university of copenhagen

Nursery techniques for tropical and subtropical pines

Napier, I.A.; Willan, R.L.

Publication date:
1983

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Citation for published version (APA):

Napier, I. A., & Willan, R. L. (1983). Nursery techniques for tropical and subtropical pines. Forskningscentret for
Skov & Landskab. Technical Note no. 4.

Download date: 21. févr.. 2025

 ISBN 0902-3224

TECHNICAL NOTE NO. 4 - SEPTEMBER 1983

Re-issued September 1994

NURSERY TECHNIQUES FOR TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL

PINES

Compiled by
I. A. Napier & R. L. Willan
Titel
Nursery techniques for tropical and subtropical pines

Authors
I. A. Napier & R. L. Willan

Publisher
Danida Forest Seed Centre

Series - title and no.

Technical Note No. 4.

DTP
Melita Jørgensen

Citation
Napier, I.A. & R. L. Willan 19, 1983. Nursery techniques for tropi-
cal and subtropical pines. Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebæk,
Denmark.

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name and/or any part of this report for sales and advertising purposes.

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 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Acknowledgments 1

2. NURSERY SYSTEMS 2

3. SEED, SEEDBEDS AND SOWING 3

Time of sowing 3

Seed pretreatment 3

Floating 3

Sowing in seedbeds or germination trays 3

Transplanting or “pricking out” 5

Other germinating media; “pregermination” 5

Direct sowing into containers 6

Direct sowing in beds for production of bare-rooted plants 7

4. MANAGEMENT OF CONTAINER PLANTS 7

Types of container 7

Size of polythene containers 7

Growing medium 9

Fertilisation in containers 10

Root pruning of container plants 11

Root coiling effects 11

5. RAISING PLANTS FOR BARE-ROOT PLANTING 13

6. RAISING PLANTS IN SWAZILAND BEDS 15

7. CULTURAL TECHNIQUES COMMON TO CONTAINER-GROWN

AND BARE-ROOT NURSERY STOCK 16

Protection 16

Shade and shelter 17

Irrigation 17

Hardening off 18

Culling 18

Period in the nursery 19

8. REFERENCES 19
1. INTRODUCTION

The Danida Forest Seed Centre has initiated a series of seed leaflets on species
of importance for afforestation in the tropics and subtropics. Each leaflet will
contain a section on nursery techniques. In the case of tropical and sub-tropical
pines, however, the same techniques have often proved suitable for a number of
pine species, and variations in nursery technique are more often adapted to dif-
ferences in local environmental conditions than to differences between species.
For this reason, the present technical note seeks to summarize nursery techniques
which are applicable to a wide range of tropical and subtropical pines; this allows
the nursery section in the individual pine seed leaflets to be shortened to cover
only nursery characteristics peculiar to that species. This note will be distributed
together with each pine seed leaflet, to eliminate any risk of information on nurs-
ery techniques becoming separated from information on seed characteristics.

This note is based largely on the paper “Tecnicas de vivero para la producción de
coniferas en los tropicos” (Nursery techniques for the production of conifer seed-
lings within the tropics), prepared by I. A. Napier for the second IUFRO work-
ing group (S1.07.09) symposium: forest plantations in the tropics: their role as a
source of energy (44). Other important references are 22, 36, 49 and 61 for Pinus
caribaea, 13, 22 and 30 for P. oocarpa, 4, 13 and 29 for P. kesiya, 66 for P. patula,
10, 11, 11a, 16, 59 and 62 for tropical and sub-tropical pines in general and 23
and 53 for basic tropical nursery practice.

The most important species of tropical and sub-tropical pines for afforestation
are Pinus caribaea (all 3 varieties, but mainly var. hondurensis), P. oocarpa, P. kesiya,
P. merkusii, P. patula, P. elliottii and P. taeda.

Acknowledgments

The authors are very grateful to the following persons for valuable comments on
the text of the earlier IUFRO paper or of the present technical note: A.M.J. Rob-
bins, A.L.A. Wolffsohn and J.J. Granhof.

------

Numbers in brackets refer to reference numbers, cf. p.18

1
2. NURSERY SYSTEMS

Nursery systems for pines include (l) Systems designed to raise plants for “bare-
root” planting - without soil attached to their roots (2) Systems designed to raise
plants for “ball-root” planting, in which each plant is planted complete with the
cylinder or block of soil in which they have been grown in the nursery.

There are several variants of these systems. In both systems it is possible either to
sow seed at a high density in a seedbed or germinating medium and subsequent-
ly transplant the germinated seedlings to their containers or transplant beds, or
to sow the seed directly into its final position in the nursery and thus avoid the
operation of transplanting.

Among systems for production of bare-root plants, the main distinction is be-
tween those which use intensive methods of conditioning the plants in readiness
for planting by means of root pruning, and those which include little or no root-
pruning. Among systems for production of ball-root plants, the main distinction
is between individual containers, in which the soil of each container is separated
from that of its neighbour by the container wall, and multiple containers (beds,
trays, boxes), in which the soil is continuous and intermingling of plant roots
can only be restricted by periodic root pruning.

Bare-root planting with minimal root pruning is used with success in cool tem-
perate conditions, where planting can be done in a season when plants are dor-
mant and evapotranspiration low. When tried in the tropics, it has almost invari-
ably produced disastrous results, especially in the drier areas where evapotran-
spiration is high and breaks in the rainy season are common but unpredictable.
Container plants have therefore been standard practice for pines in the tropics
for some decades and, since the advent of cheap polythene in the nineteen fif-
ties, the individual container has largely displaced the multiple container.

More recently, bare-root planting of pines conditioned by regular root pruning

has been successfully carried out in several tropical areas in Queensland and
Latin America. It is significantly cheaper than container planting but requires
meticulous care and skilled personnel. It should only be adopted in new areas
after careful small-scale testing.

Because of its proven reliability over a wide range of conditions and local skills,
the individual container system receives most emphasis in this note.

2
3. SEED, SEEDBEDS AND SOWING

Time of sowing

The storage of pine seed is not a problem, therefore sowing dates in the nursery
can be determined by the length of the nursery period, and the timing of the
planting season.

Seed pretreatment

The low altitude tropical pines have no dormancy and germinate readily, so no
pretreatment is needed. The speed and uniformity of germination of P. patula
and P. taeda can be improved by pretreatment, e.g. in P. taeda from 44% (control)
to 58% (24 hours soaking in water) to 81% (24 hours soak followed by 21 days
naked stratification in polythene bags at 3-4°C) in 14 days (10). Soaking in 0.5%
hydrogen peroxide, polyethylene glycol, or kelpak (a seaweed concentrate) was
also effective in speeding up germination in P. patula (16, 20), but results prob-
ably do not justify the cost of the chemicals. In all cases final germination of the
control after 28 days differed little from the treated seed; therefore, if germina-
tion spread over several weeks is acceptable, it is possible to dispense with pre-
treatment even for these species.

Floating

Placing seeds in water to separate the sinkers (mostly sound, full seeds) from the
floaters (mostly empty seeds) has proved effective with P. patula (66). Its main
use is to improve the efficiency of direct sowing into containers and, in the case
of P. patula, it can be combined with a pretreatment to hasten germination, as
described above. Floating is not equally applicable to all species, in P. kesiya it
was found that 70% of floaters were viable and a good proportion of sinkers were
empty (65).

Sowing in seedbeds or germination trays

The advantage of sowing seed at high density in a special section of the nursery
is that it is easier to concentrate protective measures, during the critical germina-
tion period, over a small area than to spread them over the entire nursery. These
measures may include shade and mulching, netting against birds and rodents,
and fungicidal or insecticidal treatment. Equally important is the more precise
control of quantity, frequency and droplet size of watering which is possible on
a restricted area. The method is economic in seed (only one germinated seedling
need be pricked out per container) but is more expensive than direct sowing, be-
cause of the additional operation of pricking out.

3
Seed is commonly sown broadcast into beds or small germination trays filled
with coarse sand which may be previously sterilised if required. In Honduras
sufficient pine seed is sown to produce approximately 4000 transplants per m2,
and covered with a thin layer of sand. The trays are elevated, protected against
rodents, and shaded. Transplanting takes place 2 to 3 days after germination
(44). Lower sowing rates (2000-3000 per m2) may be advisable if damping off is
a problem or if transplanting is done later, e.g. in Ivory Coast a sowing rate of
2800/m2 was recommended for transplanting 3 weeks after germination (28).
Mixing seeds of the smaller-seeded pines with twice their volume of sand can
improve the evenness of broadcast sowing (66). After sowing, the seeds should
be covered with a shallow layer of sand. Depth of sowing varies with the size of
the seed. In general sowing depth should be equal to 1 to 2 times the diameter
of the seed. Deep sowing delays and reduces germination, and may increase the
likelihood of damping off. Insufficient sowing depth, on the other hand, creates
a serious risk of drying out and removal by birds, rodents, ants or other insects.
A depth of 5-10 mm is suitable for most species of tropical pine (26, 32, 44).

The endosperm and cotyledons contain sufficient nutrient reserves to support

the newly germinated seedling for several weeks, hence there is no need for
fertilizers or organic matter in the germination medium. They should rather be
excluded because they increase the risk of damping off.

A coarse, “sharp” washed sand or grit makes an excellent medium because on

drying it does not form a surface crust which would form a physical obstacle to
germination (49, 66). It is important that the surface be exactly level and the seed
covering firmed, so that there is no possibility of surface wash during watering.

Shade is commonly used over the germination area. It may be removed or re-
duced after germination starts, or retained until after transplanting, according
to local climatic conditions. Surface mulches e.g. of pine needles are sometimes
used, to reduce evaporation in hot areas and to retain warmth in cold areas; they
are removed when germination starts. Watering is best done by knapsack sprayer
which produces a fine mist and avoids disturbance to the seed during germina-
tion. Sufficient water is applied to keep the soil constantly moist, but overwa-
tering can increase losses from damping off fungi and must be avoided. Good
results have been obtained by use of polythene sheeting over the germination
beds to retain moisture (32, 49). After the initial watering at the time of sowing,
it is possible to reduce the frequency of subsequent watering or to dispense with
it altogether until germination starts. Shade is essential with polythene sheeting,
to avoid overheating.

Damping off can be a serious threat to seedbeds in some areas. Cultural meas-
ures which reduce the risk include (l) Use of a sterile or near sterile germinating
medium (2) Use of an acid germinating medium (alkaline soils favour damping
off) (3) Sowing at low density and not too deep (4) Avoidance of overwater-
ing (5) Frequent changing of the germinating medium (66). Use of fungicides is
sometimes effective. Seed pelleting with Rhizoctol and a methyl cellulose sticker
gave good results in coastal nurseries in Tanzania (31). Proprietary fungicides, ap-
plied as a drench both before and after sowing, include Perenox (2 g per litre per

4
2 m2), Thiram (25 g/m2) and Daconil (1.5 g per litre per m2), Captan, Zineb, Cu-
man and Blitox (8, 49, 66). Perenox gives good results on alkaline soils with pH 6
or more but may become toxic to seedlings on more acid soils (48).

Transplanting or “pricking out”

The timing of transplanting of pines into containers or transplant beds may

vary from 2 to 3 days to 30 to 40 days after germination. Obviously sowing
density must be adjusted in accordance with the time of transplanting. Best re-
sults in many countries are obtained by transplanting the seedlings 2 to 3 days
after germination when they have the size and form of a matchstick, with the
seedcoat still attached (29, 44, 49). They should be lifted from the trays by the
seedcoat and placed in a dish of water. Fifty seedlings are placed in each dish
and transplanting is done immediately. It may be necessary to shade the beds
for a short period after transplanting depending on local climatic conditions. If
birds cause damage in the transplant beds by peeking the seedcoats to eat the
endosperm, it is advisable to postpone transplanting until the seedcoat has fallen
off. The seedlings should then be lifted by the cotyledons. They should never be
handled by the stem, which is easily bruised and then becomes more susceptible
to attack by damping off fungi. If transplanting is delayed for several weeks and
root length is over 3-4 cm, it is necessary to sever the last one third with a sharp
knife. This prevents the formation of a distorted J root and stimulates lateral root
branching (38, 44). A small stick or dibbler should be used to make a hole about
5 cm deep in the container or transplant bed and to firm the soil round the root
after its insertion. A practical way of ensuring uniform planting depth is to mark
the stick, for example with a rubber band.

Other germinating media; “pregermination”

As alternatives to the traditional seedbed or tray, several other methods have

been used successfully to “pregerminate” seeds. They can be used in an office
or seed store, where conditions can be controlled even more closely than in the
nursery. Moist vermiculite has been used in East Africa and Malaysia (40, 63).
Seed is mixed with 2-5 times its volume of moist (but not too wet) coarse grade
3/16 inch (5 mm) vermiculite and stored in polythene bags at room temperature.
When germination starts, seeds are inspected daily and any seeds with radicles
emerging are sown out and covered in the usual way. Seedling emergence then
occurs in 3-4 days. For P. kesiya it was found that damping off losses were much
less among pregerminated seedlings than among seedlings raised from sowings in
a normal seed bed (40).

In Sabah (Malaysia) and Surinam seeds are sown on the top of a layer of washed
quartz sand in a tray or box which can be covered by a plastic lid or sheet (45,
61). Fungicide is applied and the medium is thoroughly moistened at sowing,
but no further irrigation should be needed until germination starts. A sowing
rate of 0.25 to 0.5 kg per m2 is used. Germinated seedlings are transplanted into
containers when radicles are 1-2 cm long.

5
Moist blotting paper is used as the germinating medium in Thailand and Viet-
nam (29, 55). A rectangular sheet of blotting paper of about 24 x 60 cm is folded
from one end to make 9 furrows each 2 cm deep. 30-50 seeds are sown in each of
8 furrows, the central furrow holds a cotton wick 3 mm in diameter. The furrows
are folded together and the remaining 20 cm of unfolded paper is wrapped around
them to form a pack, secured at each end with rubber bands. The packs are placed
on glass shelves over trays filled with water, in which the wicks are immersed. De-
tails of seed lot, sowing date etc. are written on each pack with waterproof pencil.
Captan is dissolved in the water as an inhibitor to fungus growth on the wicks
which may otherwise cause blockage of water transport as the wicks become en-
cased in mould. When germination starts packs can be inspected daily and germi-
nated seedlings are transplanted into containers when radicles are 1.5 to 2 cm long.

Direct sowing into containers

This practice has tended to replace the use of the traditional seedbed in recent
years. It avoids the expense of transplanting and the risk of casualties or damage
associated with careless transplanting - mechanical damage, damping off, distort-
ed roots, drought losses. However it is more wasteful of seed and it spreads the
application of any protective measures necessary during the germination period
throughout the nursery. The more fertile soil mixture in the containers may itself
also constitute a greater damping off risk than the pure sand of the seedbed.

With direct sowing, 2 or more seeds are usually sown per container. After germina-
tion, containers that have no seedlings are restocked by transplanting from those
that have 2 (or more) seedlings. The lifting from the pot soil, however, contains the
same above mentioned risks associated with trans-planting. If necessary, extra trans-
plants are produced separately in germination trays or seedbeds. Surplus seedlings
in the containers are uprooted or cut off at soil level with a scalpel.

The precise number of seeds to sow depends on the expected germination of the
seedlot. A rule of thumb proposed for Pinus caribaea (52) is:

1) 85%+ germination : 1 seed in each container

2) 65-84% germination: 1 seed in 50%, 2 seeds in 50% containers
3) 50-64% germination : 2 seeds in each container
4) 30-49% germination : 2 seeds in 50%, 3 seeds in 50% containers.

The seed should be placed in shallow depressions (5-10 mm deep) in the centre
of the container and covered with the soil mix or a layer of coarse sand. Shade
is not normally required for the germination and early growth of directly sown
pines except in extremely hot locations. However, a mulch of fresh pine needles
has been found beneficial in Honduras. This conserves moisture and protects the
seed from the effects of the sprinkler irrigation systems. The mulch is removed
10 to 13 days after sowing during the period of maximum germination (44).
Considerable care must be shown however, to ensure that diseases (e.g. Brown
Needle Disease) are not brought in with the pine needles.

6
Direct sowing in beds for production of bare-rooted plants

Sowings are made in drills in order to allow use of tools for root pruning. 15 cm
between drills is a convenient spacing. Sowing density depends on expected germina-
tion and survival of plants. A minimum final spacing in the rows of 2.5 to 4.5 cm
is recommended, equivalent to 150 to 250 plants per m2 (15, 44, 54). A pine needle
mulch on the seedbed should assist germination. Shade may also be necessary after
germination in extremely hot locations but must be removed as early as possible.
Seedlings must be thinned to their final spacing 40 to 60 days after sowing.

4. MANAGEMENT OF CONTAINER
PLANTS

Types of container

Multiple containers for production of ball-rooted plants include wooden boxes,

trays and half petrol tins. Individual containers can be made from locally avail-
able materials such as banana leaves, bamboo, veneer offcuts, paper, peat, asphalt
roofing paper, beer cans, milk packs, clay pots, blocks of compressed earth or
moulded clay, or coconut husk fibres. Individual containers of some materi-
als are aggregated in honeycomb units, e.g. paper pots, “Styroblock” and “Root
trainer”. These rigid containers usually have grooves running along their length,
and drainage holes at the base. The roots which are guided by the grooves grow
vertically down and out of the drainage hole at the bottom, rather than coiling
around the container. In the past they have proved too expensive in foreign ex-
change and have been considered to hold too small a volume of soil to be used
for large-scale tropical afforestation. Because of its cheapness and wide availabil-
ity, polythene is the most common container material for tropical pines.

Polythene containers may be cylindrical and open at both ends - “tubes” or

“sleeves”; or they may be gusseted and sealed at one end - “pots” or “bags”. Pots
should have about 20 holes (diameter about 6 mm) punched in the lower third
to ensure free drainage and root egress. Tubes are more time consuming to fill,
but are less liable to cause root distortion and are therefore preferable provided
the soil mixture used is reasonably cohesive. Black polythene of about 38 mi-
crons (150 gauge or 1.5 mils) is most commonly used, being preferred to trans-
parent polythene because it prevents the growth of algae and is more durable.

Size of polythene containers

Practice in regard to the size of polythene containers has varied greatly, even with-
in the same country over a period of time. Some examples are shown in Table 1.

Bulk density of moist soil is commonly well over 1, therefore the weight of soil
to be transported in container planting is considerable. A 1000 ha annual plant-

7
ing area using containers of 500 cm3 and a spacing of 3 x 3 m would involve a soil
weight of at least 550 metric tons to be transported from the nursery to the plant-
ing site; because of losses in handling and sieving, a considerably greater weight
would need to be transported from collection site to nursery. Research has aimed
at the reduction of container size from the large sizes used in early years to the
smallest size which will produce plants with a satisfactory survival and growth rate
in the field. Although height growth of nursery transplants is not greatly affected
by moderate reductions in container size (for the same volume, container length
has apparently a greater effect than container diameter (4, 29)), there is some evi-
dence that root collar diameter and both shoot and root mass are affected more
than height (32). Recently the recognition of the risk of delayed ill effects from
root coiling induced by polythene containers has tended to reverse the previous
trend towards smaller and smaller containers. Sizes within the range of 200-400
cm3 are now most favoured, but commonsense variations are: (l) Bigger contain-
ers are needed for arid conditions (2) The bigger the plant size at planting, the big-
ger the container needed, e.g. the small container used in Fiji is designed to raise
small plants 15 cm tall, the large one used in Indonesia aims at large plants 60-70
cm tall (23). If weed growth is likely to be a problem, large plants are preferred,
but with intensive site preparation and weeding smaller plants are acceptable. (3)
Smaller containers can be used with a fertile than with an infertile potting mixture.
(4) The smaller the container the more essential it is to take precautions against
root coiling (see below).

Table 1. Sizes of polythene containers

Dimensions
Country References
Lay flat Diameter Length Volume*)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3)
Malaysia (“large”) 12.0 7.5 17.5 820 (49)
“ (“small”) 7.9 5.0 15.0 310 (49)
Nigeria (standard in 1960s
in savanna) 12.5 8.0 25.0 1240 (34)
Zambia (“standard”) in 1960s
Nigeria (savanna conditions) ] 12.5 8.0 15.0 750 (34,59)
Zambia (minipot since about 1970) 7.5 4.8 10.0 180 (13)
Colombia 3.9 2.5 10.0 50 (35)
Colombia 9.4 6.0 15.0 420 (14)
Ivory Coast 15.7 10.0 20.0 1570 (28)
Indonesia 11.8 7.5 20.0 880 (23)
Tanzania, Swaziland,
South Africa (Natal)
] 10.0 6.4 10.0 320 (11,23,56)
Honduras 7.9 5.0 12.5 250 (44)
Thai 7.9 5.0 11.5 230 (29)
Vietnam 7.1 4.5 10.0 160 (55)
Fiji 3.8 2.4 15.2 70 (23)

*) Rounded to nearest 10 ccs. Maximum volume assuming containers are filled to the brim.
Effective volume is normally reduced by 5-10% because soil surface remains 1/2-1 cm
below the rim of the container.

8
Growing medium

Due to high transport costs and in some cases high cost of procurement, forest
nursery growing media are usually dictated by the local availability of suitable
material. Thus soil based growing media are the most common. The medium
should be well drained, but contain sufficient organic material and/or clay to re-
tain moisture and nutrients and to have the cohesion necessary to form a root ball
which does not disintegrate when the container is removed. In some areas the soil
mixture contains a number of different components e.g. the “Muguga mixture”
used in Kenya has 5 parts forest topsoil, 2 parts local peat, 1 part clay, 1 part rotted
horse manure and 1 part 6 mm crushed stone (38). Less elaborate mixtures consist-
ing exclusively or mainly of local topsoil are in common use. The optimum texture
is light sandy loam and the most common modification required is to add sand to
any topsoil which has a high clay content. A maximum clay/silt content of 40%
is prescribed in Honduras (44), while Malaysia and Zambia aim at not more than
20% (49, 59). A mineral soil/sand mixture is heavy. The inclusion of organic mate-
rial in the medium reduces its weight and can improve growth. However, it may
also encourage the development of fungal pathogens so care is required in its use.
Peat, sphagnum moss, bagasse, vermiculite, coconut husk fibre and sawdust have
been used to lighten soils (3, 11, 37, 44). Fresh organic matter in the soil may cause
temporary yellowing and growth check in the nursery because soil organisms use
nitrogen during the breakdown of the organic matter, rendering it unavailable to
the young pines. This problem can be overcome by storing the soil mixture moist
under a covering of grass for several months before use, to allow time for the or-
ganisms to break down the humic matter (21, 51).

When soil and sand are used, they must first be sieved. A sieve of 2-3 cm mesh is
sufficient to remove stones and roots without losing the crumb structure of the
soil. The mixture must be homogeneous to promote uniform growth; mixing may
be done by hand but the use of a concrete mixer will improve the homogeneity of
the mixture.

The nutrient status of the medium is not as important as its texture because the
former is easily modified by fertilization (see following section). Acidity, however,
is important. Most pines perform best in the nursery at pH 5.0-5.5, although older
trees will grow excellently on soils of even higher pH after establishment in planta-
tion. Nursery problems are compounded if alkaline soil is associated with alkaline
irrigation water. Soil pH in the nursery may be reduced by either importing acid
soil from another area or by artificial acidification through the mixing of alumin-
ium sulphate or flowers of sulphur with the soil and moist storage of the mixture
for 3 months before use. In Tanzania dosages of about 2 g per litre of soil of flow-
ers of sulphur and 15 g/l of aluminium sulphate were effective in reducing soil pH
from nearly 8 to less than 6, while pH of water was reduced from pH 8 to pH 5 by
dissolving 25 g of aluminium sulphate per 100 litres of water (47, 64).

When introducing pines to areas in which they are not native, it is necessary to
ensure that their roots have mycorrhizal associations. Inoculation of the seedlings
with the mycorrhizal fungi, whilst they are still in the nursery, is the most practical
approach. A small amount of topsoil from established plantations, mixed with the

9
growing medium, is often the simplest method of guaranteeing inoculation. Where
this is not possible the seed or soil may be mixed with spores of the fungi.

The containers should be placed directly on the nursery soil surface in beds 1.2 m
wide, supported round the edges by boards, string or wire. Alternatively, they can
be placed in elevated frames with a mesh base to facilitate air root pruning. In hot
areas black polythene in the edge containers may overheat unless protected from
direct insolation by edge boards or heaped up soil.

Fertilisation in containers

The application of fertilisers is necessary in almost all tropical conifer nurseries in

order to produce healthy vigorous planting stock. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potas-
sium are the most commonly applied nutrients. Considerable variation exists with
respect to the amount of the nutrients that are applied in different nurseries. Table
2 gives an indication of this variation for the production of pines in different parts
of the world.

Table 2. Quantities of elemental NPK applied in pine nurseries

Total quantity of element

Species Country applied per seedling (mg) Source Remarks

N P K
P. caribaea Malaysia 131 *)
435 +57 43 (49)  for 5 cm
P. caribaea Surinam 84 37 69 (61)  lay flat
P. caribaea Nigeria 0 152 *) 0 (34) pots
P. caribaea/oocarpa Honduras 13 40 *) 0 (44)
P. kesiya Thailand 84 37 99 (29)
P. patula East Africa 48 *) 42 *) 32 *) (39)
P. patula Malawi 35 70 110 (25)
P. radiata South Africa 50 70 90 (18)

*) Added to potting mixture before pricking out. Other applications are in

liquid form as top dressing after pricking out.

In most tropical soils phosphorus is the most deficient element and addition of
P fertiliser is usually essential. There may be an important positive interaction
between N and P and between P and K (2). Fertilisers may be added to the pot-
ting mixture before sowing/transplanting, but current opinion in many countries
favours application in liquid form as a top dressing after the young seedlings are
established. Application of nitrogen before or immediately after germination can
lead to losses from damping-off fungi. Such applications should be delayed until
the seedlings are 6 weeks old (59). It is common practice to repeat application at
monthly or fortnightly intervals. As an example, in Surinam the first application
of NPK 14-14-14 fertiliser was made 2 1/2 - 3 months after pricking out and a
total of 6 applications were then made at fortnightly intervals to give the total
input of elemental NPK shown in Table 2 (61); in order to adjust fertilisation
to the needs of the growing plants, applications Nos. 3 & 4 were made at twice
the rate, and Nos. 5 & 6 at three times the rate, of the first two applications. In

10
Thailand the fertiliser schedule for P. kesiya, P. caribaea and P. oocarpa provides
for (1) 80 mg/container of NPKMg (12:12:17:2) starting the second month after
pricking out (2) 100 mg the 3rd month (3) 150 mg the 4th month and (4) 250 mg
the 5th, 6th and 7th month after pricking out. Fertilisers given to P. merkusii are
applied in doses between 1/3 to 1/2 of the above recommended doses because of
the higher sensitivity to fertiliser burn. In some countries it is considered prefer-
able to add P to the potting mixture before filling containers, while N & K are
applied later as a top dressing (44, 49); in Honduras an additional pinch of P is
added to each pot during filling as an insurance against uneven mixing.

Fertilisation with micronutrients is not usually necessary in forest nurseries. Per-

haps the most common problem is a chlorosis, resulting from the unavailability
of iron in soils of high pH. This can be corrected by dissolving 10 g of ferrous
sulphate in 1 litre of water and applying the solution as a foliar spray (22) or by
acidifying the soil as described in the previous section.

Clearly each nursery must develop its own fertiliser regime based on general ex-
perience and experiments. Nutrient requirements will depend on the species and
type of plant to be produced, the length of the growing period, the size of con-
tainer and the characteristics of the growing medium.

Root pruning of container plants

The commonest method of root pruning container stock is to lift the bag from
the ground and break the roots which have grown from the bottom of the con-
tainer into the nursery floor. Use of concrete, rammed laterite or polythene
sheeting as the base for the containers discourages downward rooting (59), but
the lifting operation is still needed to break any roots which may have penetrated
adjacent containers. An alternative used in Uganda is to place the containers on
a flat sandy surface and use a wire for regular pruning of vertical roots, exactly as
in the Swaziland bed method (described in chapter 6) (59). Containers may also
be placed on elevated frames with wire mesh bases, so that when the roots grow
out of the bag and into the air space, they are pruned automatically by air.

Periodic root pruning in the nursery will prevent the sudden loss of most of the ab-
sorbing roots at the time of lifting, which would occur if plants are allowed to root
through into the nursery floor. Other beneficial effects of root pruning are the re-
duction in growth rate, particularly shoot growth, the lignification of the stem and
the stimulation of the new lateral roots. However, it will not prevent the formation
of spiral roots within a polythene container. Additional measures need to be taken
at planting, as described in the following section on root coiling.

Root coiling effects

The roots of many pine plants raised in polythene containers tend to coil and
spiral round the interface between the soil block and the polythene. The effect
is most marked in large plants grown in small containers. It does not appear to

11
affect growth in the nursery but can cause serious problems later, as the weight
of the tree and the root thickness increase and the roots remain in a tight coil.
In extreme cases mutual strangulation of roots causes death of the trees from
starvation, more often losses are due to windthrow or basal stem snap. In Africa
average losses from stem snap of 2-3% up to age 7 have been observed but with
much higher losses in local patches (9). In a mixed P. oocarpa/P. patula stand of 6
years in Colombia losses from windthrow were heavy: 13% dead, 8% prostrate
but alive, 53% leaning more than 15° and only 26% erect; all windthrown trees
examined showed evidence of strangling roots (14).

The ill effects of coiling roots can be mitigated by the following measures (9, 12,
17, 58):

(1) Avoid use of containers which are excessively small in relation to the size
of plant at time of planting; a 30 cm plant needs a considerably bigger con-
tainer than a 10 or 15 cm plant.
(2) Remove container at planting.

(3) Immediately before planting, make 2 or 3 vertical incisions down the full
length of the soil cylinder to a depth of 1 cm, with sharp knife, razor blade
or hacksaw, to sever the coiling roots.
(4) Immediately before planting, cut off the bottom 1 cm of the soil cylinder to
remove the basal root coils.

The last two operations may sever around half of the root mass but do not seri-
ously affect survival (19). If these precautions are taken, the forester can utilise
the great advantage of the individual container system - full protection of roots
from desiccation between lifting and planting - while maintaining the future sta-
bility of his plantations.

12
5. RAISING PLANTS FOR BARE-
ROOT PLANTING

In most parts of the tropics plantation establishment with bare-rooted conifer

seedlings is limited. However, increasing use is being made of this type of seedling,
particularly in Australia and Latin America. The cost of establish-ment of planta-
tions with bare-rooted seedlings is often considerably lower than establishment
with container-grown seedlings. Moreover bare-rooted seedlings are less susceptible
to root deformation and its consequences in the subsequent development of the
plantations. Experience has shown that success with bare-root planting depends on
careful conditioning of the plants through root pruning, careful handling between
lifting and planting, and reliable rainfall in the planting season (42).

Schedules of intensive root pruning were first developed for P. radiata in New
Zealand (60), extended to P. patula, P. elliottii and P. taeda in South Africa (15)
and to P. caribaea and P. oocarpa in the low altitude tropics in Queensland, Hon-
duras and Venezuela (6, 43, 54).

For the production of bare-rooted seedlings, seed is directly sown into the beds
made from existing nursery soil, therefore care must be taken in the selection
of the nursery site. The soil should be moderately acid (pH 5.0 to 5.5), a sandy
loam in texture and well drained. Prior to bed formation 500-1000 kg/ha of triple
superphosphate fertiliser should be ploughed into the soil. Beds are typically 1.1
m wide for easy access, the length dependent on the space available, raised 10 to
15 cm above ground level, and may be boarded with wood to prevent erosion.
The seedlings are raised in rows parallel with the length of the bed which facili-
tates root pruning. With 15 cm spacing between drills, a bed 1.1 m wide would
hold 7 drills. As described on p. 6, sowing density should be aimed to produce a
final stocking of 150-250 plants per m2.

Root pruning may be done manually. A sharp flat spade is introduced at an an-
gle to one side of the seedling row, such that the tap root is cut at the required
depth. If the spade is then lifted slightly, the lateral roots are also snapped and
the soil is aerated. The spade is introduced at alternate sides of the seedling row
on successive pruning dates to promote the development of a balanced root
system. An alternative method is to use a piano wire to undercut vertical roots,
as described for Swaziland beds in the next chapter. In this case the lateral roots
need to be severed by knife or machete to complete the pruning operation. Me-
chanical root pruning has been developed in New Zealand and Queensland by
means of a tractor drawing a horizontal reciprocating blade to sever vertical roots
and vertical interdrill blades to sever the laterals (6, 60).

In Honduras pruning starts when the roots have grown to a depth in excess of
15 cm (12 to 14 weeks after sowing) and is repeated at fortnightly intervals (44).
In tropical Queensland, mechanical pruning starts when the shoots are 10-15
cm high, thereafter weekly undercutting has given better results than pruning at
longer intervals. Undercutting is carried out at 13-15 cm depth (54). Pruning of

13
lateral roots can be done less frequently, every 4 to 6 weeks (6, 60). In subtropi-
cal Queensland pruning can start when the plants are slightly larger (15-20 cm)
and be done at longer intervals of about a month (54). Plants should be lightly
watered immediately after pruning. Intensive root pruning as here described
increases the root/shoot ratio, the mass of fibrous absorbing roots, the amount
of stem lignification, and survival and growth after planting, as compared with
unpruned plants (5, 44).

Care between lifting and planting is also essential to success. Seedlings should be
lifted in the early morning after the soil has been well moistened. Lifting is done
with a spade and excess soil is removed from the roots by placing them briefly in
water, after which protection from desiccation is very important. Several meth-
ods of keeping the roots moist during transit have been used. In Honduras plants
are packed in groups of 500, with their roots wrapped in wet burlap sacking (42).
In Queensland dipping roots in a clay slurry of creamy consistency (1 kg/l) gave
the best survival, followed by a sodium alginate dip, with the control (dipped in
water) the poorest (7). Dipping in a clay or alginate slurry, then placing in a poly-
thene bag to conserve humidity, which in turn is wrapped in moist sacking to
prevent overheating of the polythene, may be the best combination.

Planting should be carried out as soon as possible after lifting, and always within
24 hours, starting at dawn and stopping in the late morning or whenever weather
conditions become unsuitable. On the northeast coastal plain of Honduras me-
chanical planting of P. caribaea produced better survival when planting was done
during the night (44).

Survival can also be improved by rigorous culling of plants, e.g. by rejecting all
plants with more than 50% of the stem still succulent and unlignified (54).

Because the nursery soil remains in situ from year to year with bare-root plant-
ing, regular measures are needed to maintain its productivity. At Beerburrum in
Queensland, the nursery is run on a three year cycle, one year of pine produc-
tion alternating with 2 years of grass fallow, and to restore nutrient status inor-
ganic fertilisers are added after soil sampling (23).

14
6. RAISING PLANTS IN SWAZILAND
BEDS

The Swaziland bed technique has been successfully employed for the production
of P. caribaea and P. patula in many African countries. Seedlings are transplanted
(or seed is directly sown) into raised beds at a spacing of 5 x 5 cm. The soil must
be sufficiently cohesive to enable it to be carved into blocks 5 x 5 cm square x 12
to 15 cm deep and the seedlings transported to the planting site in these blocks.
During the growing period in the nursery, root pruning is effected by crosscut-
ting and undercutting the bed, thus confining the root systems to soil blocks of
this size. In this way a compact fibrous root system is developed and the stems
are lignified. The seedlings are planted out with the soil block intact. Soil mix-
tures and use of fertilisers are as for individual containers.

The sides of the beds are revetted with bricks, concrete blocks or timber baulks to
retain the soil, and undercutting is done by inserting a flexible piano wire under
the revetting blocks at one end of the bed, so that two men pulling alternately
on the wire from each side of the bed can “saw” through the soil and prune off
any vertical roots. Lateral roots are pruned by crosscutting with a machete. The
ground below the bed should be level and fairly hard but permitting free drain-
age. At the time of planting, the revetments are removed and the bed is carved
up into sections suited to the size of box or tray used locally, e.g. 7 x 7 plants at
5 x 5 cm spacing would fit into a tray of 37.5 x 37.5 cm square. These are lifted
on a spade and dropped into the boxes for transport to the field; after planting
each consignment, the boxes are brought back to the nursery for re-use (46). The
final carve-up into single plant soil blocks is done immediately before planting.

In East Africa pruning is done in accordance with the following weekly sequence:
Week(l) Vertical pruning in one direction. Week (2) Vertical pruning at right angles
to that of week (l). Week (3) Undercutting with piano wire. Week (4) No pruning.
Week (5) Recommence cycle as in week (1) (66). The initial undercutting should be
done while the beds are still empty, so that any obstructions (uneven revetment,
clods of earth) can be removed without disturbance to the plants (50).

Raising of ball-rooted plants in Swaziland beds should preserve the roots from
desiccation almost as well as the container system. At the same time the method
produces a compact fibrous root system without danger of root coiling. The
number of operations involved makes it more expensive in labour than the
container system and the main disadvantage is the risk that, during a journey
over bumpy roads, a great part of the soil block gets shaken off the roots; in this
case the roots arrive at the planting site virtually bare-rooted but without the
benefit of protection from clay slurry, polythene bags, wet sacking etc. which is
incorporated in a deliberate bare-root planting system. It may be noted that the
Swaziland bed system (raised and revetted beds, undercutting by piano wire and
crosscutting by machete) could be easily adapted to bare-root planting simply by
taking the necessary precautions against desiccation between lifting and planting.

15
7. CULTURAL TECHNIQUES COM-
MON TO CONTAINER-GROWN
AND BARE-ROOT NURSERY
STOCK

Protection

Measures to reduce the incidence of damping off during and immediately after
the germination phase are described on page 4. Soil sterilization with methyl bro-
mide, as practised in Zambia, is an efficient form of protection against soil-borne
diseases. It also reduces the insect and weed seed population in the soil. However,
it is expensive, dangerous to use, and has undesirable effects such as the eradica-
tion of mycorrhizal fungi and the fungi which compete with the causal pathogens.
It is usually only employed where the control of insects, weeds or nematodes is
required in addition to the prevention of damping off. In Zambia 0.5 kg of methyl
bromide is used per 5000 “mini-pots” or 1000 “standard” pots (see Table 1) sealed
under polythene sheeting, and detailed prescriptions are in force to ensure both
efficiency and safety (13). Liquid formalin can also be used; in Nigeria 1 part of
formalin is diluted in 50 parts of water and the mixture is applied at a rate of 10
litres per m2 of bed, sealed under polythene for two days; the soil is then turned
frequently for up to a week until the smell vanishes, before sowing (22).

There are several foliage diseases which cause considerable losses in conifer nurs-
eries in different parts of the world. The following, which attack the pines, are
the most important: Brown Spot Needle Disease (Scirrhia acicola), Brown Needle
Disease (Cercoseptoria pini-densiflorae), and Dothistroma Needle Blight (Scirrhia
(Dothistroma) pini). See (27) for a description of these diseases and methods for
their control.

Insect pests cause locally important damage in forest nurseries. Cutworms and
crickets cut the hypocotyl of recently germinated seedlings. Efficient control can
be effected using organic phosphate insecticides, providing damage is detected at
an early stage. Similarly damage from the leaf cutting ant Atta sp. can be mini-
mised by applying a Mirex bait to the insect’s nest and pathways (1). In Central
America the pine tip moth Rhyacionia frustrana may cause losses when the seed-
lings are kept in the nursery too long, although this insect is more of a problem
in young plantations. Useful references concerning the disease and insect prob-
lems of tropical conifers have been published by IUFRO (33).

Rodents and seed eating birds cause losses during and immediately after germi-
nation. Chemical pelleting and/or protection with a wire mesh may be necessary
where losses are serious.

Weeding of beds is usually done by hand 3 to 4 times during the growing season,
on beds which have previously been watered. In Honduras, experiments with

16
the herbicide GOAL 2EC have given very promising results with P. caribaea. The
best rate of application was 50 cc GOAL 2EC with 15 cc of Triton sticker mixed
with 62 litres of water for 100 m2 applied 3 days before expected germination.
Weeding time was reduced by a factor of 10 (41).

Shade and shelter

Use of shade during the germination phase is described on page 4. The period of
shading of the transplant beds varies according to the local climate, but a good
rule is to avoid the use of shade wherever possible and, where it is necessary, to
remove it as soon as possible. Where insolation is intense, shade may need to
be retained for some time after sowing or pricking out; thus in Malaysia a three
week period of half shade is recommended (49). A variety of local materials e.g.
banana or palm leaves for full shade, bamboo slats for partial shade, or imported
material such as rolls of hessian or “Sarlon” plastic cloth can be used. Some nurs-
eries, especially at higher elevations or where sowing is done in the cool season,
use no shade at all in the transplant beds. However, in sub-tropical areas or at
very high elevations the plants may need to be protected against frost at night.
Hessian supported 2-3 ft. above the plants is effective (50). Protection against
hail storms is necessary in a few areas; a fine mesh netting keeps out hail stones
without restricting light (15, 66); switching on the nursery sprinkler system is also
effective in breaking up the force of hail storms.

Irrigation

Transplant beds should be kept moist but not waterlogged. A moist soil should
feel springy and resilient, while a soft soggy soil is too wet (13). The actual
amount of water applied varies greatly according to local evapo-transpiration
rates, but the rates reported are mainly in the range of 2-8 mm a day (16, 49, 59,
66). The highest rates apply to the more arid areas and watering can be reduced
in cloudy weather and omitted in rainy weather. Water demand increases with
the size of the plants and in S.E. USA plants receive 4 times as much water when
they are nearing plantable size as when they are recently germinated (24). This
trend towards heavier watering rates as the plants get older may be reversed dur-
ing the last 2 months or so if water restriction is an intentional part of harden-
ing off (see next section). Frequency of watering is progressively decreased with
time; newly germinated seedlings may be watered lightly twice a day, while older
plants may be watered heavily once or twice a week.

The quality of water needs to be checked. Highly alkaline water (pH>8) may
need to be acidified (see p. 9) and water with a high salt content (> 500 ppm to-
tal dissolved solids) should be avoided.

In small nurseries water can be applied manually by hose or watering can. In

large nurseries a mechanical system with sprinklers or spray lines is common. In
Honduras, for example, a sprinkler irrigation system operating at a pressure of 50
p.s.i. (3.5 kg/cm2) and powered by a 7 horse power centrifugal diesel pump has

17
been found adequate for nurseries raising 1 to 2 million seedlings. Spray lines are
10 m apart, with full circle sprinklers at the same spacing along the spray lines,
elevated 60 cm above ground level. At the beginning of the production period
the seedlings are watered each day in the late afternoon or early morning. Water-
ing frequency is progressively reduced to once every 4 or 5 days as the seedlings
develop. The irrigation systems are designed to supply the growing area with 7.5
mm of water per day but usually only a third of this is required (44).

In Thailand, container plants are successfully irrigated from below (29). Each
concrete bed is 10 cm deep, holds 1000 polythene tubes and has outlet holes
for water. Water is fed into the bed until the bottom one third of the tubes is
immersed. After pricking out germinated seeds from blotting paper packs (see p.
5), the tubes are left standing in the water until the cotyledons have unfolded.
Thereafter immersion to the same depth is done once or twice a week. Fertilisers
are added to the irrigation water as required.

Hardening off

The most effective method of conditioning or “hardening off ” plants in prepa-

ration for the shock of planting out is by intensive root pruning, as described
on pp. 11, 13 and 14. Reducing the amount of water and fertilisers (particularly
nitrogen) in the last two months in the nursery also helps to restrict the develop-
ment of tender succulent shoots and to promote lignification. Shoot pruning
the pines several weeks or months before planting out also stimulates the lig-
nification of the stem and the development of secondary foliage and produces
seedlings of uniform size for handling and planting out. This technique is used
in Brazil and Queensland with P. caribaea (44, 54). The effect on the subsequent
form of the trees may be of concern, but is said to be slight (4.7% malformed 3
years after planting in one Queensland trial).

Culling

The selection and rejection (culling) of seedlings at the end of the nursery grow-
ing period according to their suitability for planting out is of the utmost impor-
tance but is not frequently discussed in the literature. In Australia bare-rooted P.
caribaea seedlings are classified into 8 grades according to their shoot develop-
ment. Of these the first two are considered unsuitable for planting (stems still
entirely succulent) (6, 42, 54). In Honduras seedlings of P. caribaea and P. oocarpa
considered suitable for planting out have the following characteristics: height, 15
to 25 cm; root collar diameter, 3 to 6 cm; root/shoot ratio (dry weight), greater
than 0.25 for bare-rooted seedlings and greater than 0.8 for containerised seed-
lings. They should also have 2/3 of the stem lignified, a compact, fibrous root
system and be free from physical defects (44).

18
Period in the nursery

Seedlings of P. caribaea, P. kesiya and P. oocarpa 20 to 30 cm in height can be

grown in 4.5 to 6 months in the tropics. This period may be longer if there
is a rigorous programme of root pruning. The nursery period is longer at low
temperatures. Large plants of P. patula may need as much as 14-20 months at
high elevations in Tanzania and Zimbabwe (10, 50), but this may be reduced by
locating the nursery at a lower elevation than the intended planting site, or by
using smaller plants as is done in Colombia, where P. patula can be raised in 6-7
months at elevations up to 2000 m. It is highly desirable to keep the period to
less than a year, in order to avoid having to look after twice the area of nursery.

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21
 Calidad de la plántula: Un factor decisivo en el establecimiento de pinos a
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