely relied upon if the
examinee exhibits significant reactions to concerning issues. In such, follow-up
examinations are recommended for verification. Additionally, screening tests act as
a deterrent against non-compliance with agency policies and regulations.
 Pre-employment testing- applicants undergo polygraph examinations to
determine their involvement in an issue of concern that the potential
employer would like to establish.
 Periodic Audit Testing- employees are subjected to this type of polygraph
examination to determine any violations of agency security procedures,
policy, and regulations.

BASIC APPROACH TO POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

Deception Test. A test designed to determine the polygraph subject’s involvement in

known incident or multiple issues of concern.
1. Zone Comparison Technique (Backster, Federal, Utah, MQTZCT, IZCT)
2. Modified General Question Technique (AFMGQT, UMGQT. AMGQT)
3. Directed Lie Screening Test
4. Relevant-Irrelevant Technique
5. General Question Test

Recognition Test. Used to determine if the examinee has knowledge about the issue
being tested, which they denied during the investigation.
1. Searching Peak of Tension Test
2. Known Solution Peak of Tension Test
3. Concealed Information Test
4. Acquaintance Test
3
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Accuracy of the Polygraph Technique

The accuracy of the polygraph technique partially relies on the examiner’s
training, skill, and experience.

Polygraph accuracy depends on several factors:

 Effective interviewing
 Effective test administration
 Effective test data analysis
 Good instrumentation
 Good questions
 Suitable examinee

Errors in Polygraph Testing

The errors in polygraph testing may be caused by the examiners failure of
preparing the subject for the examination, improper administration of test procedures or
misreading of physiological data collected.

 False Positive- truthful examinee was declared deceptive after the polygraph
examination was completed.
 False Negative- deceptive examinee is reported truthful after evaluating the
polygraph data

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Polygraph Examination

 Subject’s developmental problem
 Low intellectual functioning
 Low functional maturity
 Psychosis

Countermeasures
These are attempts by the examinee to manipulate the test data to produce a
truthful (negative) result. The aim of using countermeasures is to alter the outcome of
the polygraph examination. Deceptive examinees, even if they agree to take the test,
might try various countermeasures to pass it. Truthful subjects who use countermeasures
to improve their chances of passing may increase the likelihood of being reported as
deceptive.
1. General State Countermeasures- are intended to alter the general
physiological and/or psychological condition of the polygraph subject for the
entire course of examination and are not focused on any specific portion of the
polygraph examination.
 Use of drugs
 Relaxation
 Inferring agents

4
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

2. Specific Point of Countermeasures- these countermeasures aimed to change

the psychological and/or physiological state of the subject at specific points of
the polygraph test. It is intended to reduce responses to relevant questions and
large responses to comparison questions.
 Physical
 Mental
 Or both
3. Spontaneous Countermeasures- these are types of countermeasures that
subjects performed without anticipation. It refers to deliberate actions taken
by a subject without prior planning or training to influence the outcome
of the test. These actions are intended to distort or defeat the polygraph's
ability to detect deception by altering physiological responses such as heart
rate, breathing, or skin conductivity. During several laboratory studies subjects
are debriefed about their efforts to produce truthful outcomes.
 Relaxation
 Rationalization
 Imagery
 Attempts to control breathing and heart rate
 Trying to stay calm
 Biting their tongue
 Pressing their toes
4. Information Countermeasures- whether guilty or not, polygraph subjects who
know they will undergo testing often seek information on test procedures and
countermeasures from any available sources. This curiosity, or their intent to
conceal deception and appear truthful, drives them. The efforts by a polygraph
subject to manipulate test results can lead to higher testing errors. When these
errors occur, it becomes difficult to differentiate between deliberate attempts to
deceive and the inherent limitations of the test’s accuracy.

Contemporary Theories of Polygraph Examination

 Analytic (Scientific) Theory- the analytic theory of polygraph testing posits
that greater physiological changes occur in response to different types of stimuli
based on whether the subject is being deceptive or truthful in answering the
relevant target questions. This theory indicates that humans exhibit measurable
physiological reactions to questions pertinent to investigation targets. It is
assumed that every subject aims to pass the polygraph test, and their desire to
do so is influenced by the questions asked. Questions that demand higher
cognitive load will elicit the most significant physiological response. Additionally,
reactions to relevant questions are affected by emotional and conditioning
factors.
 Differential Salience Theory- has been proposed as a more comprehensive
and economical psychological theory, aligning well with scientific psychology
fields such as emotion, cognition, and conditional learning, which from the basis
for responses to polygraph questions. This theory explains the relationship
between the psychological importance of a stimulus and the intensity of the
5
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

physiological response. It suggests that physiological responses can reveal

underlying mental processes, which can be used to detect deception or
recognition during polygraph examination. Unlike theories that focus solely on
fear, differential salience assumes a common pathway for the physiological
expression of cognitive and emotional processes that contribute to psychological
significance.
 Cognitive-behavioral theory- this theory posits that physiological responses
are based on cognition, emotion, and behavioral or experiential learning. It
aligns with the differential salience model suggesting that truth-telling involves
simpler cognitive and emotional tasks compared to deception.

KINDS OF LIE AND TYPES OF LIARS

Lying/Lie – the uttering or conveying of falsehood or creating a false or misleading

information with the intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion of others. Is an
intentionally false statement to a person or group made by another person or group who
knows it is not wholly the truth.

Types of Lies
1. White Lie or Benign Lie – these are the kind of lies used to protect or maintain
the harmony of friendship or any relationship.
2. Pathological Lie – a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from
wrong.
3. Red Lie – involves political interests and motives because this is a part of
communist propaganda strategy. This is prevalent in communist countries or
communist infested nations. Ex. propaganda-brain-washing and blackmailing via
espionage and treason.
4. Black Lie – a lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to
cause dishonor or discredit ones good image.
5. Blue lie- is a form of lying that is told purportedly to benefit the collective or in the
name of collective good.
6. Malicious or Judicial Lie – pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended
purely to mislead or obstruct justice.
7. Fabrication – misrepresentation of truth. A lie told when someone submits a
statement as truth, without knowing for certain whether or not it actually is true.
Ex. The dog ate my homework.
8. Bold-faced Lie – obviously lying. Is one which is told when it is obvious to all
concerned that it is a lie. Ex. A child who has chocolate all around his mouth and
denies that he has eaten any chocolate is a bold-face liar.
9. Lying by omission – omission of important facts. One lies by omission by
omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving another person with a
misconception. Includes the failures to correct pre-existing misconceptions. Ex. A
6
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

husband may tell his wife he was out at a store, which is true, but lie by omitting
the fact that he also visited his mistress, although it is disputable whether or not
this is actually a lie.
10. Lie-to- Children – to gain acceptance to children. Often a platitude which
may use euphemism, which is told to make an adult subject acceptable to children.
11. Minimization- it involves denial and rationalization in a situation where
complete denial is implausible.
12. Noble lie – it is often told to maintain law and order. One which would
normally cause discord it if were uncovered, but that offers some benefit to the liar
and perhaps assist in an orderly society and thus potentially gives some benefits to
others also.
13. Emergency lie – to prevent harm to third party. It is a strategic lie when the
truth may not be told because it may harm a third party. Ex. A neighbour might lie
to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful wife, because said
husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his wife.
14. Perjury – false testimony under oath. The act of lying or making verifiably
false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law,
or in any of various sworn statements in writing.
15. Bluffing – pretense of capability/intention one does not possess. It is an act
of deception which is rarely seen as immoral, because it takes place in the context
of a game where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players.
16. Jocose lie – meant to be jest, teasing and sarcasm.
17. Contextual lies – stating part of truth out of context. Knowing that without
complete information, it gives a false impression.
18. Promotion lie – incredible advertisement. Advertisement often contain
statements which are incredible, such as “We are always happy to give a refund”,
or exaggerated predictions such as “You will love our new product.”

Types of Liars
1. Panic Liars – one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of a confession,
they are afraid of embarrassment and it is a serious blow to their ego. They believe
that confession will just make the matter worst.
2. Occupational liars – are practical liars and lies when it has a higher “pay off”
than telling the truth.
3. Tournament liars – are those who love to lie and are excited by the challenge of
not being detected.
4. Psychopathic liars – the most difficult type, these persons have no conscience
and shows no regret for dishonesty and no manifestation of guilt.
5. Ethnological liars – are those who taught not to be a squealer.
6. Pathological liars – are persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to
their sick mind. They are insane.
7. Black liars – are persons who always pretends what he is and what he thinks of
himself.

7
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN NERVOUS SYTEM

The human nervous system is composed of Central Nervous System and Peripheral
Nervous System. The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the BRAIN and
SPINAL CORD.
 The CNS processes and coordinates all incoming sensory information and
outgoing motor commands.
 The CNS as the seat of complex brain functions such as memory, intelligence,
learning and emotion.

The Peripheral Nervous System ( PNS ) includes all neural tissue outside the
central nervous system. It is responsible for providing sensory (afferent) information to
the CNS and carrying motor (efferent) commands out to the body tissues.

The PNS has two sub-divisions: the Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic
Nervous System. Their respective functions are as follows:

1. Somatic Nervous System

 Controls voluntary motor commands such as moving muscles to walk or talk.
 Consists of nerves connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

 Controls involuntary motor commands such as digestion and heartbeat.
 It acts as a self- regulating response of the body.
 Directs all activities of the body that occur without a person’s conscious
control.

 Sympathetic Nervous System – the FIGHT or FLIGHT mechanism. It

is most active in times of stress. Increases alertness, stimulates tissues
and prepares the body for quick responses to usual situations.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System –Conserves energy and controls
sedentary activities such as digestion. The REST and REPOSE system.

8
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system acts opposite with each
other. When the person is under the influence of physical stimulus (exertion) or
emotional provocation (excitement, fear and danger) the sympathetic branch dominates
and over-rides the parasympathetic component. In effect, there will be changes in the
following:

1. Pulse (heartbeat)
2. Blood pressure
3. Breathing
4. Response time
5. Voice
6. Other physiological reactions

When the conditions of stress are no longer present, the parasympathetic branch
works to restore things to normal. Thus, the parasympathetic branch is dominant when
things are normal and the person is calm, contented and relaxed.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is a complex combination of cells whose primary function is

to allow an organism to gain information about what is going on inside and outside the
body and to respond appropriately.

9
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

THREE BASIC FUNCTIONS:

1. Receiving information or input

2. Integrating or processing the information
3. Guiding actions or output

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – that part of the peripheral nervous system

consisting of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system. It is the one
responsible for regulating mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation from a
particular standard within very fine limits. Sleeps, oxygenation of the blood, levels of
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and all the essential chemical substances
that maintain the activity of all cell membranes are finely adjusted. This is found at the
center of the brain and its central controls is in the “hypothalamus” – a group of nerve
cells of the brain that reflexes – those that we cannot control consciously such as our
heart beat, pulse rate, increase and decrease in blood pressure and the expansion and
constriction of arteries are governed by the autonomic nervous system.

EXTERNAL OBSERVABLE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF LIES/DECEPTIONS:

1. Stammering and swearing to or before God that he did not commit the
offense.
2. Pointing his guilt to somebody else.
3. Refuses to answer questions thru alibis and excuses
4. All the time absent-minded.
5. Always requesting for repetition of questions.
6. Often asks counter-questions and counter-queries.
7. False Facial Expression (Masking).
8. Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of forehead.
9. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs and elevation of upper eyelids.
10. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, distrust, etc.)
11. Twitching of the lips and or excessive winking of the eyes.
12. Failure to look the inquirer straight into the eyes.

10
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

13. Excessive activity of the adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to
dryness of throat and mouth. Sometimes with shivering of nose or nosetrils.
14. A peculiar monotone of the voice or a forced laugh.
15. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another.
16. Often asks permission to go to comfort rooms, etc.
17. Fidgeting, tapping or drumming of fingers on the chairs or the other surfaces.
18. Swinging of legs or one leg over the other.
19. Unnecessary movements of hands and feet (like scratching, nail biting,
thumb or finger sucking)
20. Pulsation of the artery in the neck.
21. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body.

CATEGORIES OF NON-VERBAL BEHAVIORS:

1. EMBLEMS – these are non-verbal behaviour that expresses the entire

communication. No spoken words are necessary.
Ex. Rising of a person’s hand standing alongside the road to “hitch” a ride,
even though he never said a word.

2. ILLUSTRATORS – are non-verbal behaviors which assist the listener better

understand the verbal communication. They indicate consistency between non-
verbal and verbal messages.
Ex. Banging on the table by a person with his fist as he speaks angrily.

3. ADAPTERS – are non-verbal behaviors that serve no purpose in helping the

verbal communication, and often detract from it. They are indicators of
deception. As with illustrators, adapters often occur as hand gestures and body
position and include any type of rubbing, stroking, picking, massaging or
touching of the body or face.

Ex. When asked, “Did you commit that crime?” the suspect may verbally reply,
“No I did not!” If the response were accompanied by an illustrator, like touching the
chest, he would be confirming his innocence. Verbally he would be saying, “I didn’t
do it!” then he reinforces the statement non-verbally by pointing to him saying,
“You can look right at me, because I didn’t do it!” On the other hand, if he had
covered his mouth as he squeezed his nose, he would have used negative
adapters. Covering his mouth makes the verbal message more difficult to
understand, while squeezing the nose indicates disbelief in what is being said.

AREAS TO NOTE WHEN ASSESSING NON-VERBAL BEHAVIORS:

1. GENERAL POSTURE – truthful people usually use body position as an

illustrator and have an open, settled, upright position. Often they will
lean slightly forward, indicating interest in what is being said. Shoulders tend to
remain squared and the body is aligned with the interviewer. Deceptive people
11
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

often show very close and defensive positions, such as crossed arms
and/or legs. They often lean back or stretched out their legs, to perceptually
increase the distance between the interviewer and themselves. They may
assume a position of defeat, with their shoulders forward and their chin on their
chest.
2. HEAD and FACE – face is the most common part of the body to observe;
however, it is also the most difficult to interpret. It has a very complex muscular
structure and can show more than one emotion at a time.
3. EYES – eye behavior provides an excellent source of non-verbal information.
Breaks in eye contact, which occur at the appropriate time, can be
indicative of deception. Theoretically, eyes dilate when the individual is
aroused or excited. Closed eyes suggest trying to mentally escape and block
visual sensory input. A sudden increase in eye blinking indicates an
increase in tension. Squinting suggests distrust and can occur in times of
emergency to help protect the eye from being struck during a battle. These
three behaviors mean distress or sympathetic arousal and should be viewed as
deceptive criterion.
4. ARMS and HANDS – arm and hand movements give clearer non-verbal cues.
Take note that increased illustrators are signs of truthfulness, and adaptors
indicates deception.
5. SENSE OF AROUSAL GESTURES – under times of stress the body’s
senses are enhanced by sympathetic arousal. A person’s olfactory
(smelling), aural (hearing), visual (sight) and tactile (touch and skin
sensitivity) perceptions are noticeably increased. Touching or
scratching the nose is a reliable indicator of deception when it is done
as the suspect answers a critical question, or is explaining something. If
the suspect holds his nose or touches it as he speaks, he does not believe what
he is saying. If he touches it while he listens, he is signaling that he does not
believe what the interviewer is saying. Touching the ear during stress may be
due to his physiological process, or a psychological attempt to shut out auditory
stimuli. If the suspect covers his eyes and looks away, he is probably trying to
hide or escape from the predicament. Rubbing the eye is a sign of disbelief.
6. FEET and LEGS – the involuntary movement of feet and legs are also reliable
illustrators or adaptors. Truthful people generally use open and “settled” foot
and legs positions.

12
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

MODULE 2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:
1. Understand Historical Methods of Lie Detection.
2. Recognize Early Scientific Approaches to Deception Detection.
3. Appreciate Modern Developments in Deception Detection.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION

ORDEAL – refers to a difficult or painful experience that one must go through. It is often
characterized by significant hardship, distress, or testing circumstances. Historically, the
term "ordeal" also describes a method of trial used in ancient legal systems, where the
guilt or innocence of an accused person was determined through dangerous physical
tests. These tests were believed to invoke supernatural judgment, with outcomes seen
as indicative of divine intervention.

TRIAL BY ORDEAL – an ancient judicial practice used to determine the guilt or

innocence of an accused person through painful or dangerous tests. This method was
based on the belief that divine intervention would protect the innocent, thereby allowing
them to survive the ordeal unscathed. The practice was prevalent in medieval Europe
and can be traced back to earlier legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi.

The concept of trial by ordeal was rooted in the belief that God would intervene in
favor of the innocent. This practice was seen as a "judgment of God" (Latin: iudicium
Dei), where the results of the ordeal were interpreted as divine signs. However, by the
13th century, criticism regarding its cruelty and irrationality led to its decline. Pope
Innocent III formally banned trials by ordeal during the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215,
advocating for a jury system instead.
Despite its official abolition, trials by ordeal occasionally resurfaced during periods of
social unrest or religious fervor, such as during witch hunts in the 16th and 17th
centuries.
The legacy of trial by ordeal reflects historical attitudes toward justice and divine

13
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

judgment. While it is no longer practiced, it serves as a reminder of how societies have

evolved in their approaches to law and order.

TRIAL BY COMBAT – This involved a physical fight between the accuser and the
accused. The outcome determined guilt or innocence, often reserved for nobles.

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Red Hot Ordeal – practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North Bengal. An
accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times unless burned sooner. If
burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not only just licking the iron but is made
to carry the metal into his hands.
2. Ordeal by the Balance – an ordeal practiced in the Vishnu, India. The scale of
balance is used where the accused is placed in the other end while a counter
balance is made. If he were found to be lighter than before then he will be
acquitted.
3. Wager of Battle - The judgment of God was thought to determine the winner,
and the defeated party was allowed to live recreant, that is, on retracing the
perjury that had been sworn. Similar in the concept is the Burmese ordeal buy
divination, which would involve two sides in a dispute holding lighted candles.
Whoever’s candle lasted longest was pronounced the winner.
4. Ordeal by Water - The water was symbolic of flood of the Old Testament,
washing sin from the face of earth, allowing only the righteous minority to survive.
There are two kinds of ordeal by water. The Boiling Water and the Cold
Water. Ordeal by water was the usual mode of trial allowed to members of the
lower class.
 In the code of Hamurabi, where a man accused of sorcery is to be
submerged in a steam and acquitted if he survives. The practice occurred in
Frankish law and was abolished by Loius the Pious in 829. In 1338, a man
accused of pouching is to be submerged in a barrel three times, and to be
considered guilty if he sinks to the bottom
 The ordeal of water is also contemplated by the Vishnu Smrti, which is one of
the texts of the Dharmasastra.
5. Boiling Water Ordeal – common in Africa. The method was that the subject will
be asked to plunge their right arms into the boiling water to the elbow and step
into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test without a murmur.
And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same time the next
afternoon. The one who showed blisters would prove the thief (point out who is the
one who steal among his tribe mates). According to Athelstan, the first King of
England, the ordeal of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of the boiling
water, with the hand inserted as deep as the wrist. More serious offense demanded
that the arm was submerged up to the elbow. The burn was bandaged for three
days before fateful examination.
6. Ordeal by Rice Chewing – an ordeal practiced by the Indians. It is formed with a
kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations. The person on trial

14
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

eats the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with blood or the
corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.
7. Ordeal of the Red Water – used in a wide region of Eastern Africa. The ordeal of
the “sassy bark” or red water was used where the accused is made to fast for 12
hours then swallows a small amount of rice until he is imbibed in dark colored
water. This water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all the rice, he is
considered innocent; otherwise, the accused is guilty.
8. Combination of Drinks and Food ordeal – an ordeal practiced in the West
African region where the accused first fasted for 12 hours and then give a small
amount of rice to eat followed by large amount of black colored water. If the
concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent, otherwise, guilty.
9. Ordeal by Combat – The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged
offender or to pay a champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by his
own strength but because of supernatural powers that had intervened on the side
of the right, as in the duel in the European Ages in which the “Judgment of God
was thought to determine the winner.” If still alive after the combat, the loser
might be hanged or burned for a criminal offense or have a hand cut off and
property confiscated in civil actions.
10. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)- A priest puts the
corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused, with various
imprecations. If the accused swallowed he will be freed from punishment.
11. Ordeal of Bier - It was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out
their killer. In England, it was customary for the accused to approach the bier
where the corpse lay. In the view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were
observed to see if they began to bleed again. They believe that murderer is near,
which causes the blood to flow out from the wound of the victim. The ordeal was
recorded by Shakespeare in “Richard III”
12. Trial by Torture – the accused was put into a severe physical test. If the
accused can endure such torture, he will be considered innocent.
13. Drinking Ordeal – the accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest –
if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and
India.
14. Test of the Eucharist – this trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, it was believed
that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused from
swallowing the food given to him. Practice in European countries.
15. Test of the Cross - The accuser and the accused were place under the
cross with their arms extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or
suffer them to fall was held guilty. Or the accused was placed before relics and two
dice were then produced, one marked with a cross. Of these, one was taken up
hazard. If it happened to bear the sign of the cross, the accused was acquitted.
Also the accuser and accused each were made to stand with arms crossed on their
breast. The one who endured the longest was deemed to have told the truth, the
other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.

15
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

16. Trial of the Waxen Shirt - The accused was dressed in cloth covered with
wax and walked bare footed over burning coals. If he was unhurt by the fire and
the wax did not melt, he was considered innocent.
17. Ordeal by Heat and Fire – the accused was compelled to walk bare footed
through a fire, if he remains unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced in East Germany,
early Scandinavian countries and early England.
18. Ordeal of boiling Oil or Water – the accused was forced to dip his hands
into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt then
he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.
19. Ordeal of the Needle – a red hot needle was drawn through the lips of the
accused, if innocent, no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced in East Africa.
20. Hereditary Sieve Method - Hans Gross, The Father of Criminalistics, in his
famous book in criminal investigation in which beans thrown into a sieve as the
name of the accused was called, mentioned this ordeal. If the beams jumped out
the sieve, the owner of the sieve is innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the
person named a thief.
21. Ordeal of the tiger – accuser and accused were placed together in the
same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared. If both were spared,
further elimination followed. Practiced in Thailand.
22. Test of the Cross Ordeal – the accuser and accused each were made to
stand with arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the longest was
deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.
23. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal – a donkey was placed in one room alone and was
observed. If the donkey cried as judge of the guilty of crimes, then the accused is
guilty.

Countries that Practiced Trial by Ordeal:

1. Burma – The ordeal by divination is being practiced in this country the accuser
and accused were given each identical candle and both were lightened at the
same time. The holder of the candle that consumed faster was adjudged the liar.
2. Madagascar - Legal authorities practiced trial by Ordeal. The supposed suspect is
requested to drink a juice comes from a poisonous fruit “tangena”, a small dose
can be fatal. By managing the size of the dose, those who administer it can decide
result.
3. Borneo – the accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a plate.
An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the litigant whose shell fish
moved first was adjudged the winner.
4. Greece – a suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects. When
the axe stopped, whoever was in line with the blade was supposed to be guilty as
pointed out by the divine providence.
5. Nigeria –The priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the
accused, If feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed
innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method practiced in the same
country is the pouring of corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was
16
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

supposed to be unharmed if innocent. Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the
accused with usual requisites for guilt or innocence is also practiced.
6. Europe and Early Unite States (17th Century) – trial by water was commonly
used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound (hand and foot) and
then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank, he was hauled to the surface
half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he floated, he was deemed guilty and
burned to death.

Forerunners of Scientific methods of Detecting Deception

1. Hypnotism – this method was introduced by an Austrian Physician Franz

(Friedrich) Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) in 1778. He believed in animal
magnetism, by which in his own personal electro – magnetism, therapeutic effect
influenced other persons.

Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the
following:
 It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in
ascertaining the truth from falseness.
 The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
 The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the hypnotized
subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
 The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner are too subjective to
permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

2. Word Association Test – this method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis
Galton (1822-1911 – an English Scientist and Anthropometrist). His experiment
was later developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875 – 1961) – a Swiss
psychologist and psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology.

This method is done by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected

stimulus words or objects with other pictures combined with other irrelevant
words, objects or pictures with the instruction to respond with the very first word
that may come to subject’s mind. The theory behind this method is that, one word
or idea is reflective of another word or idea and the expression of their association
forms a meaningful picture.

3. The Truth Serum Method – this method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel
House (1858-1938). The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does
not make someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not a serum but is
actually a drug. This method is based on the theory that “intervention through
interrogation is made possible after dosage of drugs has been appropriately
administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of unconsciousness,

17
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

an influence called as the “House Receptive Stage” or the “Twilight Zone”. On

this condition the subject is half sleep.

The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the
subject the stored contents of the mind called “memory”. During the test, a drug
called Byosine Hydrobromide is usually administered hypodermically to the
subject in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced.

4. Narco-analysis or Narco-synthesis – this method of detecting deception was

practically the same as that of administration of truth serum. The only difference is
the drug used. The drug Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered
to the subject. It was claimed that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory
mechanism of the brain and the subject talks freely. The administration of the drug
and subsequent interrogation must be done by a psychiatrist.

5. Intoxication – this was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic beverages as

stimuli to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The subject for interrogation will
be allowed to take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication.
Theoretically, when under the influence of alcohol, the power of control is said to
be diminished. Interrogation is to be made during the excitatory effect of alcohol.
Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is admissible if he is
physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly and exactly even after
the influence or “spirit” of alcohol has disappeared. But in most instances, the
subject can recall his utterances or usually refuses to admit the truth of the
statement given.

6. The Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE) – when a person speaks, there are
audible voice frequencies, and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the muscle of the voice
mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles or micro tremor occur at the rate of 8
to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.
When a person in under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the
voice utterance is moderately or completely supressed. The degree of suppression
varies inversely to the degree of psychologic stress on the speaker. The
psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays
the voice modulations that we cannot hear. When a person is relaxed and
responding honestly to the question, those inaudible frequencies are registered
clearly on the instrument. But when a person is under stress, as when he is lying,
these frequencies tend to disappear.

TIMELINE OF THE MODERN POLYGRAPH:

 1730 – Daniel Defoe (Idea/Suggestion) – a British novelist who wrote an essay

entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies
18
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

and Suppressing all other Disorders of the Night”, wherein he recommended that
taking the pulse of a suspicious fellow was a practical, effective and humane
method for distinguishing truthfulness from lying. It was an early and insightful
suggestion to employ medical science in the fight against crime.
 1791 – Luigi Galvani – Italian physiologist and physician accidentally discovered
that a dissected frog leg would twitch and contract spasmodically at the touch of a
scalpel charged with electricity. He had found that current “galvanic” electricity
flowed through animal tissue.
 1851 – Jacques D’ Arsonval (galvanometer component) – a French scientist who
declared that electricity is generated by the body (External Friction). He asserted
that those sweat glands in the body at times store the electricity and at other
times discharge them.
 1886 – Christian Hans Stoelting (Products and Accessories) – founded the
Stoelting Co. which became a leading product supplier on physiological,
psychological and psycho-physiological measurement.
 1878 – Angelo Mosso (Invention) – used an instrument called a
Plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear in subjects undergoing
questioning and he studied the effects of these variables on their cardiovascular
and respiratory activity. Mosso studied blood circulation and breathing
patterns and how these changed under certain stimuli. The use of
plethysmograph revealed periodic undulations or waves in a subject’s blood
pressure caused by the respiratory cycle in response to certain stimuli. Angelo
Mosso was the first scientist to report on experiments in which he observed that a
person’s breathing pattern changed under certain stimuli, and that this change, in
turn caused variations in their blood pressure and pulse rate.
 1888 – Charles Samson Fere ( galvanograph component) – a French scientist
who discovered that electro-dermal response is caused by an increase in the
action of the heart and vital energy converted with human emotions. He asserted
that human body has the ability to generate, store, discharged high voltage of
static electricity.
 1892 – Sir James Mackenzie (cardiograph component) – an English heart
specialist who constructed the clinical polygraph an instrument to be used for
medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record undulated line
tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus
onto a revolving drum of smoked paper.
 1895 – Cesare Lombroso (cardiograph component) – employed the first scientific
instrument to detect deception. He modified an existing instrument called a
hydrosphygmograph and used this modified device in his experiments to
measure the physiological changes that occurred in a crime suspect’s blood
pressure and pulse rate during a police interrogation. Although he did not invent
the hydrosphygmograph, he was accorded the distinction of being the first
person to have used the instrument successfully as a means for
determining truthfulness from deception in crime suspects.

19
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

 1897 – George Sticker (galvanograph component) – first person to suggest the

used of the galvanograph for detecting deception. He theorized that the galvanic
skin phenomenon was influenced by exciting mental impressions.
 1906 – Sir James Mackenzie (Innovation) –refined his clinical polygraph in his
article entitled, “The Ink Polygraph.” This instrument used a clockwork
mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink
recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.
Interestingly, it has been written that the modern polygraph is a modification
of Mackenzie’s clinical ink polygraph.
 1907 – Otto Veraguth (galvanograph component) – was the first to use the term
“PSYCHOGALVANIC REFLEX”, an idea that the electrical phenomenon was due to
the activity of the sweat glands. Was the first to make the Word Association Test
(psychological test develop by F. Galton. Reaction time to the response as to the
first thought about a relevant word serves as the basis for determining deception)
using the galvanometer. It was used strictly for emotional use and noted that the
emotional complexes, unveiled in word association experiments made an
ascending galvanometer curve (as contrasted with the “rest curve” of non-crucial
stimuli) and that these personally significant stimuli produced larger fluctuations
than in different stimuli.
 1908 – Hugo Munsterberg (Innovation) – proposed and advocated that lie test
based on lie detector should be admissible as evidence in court.
 1914 – Vittorio Benussi (pneumograph component) – successfully detected
deception with a pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an
examinee’s inhalation and exhalation and demonstrated that changes in breathing
patterns accompany deception. He found that distinct changes occur in the
respiratory patterns during attempts to deceive. He found that the length of
inspiration divided by the length of expiration was greater after lying than before
telling the lie.
 1915 – William M. Marston (cardiograph component) – the self-proclaim “father
of the polygraph”. Contribution to the science of the detection of deception is more
method than instrumentation. He believed that verbal deception could be
detected by changes in the systolic blood pressure. He used a standard a
blood pressure cuff, or sphygmomanometer to take measurements of systolic
blood pressure during interrogation. Later in his work with lie detection, he used
pneumograph to record respiration cycles. Both the sphygmomanometer and the
pneumograph were separate instruments.
 1918 – Harold Burtt (cardiograph component) – determined that respiratory
changes were indicative of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood
pressure were of greater value in determining deception than changes in
respiration.
 1921 – John A. Larson (invention) – developed the “Larson Polygraph”, an
instrument capable of continuously recording blood pressure, pulse, and
respiration. It was made on a polygraphic apparatus in a portable form and
became the first assemblage of apparatus used by his co-workers in the Berkeley
Police Department. Under the Larson Polygraph, a strip of paper on which the
20
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

tracings are recorded is mounted on two drums, which are turned by a spring
mechanism known as a kymograph. The paper is smoked to reduce the friction of
the styluses or recording levers which were actuated by many Tambours. A
manometer is placed on the right shoulder of the subject, the function of which
was to indicate the pressure in the bag, the pressure bag, is encased in a leather
cuff, pneumograph is strapped around the chest to record respiration. This type
of pneumograph or respiration applicator is still being used in some of the modern
instruments. He named his instrument “The Polygraph.”
 1925 – Leonarde Keeler (invention) – who had gain first-hand experience in
polygraph interrogations as a result of working with John A. Larson at the Berkely
Police Department, worked to devise a polygraph that used inked pens for
recording the relative changes in a subject’s blood pressure, pulse rate and
respiratory patterns, thus eliminating the need for smoking the paper and then
preserving it with shellac. In 1926, the Keeler Polygraph came on the market as
the new and improved lie detector, an enhanced version of John A. Larson’s
polygraph. In 1938, he further refined the polygraph when he added a third
physiological measuring component for the detection of deception – the
psychogalvanometer – a component that measured changes in a subject’s
galvanic skin resistance during questioning, and in doing so, thus signaling the
birth of the polygraph as we know it today. In 1938, Associated Research, Inc. in
Chicago, manufactured the first commercial polygraph instrument for Leonard
Keeler. In 1939, Keeler patented what is now understood as the prototype of the
modern polygraph – the Keeler Polygraph. He also devised the first structure test
questionss. The test would be made up, using relevant questions. Today Leonarde
Keeler is known as the “Father of Modern Polygraph”.
 1930 – Capt. Clarence D. Lee (complete instrument) – designed the Lee
Psychograph consists essentially of four units – Chart drive or recording unit,
Pneumograph or respiration unit, cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure
unit, and the Stimulus signal unit.
 1932 – Chester W. Darrow (complete instrument) – made a third modification to
the Larson Cardio-Pneumo Psychograph, by adding a galvanometer. The new
instrument included a psycho-galvanometric record, electrodes on the palm and
back of the hand, as well as a continuous blood pressure record, and a
pneumographic record.
 1947 – Max Wastl (product and accessories) – founded the Lafayette Instrument
Company which became a leading polygraph machine distributor.
 1947 – John E. Reid (idea/innovation) – a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed
the Control Question Technique (CQT), a polygraph technique that incorporated
control questions (comparison) which were designed to be emotionally arousing
for non-deceptive subjects and less emotionally arousing for deceptive
subjects than the relevant questions previously used. The Control Question
Technique (CQT) replaced the Relevant/Irrelevant Question Technique (RIT)
which used relevant or irrelevant questions during a polygraph examination. The
Reid Control Question Technique was considered a major breakthrough in
polygraph technology. The first examiner to use movement sensors to detect any
21
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

movement during examination. Together with Prof. Fred E. Inbau they wrote the
first comprehensive book in polygraph instrumentation entitled “Truth and
Deception.” Regarded as the “Father of Controls.”
 Dick Arther – operates the National School of Lie Detection, has further refined
the Reid Control Questions technique with his “Known Lie and Probable Lie
Questions techniques” and Guilt Complex questions.” This has been known as the
Arther technique.
 Richard Arther - Chief Associate of John E. Reid, the first to record simultaneously
on a regular basis chest and abdominal breathing patterns and discovered that
approximately one out of three time the two differed. The first to record also two
galvanic responses. The expert has two choices the self centering (automatic) and
floating (manual) modes.
 1948 – Leonarde Keeler (idea/innovation) – founded the world’s first polygraph
school – the Keeler Polygraph Institute in Chicago, Illinois.
 1951 – Paul Wilhelm & Donald Burns (innovative) – were known as Lie
Detector Speialist in Michigan City, Indiana, USA, who invented the Electronic
Psychometric using Electrodermal Response as a basis for lie detection. Both
have proven that a result of lie detection test using their instruments was 95%
accurate.
 1960 – Cleve Backster (idea/technique) – developed the Backster Zone
Comparison Technique (ZCT), a polygraph technique which primarily involved
an alteration of the Reid Question Sequencing. He also introduced a quantification
system of chart analysis, thus making it more objective and scientific than before.
This system for the numerical evaluation of the physiological data collected from
the polygraph charts has been adopted as standard procedure in the polygraph
field today. He also introduced the “Symptomatic question (myth)” to disclose
whether or not an outsider issue is bothering the subject. He placed a “Time Bar
(myth)” on the comparison question to keep that question away from the time of
occurrence of the issue so that it does not interfere with reactions to the issue in
questions.
 1960 – Richard I. Golden – presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of the
American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas. He use existing control
question technique but requiring the subject to answer each test question twice.
The first time truthfully and the second time with a lie. This is for the purpose of
comparing the subject’s truthful answer with a known lie to the same question.
 1970 – Joseph F. Kubis (invention) – was the first researcher to use potential
computer applications for the purpose of Polygraph chart analysis.
 1988 – John Kircher & David Raskin (Innovation) – developed the Computer
Assisted Polygraph system (CAPS) which incorporate the 1st algorithm to be
used for evaluating physiological data collected for diagnostic purposes.
Computerized polygraphs entered the market in 1992.
 December 27, 1988 – the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) became law.
This federal law established guidelines for polygraph testing and imposed
restrictions on most employers.

22
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
By: JOJO PALALAY BAUTISTA,Ph.D.Crim.
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

 1993 – Dr. Dale Olsen & Johns Harris (innovation) – completed a software
program called PolyScore which is used a sophisticated mathematical algorithm
to analyze the polygraph data and to estimate a probability or degree of deception
or truthfulness in a subject.
 PolyScore – is a computerized polygraph chart scoring algorithm that uses
statistical probability to arrive at truthfulness or deception. It has been shown that
validated algorithms have exceeded 98% in their accuracy to quantify, analyze and
evaluate the physiological data collected from polygraph examinations
administered in real criminal cases.
 2003 – U.S. Department of Energy commissioned a review committee of the
National Academy of Science to study the scientific evidence on the Polygraph.

Today the polygraphist used two types of polygraph instruments the Analog and
Computerize polygraphs.

23