B

15 Vibrating string
Aim:
 Determine linear mass density of the wire, µ.
 Determination of the frequency of the Local A.C. mains.
 Determination of the velocity of the wave in Vibrating wire at the frequency of the Local
A.C. mains

Apparatus
Sonometer with wire, horseshoe magnet, small masses, mains transformer Y [240V-6V] and a
weighing balance.
 Method

Determine linear mass density of the wire, µ.

To find the mass per meter, µ, of the wire you are given a cut known length X [at least 50cm] of
the wire and weighs it carefully. If more convenient, µ can be found by measuring the diameter
of the wire at three different places in perpendicular directions to the length of the wire and
obtaining the density of the material from physical tables.

1 2 3 Mean

Length of wire X (m)

Mass, m, of X meters of wire, (kg)

Diameter of the wire (m)

 Using appropriate formulae and method determine the, µ, of the wire.

Measurement of the frequency, f, of the Local A.C. mains

Clean the wire X where it passes over the metal pulley P and at the far end where it is
attached to sonometer S. Connect the wire, taking one lead from the pulley in series
with the rheostat R and the 6V secondary of the mains transformer Y. Place the magnet
G so that the wire passes between its poles and adjust the current [which may be
checked with an ammeter] until the wire can be felt to vibrate slightly without becoming
appreciably heated. Weigh the scale pan on the weighing balance and hang it on the
wire. Adjust the positions of the bridges A and B until the wire between them resonates
in its fundamental mode the magnet being at the center of AB. Measure the length L of
the vibrating wire between A and B and record. Then Place a load of about 20g in the
scale pan and get the combined mass M of the load and scale pan and repeat the above
steps. Vary the load to about 120g in steps of 20g and each time measure the new
resonating length.
 Li near mass density of the wire,µ, =………………..g/m
Mass Tension ,T. Length of fundamental L2
mode ,L.
Scale pan

Draw a graph of T against L2

 Using the graph determination of the frequency of the Local A.C. mains.

Determination of the velocity of the wave in the

string:
Now, hang a single mass of approximately 20g on the wire
Adjust the positions of the bridges A and B until the wire between them resonates in its
fundamental mode (1 loop) the magnet being at the center of AB. Measure the length L
of the vibrating wire between A and B and record. Then move the bridges A and B to get
the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth loops. Each time measure the length L of the
vibrating wire between A and B and record.

Tension on the wire=………….N linear mass density of the wire,µ, =………………..g/m

frequency of the wave=………….. Hz.

No. of loops, N, Resonating length, L.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Draw a graph of L against N
Using the graph determination of the velocity of the wave in the vibrating string at Local A.C.
mains.
W4 THE RIPPLE TANK

AIMS: The aims of this experiment are:

1. To observe the characteristics and behavior of water waves.

2. To show the analogy between water waves and light waves.

APPARATUS
Water ripple tank, Metal reflectors , Low voltage power unit (3.0 V D-C) ,Ammeter ,Variable
resistor, Motor Vibrator, Lamp, Level.
INTRODUCTION
The ripple tank is an apparatus for studying the phenomena of water waves. The wave generator
is a vibrator set into motion by a 3V.D.C Motor. A variable resistor in series with the motor
varies its speed and therefore the frequency of vibrations. A lamp illuminates (you are advised
to use your electronic gadget e.g your phone –torch) the wave pattern. The wave pattern is
projected on the table through the transparent bottom of tank. If one wishes to copy a wave
pattern on paper the paper can be spread out on the table under the ripple tank. When measuring
wavelengths or other distances remember to measure these lengths as they are in the ripple tank.
For calibration place an object of known length on the bottom of the ripple tank and measure the
length of its image. The ripple tank should be levelled using the spirit level. Use so much water
that it stands midways on the sloping walls. The wave generator with wooden plate and motor
has to be raised or lowered so that the wave source just touches the water surface. The wave
pattern can be ‘stopped’ by viewing through stroboscope.
Single point source
1. Screw the bent metal rod onto the front of the place of the wave generator so that the rod
points forwards. Switch on the power and let the motor run slowly observe and draw a
fig.1.
2. Place small pieces of paper on the water and see if they move. Are the pieces of paper
displaced at the wave speed? If not explain your observations.
3. Switch off the power and remove the bent metal rod. Lower the plane generator to touch
just touch the water surface.
4. Place the plane reflector at a small distance in front of the generator.
5. Observe the reflected pulse and draw a fig.2. Where is the centre from which the
reflected pulse seems to diverge? Compare your observations with the plane mirror
image of a light source.
6. Repeat step (3) using the two reflectors with a gap of 1-2cm between them observe and
draw a fig.3. Where is the source from which the transmitted pulse seems to diverge?
Compare your observation with Huygens’s principle.
7. Place the metal parabolic reflector (convex side) so that the point source is at its focus.
Give a single push to the generator to produce a wave pulse. Observe (and draw a fig.4 )
the reflected pulse and compare with the effect of a parabolic mirror when a light source
is placed at its focus.
8. Repeat 7 metal parabolic reflector (concave side) observe and draw a fig.5

Two Synchronous point sources

Attach the two bent metal rods to the plate of the wave generator. Start the vibrator. Observe and
observe and draw a fig.6 the curves where the two waves interfere so that the water is at rest.
Vary the frequency of the waves by increasing the speed of the vibrator and observe observe and
draw a fig.7 then explain the effect on the interference pattern.

A Plane Wave
1. Use the plate of the wave generator itself as a source of waves. Produce waves with a
wavelength about 2.5cm or to do this move the plate to and fro by hand.
2. Place the long reflector diagonally in the tank and observe reflected waves. Compare
your observation with the law of reflection for light observe and draw a fig.8.
3. Replace the long reflector by the two shorter reflectors parallel to the wave fronts 5-6cm
away from the wave generator and as far as possible from each other. Generate waves by
hand or with the motor (about 2cm) observe observe and draw a fig.9. Decrease the
distance between the two reflectors until about 1cm. Observe the wave fronts observe
and draw a fig.10 then compare this with Huygen’s principle.
 4. Place the very short reflector between the two reflectors so that two open spaces of 1cm
or less are left between the reflectors. Observe (and draw a fig.11) the interferences
pattern and compare with the results of experiment W4.2 and the experiment of Young.
5. Now remove the reflectors and put the rectangular transparent plane block in the ripple
tank at about 5cm from the plane wave generator. The length of the block should parallel
to the wave fronts observe and observe and draw a fig.12.
6. Repeat 5 above with the block length about 450 to the wave front observe and draw a
fig.13

The Report
The report should include the observations with carefully drawn neat figures and explanation
where applicable as well as answers to every question.

V - VISCOSITY
1
Experiment 6: Viscosity (Stoke’s Law)
Objective
Calculate the viscosity η of glycerin.

Apparatus
• Graduated glass cylinder (50 cm long)
• Steel ball-bearings
• Conical Flask
• Stopwatch
• Micrometer
• Digital Balance
• Magnet attached to a string

Procedure
The viscosity of a liquid can be measured using a viscometer. A viscometer consists of a graduated glass cylinder filled with the liquid in
question, in our case glycerin. Small metallic spheres are dropped in to the liquid from the top. After falling sufficiently the spheres acquire
terminal velocity. The viscosity of glycerin is given by
η = 2 9 (ρ − σ)g r2 t d (1)
where
• η is the viscosity of glycerin
• ρ is the density of the sphere
• σ is the density of glycerin
• g is the acceleration due to gravity
• r is the radius of the sphere
• d is the distance between two markers (AB = BC = d)
• t is the time it takes for the sphere to cover the distance d
 Setup
The cylinder is filled with glycerin. The magnet tied to a string is gently lowered to the bottom of the cylinder such that a portion of the string
hangs over the top edge. The purpose of the magnet is to aid in retrieving the metallic spheres we drop in to the glycerin. All of the spheres will
fall to the bottom and become attached to the magnet. When one wants to retrieve the spheres simply pull on the string to raise the magnet and
the attached spheres. Use tissue paper to handle the string so as to avoid getting glycerin on your hands or clothes. Don’t worry, glycerin is
perfectly harmless and washes out easily. Place the conical flask on top of the cylinder. The metallic spheres are to be dropped through the
conical flask to ensure that they fall through the center of the cylinder.

Choosing Markers
The first part of the experiment is determining where terminal velocity is achieved. Three points/markers (A, B, C) need to be chosen on the
cylinder such that the distance AB = BC. For example if A is at the 15 cm mark (on the scale attached to the cylinder) and B is at 30 cm then C
must be placed at 45 cm so that AB = BC = d = 15 cm.
A
d
B
d
C

Initially choose A and B arbitrarily. Choose C to ensure that AB = BC. Now drop a sphere and measure the time t1 and t2 it takes for the sphere
to move from A to B and B to C respectively. If terminal velocity has been achieved before the sphere reaches A we expect t1 = t2 (the two
values should be within 0.5 s). If terminal velocity is not achieved before A then we will observer t1 > t2 since the velocity at A will be larger
than at B. If the two times don’t match move the point A lower to allow the sphere to achieve terminal velocity. Move B and C accordingly.
Repeat until the two times are approximately equal.
Tabulation
Record the position of the markers in a table with the following format. Don’t forget to write down the units.

A( ) B ( ) C ( )

Record the constants in a table with the following format. Pay close attention to the units of d.

D(cm) Ƿ(g/cm3) g (cm/s2 )

Record your observations in a table with the following format.

D(cm) M(g) t 1(s) t 2 (s)

where D is the diameter of the sphere, t1 is the time it takes for the sphere to move from A to B, and t2 is the time it takes for it to move from B to C.
Constants
The density of the glycerin σ is written on its container (bottle). Note it down in g/cm3 . We also require the acceleration due to gravity. We will use the value g = 981
cm/s 2
Observation
Choose 5 spheres with different diameters. For each sphere measure its mass m using the digital balance, and its diameter D using the micrometer. Note these down in
your table. Now drop the sphere in to the glycerin using the conical flask placed on top of the cylinder. Use two stop-watches to measure the time t1 it takes to move
from A to B and time t2 it takes to move from B to C. Note these down in the table as well.
Calculations
Use your measurements to calculate and record the derived quantities in a table with the following format

D (cm) R(cm) Ƿ(g/cm3 t(s) ᶯ

where r = D 2 ρ = m V = 3 m 4πr3 t = t1 + t2 2 Use (1) to calculate both the values and units of η.
Results
Having performed the experiment using 5 spheres you should now have 5 values for the viscosity. Calculate the average and standard deviation of these values to
come up with a final value for the viscosity of glycerin

C11 OHMS LAW

AIM:
 To find the true values of the resistors R1, R2 and R3 given.
 R = R1 + R2 + R3 for resistances in series
 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 for resistances in parallel

Apparatus
 Theory

Ohm’s law for a metal conductor states that potential difference, V, between two ends of the
conductor is directly proportional to the current, I, flowing through it, at a constant temperature.
i.e. V = RI, where R is a constant known as resistance (in ohms)
Method A
1. Determine the resistances R1, R2 and R3 separately as above.
2. Determine the resistances R1, R2 and R3 in series.
3. Determine the resistance of the three (R1, R2 and R3) resistors in parallel.
Record all values on the worksheet and test to see if the relationships for resistors in series and in
parallel hold. Use your experimental values of V and I to plot graphs of V versus I. A straight-
line graph proves ohm/s law. Find Rs from the slope of your graphs.
Method B
Repeat the first part of the experiment using a semiconductor and draw the graph of V against I. Set
the potentiometer R so that the voltage in V and the current in A are zero. Adjust R so that voltage
V increases in suitable small steps such as 0.2V from 0 to the maximum such as IV, and record the
values of V and I from the meters. Reverse the diode D in the circuit. Record the value of I at a
reverse voltage of IV.
R1 R2 R3 Series Parallel
V (v) I V (v) I V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (A) I (A)
(A) (A)

From graphs From formula % Difference

R (series)
R (parallel)
Compare your experimental results with those obtained using the formula. Read the actual values
of the resistors using the colour code and compare with your experimental values. Discuss the
sources of errors in these measurements on resistance. Is this the most accurate way of measuring
resistance? If not, what would you use and why? Comment on your graph. Is ohm’s law verified?
Use a resistance meter to check your values for Rs. Comment