Importance of Vegetable and Spices in human nutrition and national economy

Vegetables
A simple definition of vegetable may be given as "An edible, usually a succulent plant or a
portion of it eaten with staples as main course or as supplementary food in cooked or raw
form".
Those products of herbaceous plants (mostly annual) which provide fresh material for
culinary purposes and generally cooked before consumption or used as raw/salad are called
[Link] are the products of herbaceous plants which are annuals, biennial and
perennials (mostly annual) whose plant parts such as fruits, leaves roots, stems, petiole,
flower etc. are used for culinary or consumed as raw.

Olericulture: The science of vegetable cultivation is termed as olericulture.

It is derived from two Greek holar/holas + cultra: Vegetable crops represent a diverse group of
plants and it is difficult to comprehend the term with a single acceptable definition. They vary in
life span (annual, biennial, perennial), propagation (seeds, vegetative), growth habit (herbaceous,
vine, shrub, tree), growing season (summer, winter) and their uses of different parts and at
different stages.

Importance and scope of Vegetables in India

India: second largest producer of vegetables in world
Area under vegetable : 10.34 million ha (2018-19)
Total production: 187.47 million tonnes (2018-19)
The fruits and vegetables play an important role in the balanced diet of human beings by
providing not only the energy-rich food (good source of productive foods carbohydrates) but
also promise supply of vital protective nutrients like minerals and [Link] in
sufficient quantities provides taste, palatability and increases appetite and provides fair
amount of fibers. Currently reckoned as important adjunct for maintenance of good health and
beneficiin protecting against some degenerative diseases. Neutralizes the acids produced
during digestion of proteinacious and fatty foods. Provide valuable roughage which promotes
digestion and helps in preventing constipation.
Intake of 300g of vegetables every day to make our diet balanced along with other diets is
recommended. This includes 125 g leafy vegetables, 75 g other vegetables and 100 g root and
tuber vegetables .The average intake of vegetables of the country is about 230 g/head/day. With
the projected population of 1330 million in 2020 and 1650 millions in 2050, we have to produce
at least 190 and 240 million tonnes [Link] increasing focus on processing and exports,
the production targets are likely to increase further and creating more opportunities for
vegetable growers. Out of total vegetable production in the country, major share goes to
potato (28.9%), tomato (11.3%), onion (10.3%), brinjal (8.1%), tapioca (5.5%), cabbage (5.4%),
cauliflower (4.6%), okra (3.9%) and peas (2.4%).
 Importance of vegetables as healthy food

I. Productive foods (energy-rich food) are carbohydrates, protein, roughages

Nutrient Deficiency causes Nutrient rich vegetables

Carbohydrates Serve as a chief source of energy in the Sweet potato, Potato,
(400-500 g) food. It is found in vegetables mainly in cassava, carrot, taro, pea,
the form of starch and cellulose. onion, elephant foot yam
etc.
Protein Retarded growth in children. Pea, cowpea, broad bean,
(60-70 g) Discolouration of skin and hair. lime bean, fenugreek leaves,
(Vegetables contain less protein compared celery, drumstick
to the product of animal origin. However,
protein quality (composition of amino
acids) is quite good although sulfo-amino
acids (methionine, cystine) are most of the
time limited in vegetable protein.)
Fats Vegetables contain very low fats (ranges Chilli, sweat pepper, brinjal,
between 0.1 and 0.2% snake gourd,
*Values in parenthesis is the daily requirement of an adult

II. Protective foods:

a) Vitamins:
Nutrient Deficiency causes Nutrient rich vegetables
Vitamin A Night blindness, Xerophthalmia, Carrot, Amarathus, Palak, Spinach,
(5000 IU) Frequent respiratory infection. Fenugreen leaves, broccoli, kale,
tomato
Thiamin beri-beri disease Loss of appetite. Palak(0.26mg), Pea(0.25 mg), tomato,
(B1) Dilation of heart. chilli, musk melon, garlic, leek
1.2 mg
Riboflavin Ulcers in the oral cavity. Loss of Palak (0.56 mg), chilli (0.39 mg), sweat
(B2) hair & dry scaly skin. Cracked lips. pepper, broccoli, lettuce, celery,
1.7mg Asparagus.
Niacin (19 Pellagra Palak (3.3mg), Aamaranth (1mg), bitter
mg) Nervous break down. gourd, chilli, radish, lettuce, carrot, pea.
Stomach and intestinal disorder.
Sore tongue.
Pyridoxin Ulceration of oral cavity, anaemia, Widely distributed in vegetables.
(B6) skin diseases (acrodynia).
Vit C (70 Scurvy (oedema, anaemia, >100 mg: Sweat pepper, chilli, cabbage,
mg) bleeding gums and mucus broccoli, kale, drumstick, parsley.
membrane). 70-100 mg: cauliflower, bitter gourd,
Reduced resistance to diseases. amaranths
Vit K (0.15 Delayed and faulty coagulation of Green leafy vegetables
mg) blood in cut wounds.
Hindrance in normal secretion of
bile.
(5000 IU) Frequent respiratory infection. Fenugreen leaves, broccoli, kale,
tomato
Thiamin beri-beri Palak(0.26mg), Pea(0.25 mg), tomato,
(B1) disease Loss of chilli, musk melon, garlic, leek
1.2 mg appetite.
Dilation of heart.
Riboflavin Ulcers in the oral cavity. Palak (0.56 mg), chilli (0.39 mg), sweat
(B2) Loss of hair & dry scaly pepper, broccoli, lettuce, celery,
1.7mg skin. Cracked lips. Asparagus.
Niacin (19 Pellagra Palak (3.3mg), Aamaranth (1mg), bitter
mg) Nervous breakdown. gourd, chilli, radish, lettuce, carrot, pea.
Stomach and intestinal disorder.
Sore tongue.
Pyridoxin Ulceration of oral cavity, anaemia, Widely distributed in vegetables.
(B6) skin diseases (acrodynia).
Vit C (70 Scurvy (oedema, >100 mg: Sweat pepper, chilli, cabbage,
mg) anaemia, bleeding gums broccoli, kale, drumstick, parsley.
and mucus membrane). 70-100 mg: cauliflower, bitter gourd,
Reduced resistance to diseases. amaranths
Vit K (0.15 Delayed and faulty coagulation Green leafy vegetables
mg) of blood in cut wounds.
Hindrance in normal secretion
of bile.
Some other vitamins which are not generally associated with vegetables are
pantothenic acid, biotin (Vit H), vitamin B12 (Cobalamin), Cholin (sinkalin), inositol and
vitamin D. These are present in the product of animal origin and may be synthesized by
intestinal bacteria (eg pantothenic acid, biotin).

III Minerals:
 Play a major role in the functioning of physiological activities and reproduction.
 Components of various vital body constituents. For example:
Ca: bones & teeth, blood clotting, osteo-malacia in women after repeated pregnancies.
Fe: important component of haemoglobin, Anaemia – pale smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes &
skin: spoon shaped nails, frequent exhaustion.
P: Component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – basis of life.

Ca Fe P
200-400 mg /100 g in hyacinth Green leafy vegetables Vegetables are quite rich in P.
beans, palak, fenugreek are rich in sources.
Highest in curry leaves. Highest in Amaranthus Highest in garlic.
100-200 mg in chow chow, >100 mg in palak, >100 mg in pea, limabean, taro,
parsley, onion. spinach, fenugreek, mushrooms.
other vegetables are: 70-100 mg in chilli,
lettuce, water melon. cauliflower, broccoli, bitter
gourd, cowpea, winged bean,
hyacinth bean, globe artichoke.
III. Roughages/Fibre: Help in digestion & prevent constipation. Leafy vegetables and root
vegetables have more cellulose/fibre content.
Vegetable cultivation as a source of income and self-employment
I. Yields high/Area/Time:
Tomato-400-500 q/ha, Garden pea: 100q/ha Wheat
25-30 q/ha and Pulses 10-15 q/ha.
 II Important source of farm income:
Vegetables: Net return may be 1.0-1.25 lakhs/ha which is 4-5 times more than
cereals
 Cereals: Rs. 25000/ha
 Off-season: Tomato Rs 1 lakh/ha and peas Rs 80,000/ha.
III. Vegetable production assures more farm employment
Labour intensive operations and related secondary activities like
transportation and marketing, more job opportunities/more work to
the farmer/his family.
Tomato requires 2180 Tomato requires 2180 (processing) to 8020
(fresh market) labour hours per ha compared to only 761 for rice (a study
in Taiwan).
Thus, vegetables have a great potential for using idle or seasonally
underemployed farm workers to increase the family and total cash
earnings.
IV High Cropping Intensity: on account of short duration of a number of crops
e.g. radish, turnip, pea, okra, potao. e.g. Potao-onion-frenchbean-okra
(400%) and Radish-pea- frenchbean-okra (400%)
V. Industrial Development:
 Processing: Wastage avoided and availability of product for a longer period.
 Seed Industry: come up on a big scale.
VI. Foreign Exchange Earner: Vegetables are exported in fresh, dried and
preserved form or as processed products. The value of export from total
horticultural products were Rs. 6964.6 crores out of which fresh onion alone
contributed about 25 % (1741.55 crores) and share of others fresh vegetables
were 12.8 % during 2010-2011
VII. Vegetable seed: 142 crores. Processed vegetables: Tomato, pea(140 crores).

Problems associated with vegetable production

 Non-availability of quality seeds.

 Paucity of authentic literature for growers, traders and consumers.
 Marketing problem.
 Pest problems.
 Cultural practices.
 Irrigation facilities.
 Consumption pattern: Below poverty line no money to purchase even cereals.
 Spices
Spices: Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to add
aroma and flavour (ex. Pepper, Cardamom, Clove, Nutmeg etc.). Condiments are also
spices, the products of which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only. Both spices and
condiments contain essential oils, which provide the flavour and taste. They are of little
nutritive value. They are used as whole, ground, paste or liquid form, mainly for flavouring
and seasoning food. Most spices increase the shelf-life of food, especially the dry varieties.
Some are added to improve texture and some to improve a palatable colour or odour.
Uses of spices:
 The principal use of spices is to season the insipid foods to impart flavour, aroma and
taste.
 They are also used as preservatives and fumigants.
 Spices are also used in perfumery, soaps, cosmetics, tooth paste, confectionery, incenses,
dyes, etc.
Properties of spices:
 Spices are well known as appetizers.
 They add a tang (taste) and flavour to otherwise insipid foods.
 Some of them also possess anti-oxidant properties.
 Some of them have preservative qualities (clove and mustard)
 Some have strong anti-microbial and antibiotic activities.
 Several of them possess medicinal properties.

Classification of spices: According to International Organization for Standardization (ISO),

there are about 109 spices grown all over the world, which are classified in different ways.
I. Botanical classification (family wise)
Piperaceae - Pepper.
Zingiberaceae – Ginger, Cardamom, Turmeric
Apiaceae – Coriander, Fennel, Cumin.
Myrtaceae – Clove, Nutmeg
Fabaceae – Fenugreek
Lauraceae – Cinnamom

II. Plant part useful as spice:

Root spice - Angelica, Horse radish.
Rhizome spice – Turmeric, Ginger.
Bulbous spices – Onion, Garlic.
Bark spice – Cinnamon, Cassia
Leafy spices – Mints, Coriander, Methi
Aril spices – Mace.
Seedy spices – Coriander, Celery, Methi
Fruit spices –
 Berries – Pepper, Allspice.
 Capsules – Cardamom, Chillies

III. Depending upon the longevity of spice plants

Annual spice – Coriander, Mints, Methi
Biennial spices – Onion, Garlic
Perennial spices – Clove, Nutmeg, Pepper etc.
IV. Depending upon the type of the plant:
Tree spices – Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon, Cassia
Bush spices – Cardamom
Herbaceous spices – Coriander, Fenugreek, fennel, Cumin.
Climber spices – Pepper, Vanilla.
V. Economic importance: Depending upon the magnitude of trade, earnings and use.
Major spice: Black Pepper, Cardamom, Turmeric, Ginger, Clove, Nutmeg.
Minor spice: Coriander, Fenugreek, Cumin, Fennel.

Importance of spice industry in India

India is often referred as ―Home of spices”. This is because many of the 109 spices
grown in the world are native to India. Further, since antiquity, India pioneered in
growing spices and exported. India has enjoyed virtual monopoly in the international
spice trade since ancient times. Out of the 109 spices, several of them can be grown in
India, whereas in other countries a few spices are only grown. This is because; India has
a great extent of diversity in the climate and soils, which enables to grow a variety of
spices. Spices are always export oriented crops not only in India, but also in other spice
producing countries.
Both spices and condiments contain essential oils, which provide the flavour and
taste. They are of little nutritive value. They are used as whole, ground, paste or liquid
form, mainly for flavouring and seasoning food. Most spices increase the shelf-life of
food, especially the dry varieties. Some are added to improve texture and some to
improve a palatable colour or odour. Spices and spice products are indispensible part of
our culinary preparations especially used for flavouring and seasoning of food. Most of
the spices have potential medicinal values. Besides, they are also indirectly used as
flavouring or colouring agents or as preservatives in many pharmaceutical preparations.
Spices have been used in cosmetic and perfumery industries. Spice oil are used in the
manufacture of soap, tooth pastes, talcum powder, aftershave lotions, vanishing creams,
mouth freshners and room freshners etc.
 Classification of vegetables
There are different methods of classification of vegetables e.g.
 Botanical classification.
 Classification based on climatic zones
 Classification based on the growing seasons.
 Classification based on economic parts used as vegetables.
 Classification based on method of cultivation
Botanical classification:

Most of the vegetables belong to the class Dicotyledonae. These classes are further
divided into family, genus, species, sub-species, and finally botanical variety. The cultural
operations of the vegetables belonging to the same family are not always similar e.g. potato
and tomato belong to the same family but their cultural requirements are very different.

Table: Botanical classification of some of the important vegetables

Common name Family Genus Species
A. Monocotyledonae
Onion (Piyaj) Alliaceae Allium cepa
B. Dicotyledonae
Tomato (Tamatar) Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum
Brinjal (Baingan) Solanum melongena
Bell Pepper (Shimla Mirch) Capsicum annuum
Okra (Bhindi) Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus
French bean (Frasbean) Leguminosae Phaseolus vulgaris
Cucumber (Khira) Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus
Bottle gourd (Ghiyya) Lagenaria siceraria
Bitter gourd (Karela) Momordica charantia
Musk melon (Kharbuja) Cucumis melo
Water melon (Tarbooj) Citrullus lunatus
 Garden pea (Matar) Fabaceae Pisum sativum
Cauliflower (Phool gobhi) Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Cabbage (Band gobhi) Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Carrot (Gajar) Umbelliferae Dacus carota

Radish (Mooli) Brassicaceae Raphanus sativus

Classification based on climatic zones:
 Tropical vegetables: Tomato, brinjal cucumber, okra, French bean, cowpea, most of
cucurbits, amaranthus, cluster bean.
 Sub-tropical vegetables: Okra, cucumber, brinjal, chilli, tomato, gourds (all), ginger,
turmeric, cowpea.
 Temperate vegetable crops: Cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, turnip,
spinach, onion, garlic, pea, fenugreek, potato, asparagus and rhubarb.

Classification based on hardiness: Also known as thermo Classification. Under this

classification vegetables are grouped according to their ability to withstand frost. This class
helps to know the season of cultivation of vegetables and is classified in three classes:
Hardy vegetables (withstand frost without Broccoli, cabbage, pea, Brussels sprout,
any injury ) garlic, onion, leek, radish, spinach, turnip,
parsley etc.
Semi-hardy vegetables (Generally they are Carrot, cauliflower, potato, celery, lettuce,
not injured by light frost ) beet, palak etc.
Tender vegetables (can not withstand frost Tomato, chilli, brinjal, cucumber, okra and
and are even killed by light frost ) all cucurbits, pea, French bean, sweat potato,
cassava, yam drumstick, elephant foot, yam.

Classification based on growing season:

 Summer or warm season vegetable crops: These vegetables need optimum monthly average
temperature of 20-27°C for better growth and development. However, they can tolerate minimum
temperature of 15°C. e.g. tomato, brinjal cucumber, okra, French bean, cowpea, most of cucurbits,
amaranthus, cluster bean.
 Winter or cool season vegetable crops: Optimum monthly average temperature for better growth
and development of these vegetables is 12-17°C though can tolerate minimum temperature of 5°C.
e.g. cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, turnip, spinach, onion, garlic, pea, fenugreek,
potato etc. Asparagus and Rhubarb can tolerate even temperature of 1°C.
Classification based on tolerance to soil reaction: In this classification vegetables are
classified in 3 groups according to their tolerance to soil acidity.
Slightly tolerant Moderately tolerant Very highly tolerant
(pH 6.0-6.0) (6.8-5.5) (6.8-5.0)
Broccoli, cabbage, Beans, carrot, cucumber, Potato, sweet potato,
cauliflower, bhindi, spinach, brinjal, garlic, pea, tomato, watermelon, chicory,
leek, Chinese cabbage, lettuce, radish, turnip, Brussels‟s rhubarb.
asparagus, muskmelon, onion. sprouts, knolkhol, pumpkin.
Classification based on salt tolerance: Vegetables are grouped in three categories:
Sensitive Moderately resistant Resistant/tolerant
Pea, beans, radish, Onion, carrot, cabbage, Asparagus, beet, lettuce,
potato, brinjal, sweet cauliflower, broccoli, tomato, bitter gourd, ash gourd.
 potato. melons, chilli.

Classification based on photo period requirement: Vegetables are grouped according to

the period for which the light is available. The response of plants to light for induction of
flowering is called photo-periodism and based on it vegetables are classified in three groups:
Long day vegetables and Short day vegetables (10- Day neutral vegetables
shorter night (8 -10 hours 14 hours dark) (Photo insensitive ) (not
of dark) influenced by day length)
Onion, cabbage, cauliflower, Sweet potato, lablab bean, Tomato, brinjal, chilli, okra,
potato, radish, lettuce, winger bean, cluster bean. frenchbean, cucumber,
knolkhol, turnip, carrot. cowpea.

Classification based on rooting depth: The knowledge of rooting depth is essential for
scheduling the time and quantity of irrigation water. According to this class vegetables are
classified into five categories:
Very shallow Shallow rooted (30- Moderately Deep rooted Very deep rooted
rooted (15-30 60 cm) deep rooted (90-120 cm) (120-180 cm)
cm) (60-90 cm)
Onion, lettuce Cabbage, Brinjal, Chilli, turnip, Asparagus,
cauliflower, garlic, cucumber, summer artichoke,
celery, palak, potato, muskmelon, squash, pea, limabean,
spinach, cowpea, frenchbean, rutabaga pumpkin, sweet
radish, broccoli, carrot, beet potato, tomato,
Brussels‟s sprout watermelon
 Shallow rooted require frequent and light irrigation.
 Deep rooted require less but heavy irrigation.

Classification based on economic parts used as vegetables:

Leaves Flower Fruits Modified Under ground
stem (plant parts)
Cabbage, Broccoli, Tomato, brinjal, Knolkhol, Carrot, turnip, beet,
palak, Globe artichoke chilli, beans, cauliflower, radish, potato,
fenugreek, okra, and all asparagus sweet potato, taro,
amaranthus, cucurbits ginger, garlic,
lettuce, onion, elephant foot
celery, yam, cassava
parsley

Classification based on methods of cultivation: This is the most convenient method of

classification. In this classification, vegetable crops having same cultural requirements are
placed together. As a consequence, it is possible to give the general cultural practices for the
group without the necessity of repetition while describing the individual crop. Some groups
like cucurbits, cole crops, solanaceous and bulb crops not only have similar cultural
requirements for the group but the crops belonging to each group also have the same family.
Most of the crops belonging to bulb and salad group have similar temperature
requirements. Therefore, this method of classification even though not in all but
in the majority of cases fulfills the basic requirements of classification of
vegetables.
Group 1: Potato
Group 2: Solanaceous fruits e.g. Tomato, brinjal, capsicum, chilli etc.
Group 3: Cole crops e.g. cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, knolkhol, kale.
Group 4: Cucurbits e.g. cucumber, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ridge gourd,
snake gourd, water melon, pumpkin, summer squash, winter squash.
Group 5: Root crops e.g. Radish, carrot, turnip, beat.
Group 6: Bulb crops e.g. Onion, garlic, and leek.
Group 7: Salad crops e.g. Lettuce, celery, parsley.
Group 8: Greens and pot herbs e.g. Spinach, coriander, fenugreek, palak,
beat, leak, amaranthus.
Group 9: Peas and beans e.g. Pea, Frenchbean, asparagus bean, lima beans,
cluster bean, cowpea etc.
Group 10: Tuber crops other than potato e.g. Taro, yarn, elephant foot yam.
Group 11: Sweet potato.
Group 12: Okra.
Group 13: Pointed gourd.
Group 14: Temperate perennials e.g. Globe artichoke, Rhubarb.
Group 15: Tropical perennials vegetables e.g. Curry leaves, drum stick.
Group 16: Chow-chow (Chayote).
 Types of Vegetable Gardening

Importance of vegetable gardening

 Vegetable farming is an important source of income.
 Cultivation of vegetables occupies an important place in agricultural development and
economy of the country.
 It is important in balanced diet.
 It is the cheapest source of natural protective food.
 Vegetable farming gives higher yield per unit area within the shortest possible time
which ultimately increases the income.
 Several vegetables are exported to foreign countries which provide an opportunity for
earning exchange.

Types of Vegetable gardening

 Kitchen/ Home gardening
 Market/Peri-Urban gardening
 Truck gardening
 Vegetable Forcing
 Vegetable gardening for processing
 Floating gardening
 Organic Vegetable garening
 Container gardening

Kitchen gardening/Home garden: It is the growing of vegetable crops in residential houses

to meet the requirements of the family all the year around. Every individual is concerned
with home or kitchen garden. Irrespective of the fact that the individual is a villager, a city
dweller, live in town. Kitchen garden should be a future of his home.

Importance of Kitchen Gardening

 Efficient and effective use of land for growing essential vegetables for use of family.
 Saves some money as vegetables are quite costly in the market (fresh vegetables).
 Play important part in vegetable production.
 Constitute a very healthy hobby and the spare time of the family is well utilized.
 Kitchen gardening should be aimed at giving a continuous supply of vegetables

Design and Layout of Kitchen Garden: Design of kitchen garden depends upon the
character of the particular piece of land, its extent, situation etc.
The following principles should be followed in designing the layout of kitchen garden
Location and site
Proper layout
Cropping pattern
Size 25 x 10 m for family of 5 persons.
Shape should be rectangular and South east aspect is the most preferred for having more
sun light.

 For kitchen garden land should be selected in the backyard of the house (easier to work &
make use of kitchen waste water.
 Layout of the garden should be such that it looks attractive and allow access to all the
parts.
 The land should be laid out in small plots with narrow and path borders.
 In homes where no space is available one can grow vegetables in pots or boxes.
Preference should be given to such vegetables which produce more number of fruits from
an individual plant e.g. cucurbits, tomato, brinjal, chilli etc.
 Climbing type vegetables like cucurbits, pea beans etc. can be trained on the fences.
 Several sowings of one particular crop at short intervals should be done to ensure a steady
supply of vegetables.
 Quick growing fruits trees like papaya, banana, lime etc. should be located on one side of
the garden, preferably on Northern side so that there shading effect on the vegetables is
on minimum side.
 Ridges which separate the beds should be utilized for growing root crops like radish,
turnip, beet, carrot.
 Early maturing crops should be planted together in continuous row so that the areas may
be available for putting next crop.
 The inter-space of some crops which are slow growing and take long duration to mature
like cabbage, cauliflower, brinjal should be used for growing some quick growing crops
like radish, turnip, palak, lettuce.

Market Gardening /Peri-urban vegetable farming: This is a type of garden which

produces vegetables for local market.
 This type of garden was confined to the near vicinity of the cities when a quick
transport was not developed.
 Most of the market gardens even today are located within 15-20 km of a city.
 The cropping pattern of these gardens will depend on the demand of the local market.
 The most important consideration is to develop a clearly focused marketing plan
before any vegetable crops are planted.
 The land being costly, intensive methods of cultivation are followed.
 A market gardener will like to grow early varieties to catch the market early.
 He should be good salesman as he may have to sell his own produce.
 He must be a versatile person as he will have to grow a number of vegetables
throughout the year.
 The high cost of land and labour is compensated by the availability of municipal
compost, sludge and water near some cities and high return on the produce.
The preference of Indian consumers is mainly to have fresh and lush green vegetables
and least for processed products. This provides a business opportunity to the growers living
nearby the big cities or towns, generally referred as peri-urban areas to meet the requirement
of consumers and earn higher profit. This production system focussing nearby big cities is
also called as market gardening. Thus, peri-urban vegetable cultivation provides the
possibility to cultivate a small piece of land on commercial line to generate income to meet
the basic needs of a family.
Large quantity of solid waste is generated in cities during handling and marketing of
fresh vegetable produce and otherwise also which in general creates health and
environmental hazards. This can be recycled to produce manure for use in organic vegetable
production.
Many farmers try to maximize their income by selling directly to consumers, thus
bypassing wholesalers and other middlemen. Common marketing strategies can be adopted
such as farmers stall in weekly vegetable market, roadside stands and sale agreement to
restaurants, modern retail stores. Sometimes, organically grown vegetable produce in general
get higher prices in the market. So, farmers may go for raising vegetable crops organically.
 Considering the high cost and small size of farm land in the vicinity of a city and
high cost of labour, water and energy, it is necessary for the farmer to have high productivity
per unit area. Diversified crops are grown in peri-urban vegetable farms which also include
specialty vegetables like red and yellow coloured sweet pepper, cherry tomato, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, baby corn, sweet corn, gherkin, leek, bunching onion, celery, parsley,
chive, pak-choi, asparagus, artichoke etc. The specialty vegetables are becoming popular to
meet the demands of consumers, restaurants and hotels in big cities.
The other important considerations are choice of vegetables adapted to soil and
climatic conditions, facilities of labour, water for irrigation and transport, proximity to
market, and preferences of market and consumers. It is often profitable to have
intercropping, succession of crops, relay cropping, mixed cropping and early maturing
cultivars for continuous supply and for obtaining high price by bringing early produce in the
market. Peri-
urban production is either fast diminishing or moving farther from the city because of
expansion of urban areas.

Truck Gardening:
 This is a type of garden which produces special crops in relatively large quantities for
distance markets.
 Truck gardens, in general, follow a more extensive and less intensive method of cultivation
than market garden.
 The word truck has no relationship with a motor truck but it is derived from French word
„troquer‟ means “to barter”.
 The location of this type of garden is determined by the soil and climatic factors suitable for
raising a particular crop.
 The commodities raised are usually sold through middle man.
 The truck gardener should be a specialized person.
 He should be proficient in large scale cultivation and production and handling of some
special crops.
 He follows the mechanical method of cultivation hence cost of cultivation is less.
 The net income is also less as this includes the cost of transport and the charges of middle
men.
 With the development of quick and easy transport system, the distinction between market
and truck garden is continuously diminishing.

Vegetable Gardens for Processing:

 These gardens come up around vegetable processing factories.
 Mainly responsible for regular supply of vegetables to factories.
 Emerging more rapidly now in India with the establishment of processing industries by
corporate sector.
 Earlier only a few factories existed which were dependent upon purchases from local markets.
 The end product from such local factories was not good from such a heterogeneous mixture.
 The prospects of future development are quite bright as people‟s interest in the processing
industry is growing.
 These gardens specialize in growing only a few vegetables in bulk.
 A heavier soil is chosen to obtain high and continuous yield rather than early yield.
 These gardens are required to grow particular varieties for canning, dehydration or freezing.
 The return may be low but the cost of marketing and the transport charges are negligible.

Vegetable Forcing:
 In the method known as forcing, vegetables are produced out of their normal season of
outdoor production under forcing structures that admit light and induce favorable
environmental conditions for plant growth. Greenhouses, cold frames, and hotbeds are
common structures used.
 Hydroponics, sometimes called soilless culture, allows the grower to practice automatic
watering and fertilizing, thus reducing the cost of labour.
 To successfully compete with other fresh market producers, greenhouse vegetable growers
must either produce crops when the outdoor supply is limited or produce quality products
commanding premium prices.
 Tomato, cucumber and capsicum are commonly grown vegetables under these structures.
These are mostly used during winter in the temperate regions. These crops cannot be grown
without protection for their availability throughout year.
 In India this type of garden has very little chance to develop because the country being so
large and transport facilities becoming advanced, all vegetables can be grown normally
throughout the year in one or the other part.
 River bed cultivation is a type of vegetable forcing i.e. growing of summer vegetables on
river beds during winter months with the help of organic manures and wind breaks of dry
[Link], for early produce seedlings of tomato, brinjal, bell-pepper, chilli and
cucurbits in poly-bags are forced to germinate in small protected structures.

Different kinds of vegetable forcing:

Protected Cultivation:
It refers to agriculture with human interventions that create favourable conditions around the
cultivated plants offsetting the detrimental effects of prevailing biotic and abiotic factors.
Plants in open field conditions experience short cropping season, unfavourable climatic
conditions (too cold, too hot, too dry and cloudy ambient) impairing photosynthetic
activities, vulnerable to predators, pests, weeds, depleted soil moisture and plant nutrients. In
protected agriculture one or more of these factors are controlled or altered, to the advantage
of plants, where usually factors such as temperature, C0 2 concentration, relative humidity,
access to insect and pest etc., are controlled to desirable limits. The factors controlled and
range of control is decided by devises chosen and fitted on the structure. For economic
reasons, protection or control is provided against the most significant stresses. Structures and
environment control measurers employed separate this cultivated space and allowing
cultivation in unfavourable ambient conditions in reasonably close to optimal conditions.

Advantages of protected cultivation:

Crop production with high productivity under unfavourable agro-climatic conditions.
Productivity levels could be significantly higher (sometimes two-three times of that in
open field agriculture).
Quality of produce is usually superior because of isolation and controls.
Higher input use efficiencies are achieved in the production of plant and animal products.
Income per unit area
Production of crops under protected conditions has great potential in augmenting
production and quality of vegetables, in main and also during off season and maximizing
water and nutrient use efficiency under varied agro climatic conditions of the country.
 This technology has very good potential especially in peri- urban agriculture, since it can
be profitably used for growing high value vegetable crops like, tomato, cherry tomato,
coloured peppers, parthenocarpic cucumber, healthy and virus free seedlings production
in agri- entrepreneurial models.

Off season vegetable cultivation under walk-in-tunnels

 Walk in tunnels are the temporary structures erected by using G.I. pipes and transparent
plastic.
 Walk in tunnels are used for complete off season cultivation of vegetables like bottle
gourd, summer squash, cucumber etc. during winter season (Dec.- mid February) the
basic objective and utility of walk in tunnels is to fetch high price of the complete off
season produce to earn more profit per unit area.
 The ideal size of a walk in tunnel of 4.0 m width and 30m length (l20 m2) and total cost
of fabrication may be Rs.12000-14000

Vegetable Gardens for Seed Production:Good seed is the base of any successful farming
industry. Seed production is a specialized field of vegetable growing.A thorough knowledge
of the crop, its growth habit, mode of pollination, proper isolation distance are of prime
importance for quality seed production.

Floating Vegetable Gardens: One more type of vegetable garden known as floating garden
is seen on the Dal lake of Kashmir [Link] of summer vegetables are supplied to
Srinagar from these gardens. A floating base is made from the roots of typha grass which
grow wild in some parts of lake. Once this floating base is ready, seedlings are transplanted
on leaf compost made of vegetations growing wild in the lake. All the inter-cultural
operations and occasional sprinkling of water are done from boats.

Organic Vegetable Gardening

Organic farming was defined as a system that excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides, and growth regulators.

Approaches and production inputs of organic farming

Strict avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides
Crop rotations, crop residues, mulches
Animal manures and composts
Cover crops and green manures
Organic fertilizers and soil amendments
Biostimulants, humates, and seaweeds
Compost teas and herbal teas

Container gardening: In urban areas mainly in big cities, land is a big constraint for
home/kitchen garden, many types of vegetables can be grown well in containers and space
available in backyard, terrace, varandah, balcony can be utilized for this purpose where
sunshine is easily available. Start with large enough pots. The 14 inch pots are plenty large
for brinjal and cucumber and the 20-inch pots worked out well for tomatoes. Generally we
should grow those vegetables which facilitate multiple harvests like tomato, leafy vegetables
etc. instead of single harvest like cabbage or cauliflower etc
 Tomato
 Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculentum
 Family: Solanaceae
 Chromosome no. (2n) : 24
 Origin: Peru, Ecuador – Bolivia
 Common Name: Love Apple , Poor Man Orange

Importance and Uses

 The tomato is one of the most important "protective foods" both because of its
special nutritive value and also because of its widespread production.
 It is the world's largest vegetable crop after potato. Tomatoes are used for soup, salad,
pickles, ketchup, puree, sauces and in many other ways. Tomato is a major
source of vitamins and minerals. It is widely used as salad vegetable.
 Tomato contains many important minerals like Na, Ca, Mg, P, K, Fe, Zn, Boron.
 The steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato is called tomatin and the coloured
pigment is called lycopene (red colour). Lycopene content is high at 21OC.

Climate

 Tomato is a warm season vegetable, is grown extensively in cool season also. It

requires a long season optimum temperature is 15 to 27OC.
 Temperature and light intensity effect the fruit set, pigmentation and nutritive value.
Mild winter condition in northern plains is ideal for seed germination, plant growth,
fruit set, fruit development and ripening.
 At low and high temperatures, there is low germination of seeds, poor plant growth,
flower drop, poor fruit set, and ripening. At high temperatures, generally the quality
of fruits is poor and there is high incidence of sun scald.
 Maximum fruit set occurs at a night temperature of 15 to 20OC. High temperature
(38OC) accompanied by low humidity and dry winds adversely affect the fruit set.
Excessive rains adversely affect its fruit set causing flower drop.
 Tomato has a yellow pigment ‘Carotene’ and red pigment (at ripened stage) called
‘Lycopene’ and at very high temperature formation of lycopene is inhibited.

Soil
 Tomato can be grown in a wide range of soils from sandy to heavy soils. However,
sandy loam, rich in organic matter ideal for its cultivation.
 A well drained, fairly fertile loam with fair moisture holding capacity is ideal for
growing a good crop of tomato.
 Tomato is highly susceptible to water logging. Well drained soils are highly
necessary. The preferable pH range is 7 to 8.5.

Origin, taxonomy and botany: Cultivated tomato originated from Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia.
Domesticated place of tomato lies in Mexico. The ancestor of cultivated tomato is cherry type
(Licopersicon esculenta var. cerasiformae - cherry tomato). Tomato belongs to the family
Solanaceae.
Cultivated tomato is an annual herb, 0.7 to 2m tall, erect with thick solid stems or spreading,
coarsely hairy with strong characteristic odour. Strong tap root with dense fibrous and
adventitious roots are formed. Tomato can be classified depending on the growth habit.
 Indeterminate: terminal buds ends with a leafy bud and continue it vegetative growth.
(Inflorescence cluster occurs at every third internode and the main axis continues to grow
indefinitely.) Ex: Pusa ruby.
Determinate fruits: terminal buds ends with floral bud and further its vegetative growth is
checked and are called as Self topping or self pruning types. (Inflorescence occurs more
frequently in almost every internode until terminal ones are formed and elongation ceases at
this point) Ex. Pusa Early Dwarf
Semi-determinate: have semi dwarf growth and it is between determinate and
indeterminate. Number of nodes between two consecutive inflorescences will be around
one. Ex: S-12, Roma.
The leaves are compound pinnatifid with small leaflet. Flowers are borne in small forked
raceme cyme. They vary in numbers from 5 to 12. Flowers are pendent, perfect,
hypogynous. Stamens 6 in number and inserted on throat of corolla tube, filament bright
yellow. Carpels 6, united and basal ovary typically 6 celled with a central fleshy placenta.
Dehiscence of anther is longitudinal, 1-2 days after opening of corolla. If the pollen is shed
as the style grows up through anther tube, self-fertilization occurs and when the stigma
protrudes, chances of cross pollination through bees increase. The optimum temperature for
pollination as around 21OC.
Varieties & Hybrids: In certain varieties of tomato, the vegetative growth automatically
stops, giving rise to bushy growth. They are called self pruning varieties.
 Certain varieties like Pusa rubi, Pusa early dwarf, Marutham, Arka vital, Pusa 120,
sweet 72, S-12, Co-1 are suitable for cultivation in plains.
 Varieties like Sioux, Best of all, Pusa early dwarf are suitable for hilly areas.
 Varieties like Roma and Punjab chhuhara are suitable for processing.
 Varieties released by IIHR Bangalore are Arka Abha, Arka Abhijit, Arka Ahuthi,
Arka Aloukik, Arka Meghali, Arka Sourab, Arka Srasika, Arka Vartnan, Arka Vikas,
Arka Visal.
 Pusa Sheetal: cold resistant variety
 Best of all: Mid season variety
 IVRI-2 : variety developed from IVRI, Varanasi
 Floradade: It is a variety brought from Florida
 PUSA-120: resistant to nematode and released by IARI, New Delhi.
 S-12: Evolved by PAU, Ludhiana, fruit round to flattish with persistant pedicel
suitable for summer crop all over the India.
 Sioux: American variety, resistant to growth cracks
 HS-101, HS-102, HS-110, Hisar Anmol, Hisar Arun, Hisar Lalima, Hisar Lalit etc.
are developed by HAU Haryana.

S. No Hybrid Parentage Characters

1 Pusa rubi Sioux X Improved meeruti Indeterminate
2 Pusa Early Dwarf Improved meeruti X Red cloud Determinate and
slightly furrowed
3 Pusa Red Plum L. esculentum X L. Pimpinellifolium
Co-1, Co-2 – released from TNAU, Coimbatore. Co-3 it is a mutant of Co1. Gulmohar (MTH
6) – released from Maharastra hybrid Seed Company. Punjab chhuharra, Ox heart, Punjab
kesari, Pusa early dwarf, Pusa rubi, Pusa red plum, Pusa sadabahar, Sweet – 72, Roma,
Yasvanth-2 are other hybrids.
 A high yielding tomato F1 hybrid “Arka Rakshak” triple disease resistance, Tomato
leaf curl virus (ToLCV), bacterial wilt (BW) and early blight (EB), developed by Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. This is the first multiple disease
resistant public bred tomato F1 hybrid released for commercial cultivation in the country.
Plants are semi-determinate.
Seed sowing: It is grown almost the year round. In north India, generally autumn and spring
summer crops are taken. Therefore, seed sowing is done in November and transplanting
during the month of January. In case of South India, 3 crops are taken which are sown during
June-July, October-November and January- February.
Seed rate: Seeds are very light in weight. 400 to 500g of seed sufficient to raise nursery and
transplant in one hectare.

Nursery bed preparation:Tomato is a transplanting crop. Seeds are sown in the area of 250
m2. A raised bed prepared by well decomposed FYM is mixed @ 4kg FYM per m2 of nursery
bed. A fertilizer dose of 0.5 kg N, P, K per bed is also mixed in the [Link] are treated with
fungicides (Thiram or Bavistin @ 2g/kg) and 40% formalin solution at 500ml/m2 area of
nursery bed sterilisation. During summer and rainy season, there is very heavy incidence of
damping off. To protect seeds and seedlings, the beds should be treated with 10%
formaldehyde. After fumigation the beds are covered with polythene for 24 hours. Seeds are
sown 4 to 5 days after removal of polythene sheets. In line sowing 7.5cm distance is kept
between the rows. The beds are covered with straw or polythene till the seeds germinate.
Seedlings are protected against wind, exposure to sun and excess rainfall. Fungicides are
sprayed weekly to avoid of damping off. Nursery can also be grown in poly house. Hardening
is done by withholding water 4-5 days before uprooting seedlings. Adding 4,000ppm sodium
chloride or spraying of 2,000ppm CCC is effective for hardening of seedlings.

Transplanting of seedlings: Seedlings are transplanted at 25 to 30 days and 10-15cm height,

on the evening of sunny day. Whole day transplanting is done in a cloudy day. In some of the
areas tomato is directly sown. Seeds should be sown 1.25 to 2.5mm deep. Direct sowing is
reduce the infestation of root knot nematode, bacterial wilt and damping off. The seedlings
are transplanted at the side of ridge. Later, earthing up is done to keep the plant in the middle
of the ridge. For indeterminate varieties and hybrids, row to row spacing of 60 to 120 cm and
plant to plant distance from 45 to 75 cm is adopted. In case of determinate types spacing is 45
to 60 cm x 30 to 40 cm is adopted.

Nutritional management: Well decomposed FYM is recommended, added @ 20-25 tons

per ha at the time of last ploughing and incorporated into soil. In general, NPK @ 120 kg: 60
kg: 50 kg per ha has been recommended for various tomato varieties. The quantity of
Nitrogen to be applied varies greatly depending on the variety as well as soil conditions.
However, for hybrids, higher quantity of N is applied. A high level of N at seedling stage and
moderate level at flowering and fruiting stage is required. However, high level of N in plant
reduces the C/N ratio resulting in unfruitfulness. Half N, entire P and K should be applied as
basal dose, half N is given in 2 to 3 splits. 30, 45, 60 days after sowing. Micro nutrients like
B, Zn also need to be applied and lime is essential under acidic soil. Availability of Boron is
considered to be essential for production of large size fruit with high vitamin content and
prevent fruit cracking, while Zinc for higher ascorbic acid content and tolerances to diseases.
Irrigation: Tomato is a deep rooted crop. Roots will grow to a depth of 120 to 150 cm and it
has some drought tolerance. They require adequate moisture for their fair growth. Excess as
well as insufficient moisture is harmful. First irrigation is given immediately after
transplanting afterwards care should be taken not to apply to much water as it makes the plant
to run and drops the blossom. However, light irrigation should be given at 3 to 4 days interval
in summer and 10 to 15 day interval in winter. Furrow irrigation is the most widely used.
Drip irrigation is fairly recommended as it can save more water compared to furrow
irrigations.

Intercultural operations: Tomato is subjected to pinching, the lateral shoots are pinched to
improve more bushy growth but little foliage is to be kept. Frequently shallow hoeings are
necessary to improve the yield, it also reduce the weed growth. Mulching should be done 15
to 20 days after planting. 2 to 3 weeding before flowering encourages good crop growth.
Application of a weedicide, basalin or pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha plus one hand weeding at
45 days after transplanting was [Link] is very essential for indeterminate
group of varieties because it improves yield and quality protection of fruits. In pest and
diseases, easy harvesting and easy spraying of chemicals.

Harvesting:The stage of maturity at which tomato should be harvested depends upon the
purpose for which they are used and the distance of transportation. The following stages of
maturity for harvesting are recognized.

 Immature: Before the seeds have fully developed and before the jelly like substance
around the seeds are fully formed.
 Mature green: The fully grown fruit shows a brown ring at stem scar. It has light
green colour at blossom end and seeds are surrounded by jelly like substance.
 Turning or breaker stage: 1/4 th of the surface at blossom end shows pink.
 Pink stage: 3/4th of the surface shows pink.
 Hard ripe: all the surface turn to pink or red but flesh is firm.
 Over ripe: fully coloured and flesh is also soft.
For distant market mature green stage fruit can be harvested and for a local market,
they can be harvested at hard ripe stage. Fruits at fully ripe or over ripe stages are utilized
within 24 hours for processing. For seed production, red ripe tomatoes are ideal.
Grading: Fruits are graded based on size as Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial
according to IIHR.

Yield: Depends on various factors on an average an open pollinated variety will give 250 to
500 quintals per ha. Hybrids can give up to 1000 q per ha.

Post harvest management & Storage: Tomato can be stored either in mature green or
breaker stage of maturity. Fruit remain firm up to 21 days when kept at 20OC for the cultivars
like Florida MH and Floradade. Temperature of 10OC cause moderate chilling injury and
Alternaria root rot.

Physiological disorders in Tomato:

1. Blossom end rot: It is more serious, ground discoloration starts. In blossom end of the
fruit. Black spot develops to encompass ½ to 2/3 rd portion of the fruit. Later the tissues
shrink and skin becomes dark grey to black. It may lead to secondary infection by fungus and
unfit for consumption.
Causes: use of Ammonium sulphate, imbalance of Mg & K; deficiency of calcium
Remedies: cultural practices that concern soil moisture and maintain uniform moisture
supply. Transplanting in early April instead of early June. Foliar spray of 0.5% CaCl2. Apply
Nitrogen in the form of Urea.
2. Fruit cracking: occurs for middle of the May. Reduced transpiration has increased cell
turgidity and contributed to tomato fruit cracking. Reduced transpiration occurs even in
summer when fruit are grown in green house. Cracking also occurs in rainy season when
rains fall in long dry spell. Presence of water on the surface of fruit is more conducive in
cracking than high soil moisture.
Boron deficiency in the soil also causes fruit cracking.
They are two types of cracking.
i. radial cracking: occurs mostly at ripe stage.
ii. Concentric cracking: it is common in mature green stage.
Remedies: use of resistant cultivars like Sioux, Punjab chuhara. Picking of the fruit before
the full ripe stage. Soil application of Borax @ 10- 15 kg per ha. Regulation of soil moisture.
Misting (spray of cool water).
3. Puffiness: commonly known as hallowness. Tomato puffs, puffy tomatoes, puffs and
pockets. As the fruit reaches about 2/3rd normal site outer wall continues to develop normally
but remaining internal tissue growth is retarded. Fruit become lighter in weight and partially
filled. Very high or vary low temperature and low soil moisture conditions will lead to
puffiness.
4. Cat facing: a large scar is formed at the blossom end portion of the fruit. Such fruits have
ridges and furrows and blotches at blossom end.
Reasons: low temperature, faulty pollination, application of nitrogen during transition from
vegetative to reproductive phase.
Remedies: balanced fertilizer application; regulation of temperature.
5. Sunscald: when fruits and leaves are exposed to the sun, there is appearance of yellow,
white patches on green and ripen fruits. These patches may have secondary infection of
fungus and start rotting varieties with sparse foliage will suffer more sunscald especially in
the month of May and June.
Remedies: prefer the varieties having more foliage and follow appropriate cultural practices.
6. Flower and fruit drop: higher incidence of flower and fruit drop is resulted because of
fluctuations in temperature poor water management and soil moisture.
Remedies: good package of practices should be followed. Moisture stress should be avoided.
Spraying of planofix or NAA @ 1 ml in 4.5 lt of water. Control of fluctuations in
temperature.
7. Blotchy ripening: greenish yellow; maintain balance between Nitrogen and Potassic
fertilizers.
8. Bronzing or internal browning: also known as grey wall. Characterized by death of
tissues within the fruits associated by vascular browning variety EL 235673 is found resistant
to this disorder.
9. Green back: stem and portion of the fruit turns green. At high temperature ripening is
inhibited and green band is expected. Reduce temperature by artificial means.
Plant protection measures
Diseases: Damping off and root rot, Late blight, Buckeye rot (fruit rot), Early blight,
Fusarium blight, Powdery mildew, Verticillium wilt, Anthracnose fruit rot, Fruit rot, Black
leaf mould, Bacterial wilt, Bacterial canker, Leaf curl virus, Spotted wilt virus

Pests: Tomato fruit worm, Epilachna beetles, Jassids, Tobacco caterpillar, White fly, Thrips,
Leaf miner, Fruit borer, Aphids, Tomato worm, Mites, Fruit fly, Nematodes, Root-knot
nematodes
 Brinjal
 Botanical name: Solanum melongena
 Family: Solanaceae
 Chromosome no. (2n) = 24
 Origin: Indo-Burma region
 Common name: Egg plant

Importance and uses

 Brinjal can be grown in almost all parts of India except higher altitudes, all the year
round.
 The brinjal is of much importance in the warm areas of far east, being grown
extensively in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China and Philippines. It is highly
productive and usually finds its place as the poor man’s crop.
 In World, unripe fruit is primarily being consumed as a cooked vegetable in various
ways. The white brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients.
 Bitterness in brinjal is due to presence of glycoalkaloids (as solasodine). The
discolouration in brinjal fruits is attributed to high polyphenol oxidase activity.

Origin, taxonomy and botany: The brinjal, eggplant or aubergine (French name), a
normally self-fertilized annual is of uncertain origin. The cultivated brinjal is
undoubtedly of Indian origin. Vavilov (1928) was opinion that its centre of origin was
in the Indo-Burma region. It belongs to family Solanaceae and known under the
botanical name Solanum melongena L. There are 3 main botanical varieties under the
species melongena e.g. var. esculentum, var. serpentine and var. depressum.

1. Based on growth habit brinjal can be classified as below:

i) Solanum melongena var. esculentum: Fruit is long, round or egg-shaped and oval.
ii) Solanum melongena var. serpentine known as snake brinjal. Fruit is extra
ordinarily long and slender types. Leaves are prickly.
iii) Solanum melongena var. depressum: plant is extensively short and dwarf.

2. Classification on the basis of fruit shape:

i) Long brinjal: Pusa purple long (PPL)
ii) Round brinjal – Pusa purple round
iii) Oval brinjal – Pusa kranti.

3. Classification on the basis of fruit colour:

Purple brinjal: they have no anthocyanins. Eg: PPL.
Green brinjal: more of chlorophyll. Eg: Arka kusumakar

Brinjal is an annual herbaceous plant. Roots are usually tap but on

transplanting its changes as fibrous as is true with tomatoes and peppers. The above
ground portion of plant is erect, compact and well branched. The leaves are large,
simple, lobed and the underside covered with dense wool-like hairs. Inflorescence is
often solitary but sometimes it constitutes a cluster of 2-5 flowers. The flowers are
large showy with the corolla purple in colour. The flowers are hermaphrodite and
stamens dehisce at the same time the stigma is receptive so that self-pollination is the
rule, although there is some cross-pollination by insects. The fruit is pendant and is a
fleshy berry borne singly or in clusters. There are 4 types of flowers, depending on the
length of styles.
 Flowers in brinjal are of different styles.
a. long style b. medium style c. short style d. pseudo short style.
Brinjal is a self pollinated crop.
Only long style and medium style flowers will set fruits. Entire plant surface is
covered by ‘hairy layer called ‘tomentum’.
Long styled flowers: they have a big ovary, stigma is swollen, long anthers.
Medium styled flowers: it has medium, long style, anthers are of same length, ovary
is also medium sized.
Short styled flowers: they have rudimentary ovary.
Pseudo short styled flowers: ovary is rudimentary. Style should be shorter than the
anther. No swelling of anther is observed.

Climate: Brinjal is the warm season crop. It is susceptible to severe frost. It requires a
long warm season, before fruit maturity. Optimum temperature is 20 to 30OC. Late
round varieties are more tolerant to frost than early long varieties. Under very cool
seasonal conditions, the ovaries are split leading to the development of abnormal
fruits.

Soil:Brinjal can be grown on a wide range of soils. The ideal soils should be a deep,
fertile and well drained. The pH should be between 5.5 to 6.6 for better growth and
development. Light soils are good for a healthy crop but heavy soils are suited for
higher yields.

Varieties:Brinjal varieties are grouped on the basis of colour and shape of fruit.
Long fruit varieties: ex. Pusa purple long: evolved as a selction from mixed batia.
Pusa purple cluster long: is an early maturing variety.
Long green varieties: arka kusumakar, arka shirish, Krishna nagar green long.
Round purple: ex: Pusa purple round: is resistant to fruit borer and little leaf of
brinjal. Selection-6, suphala, arka navaneet, krihsna nagar purple round, pant ritu raj,
vijaya hybrid, shyamala.
Round green: banarasi gaint, round striped.
Roundish white: some varieties under this group have purplish tinge with white
stripes. Ex: Manjeri, Vaisali.
Oval or Oblong fruited varieties: Junagad oblong, Bhagyamati, H4., Pusa anmol
(Pusa anmol is a hybrid variety between pusa purple long and hyderpur).
Cluster fruited varieties: fruits born in cluster. Ex: pusa purple cluster, arka
kusumakar, Bhagyamathi (APAU variety).
Spiny varieties: H-4, Manjeri

Hybrids:
Pusa Anmol: Pusa purple long X Hyderpur
Arka Navaneet: IIHR22-1 X Supreme

Time of sowing:In plains crop is grown in three seasons, summer crop is sown
during February - March and rabi crop is October to November. In hills, seed is sown in
April-May and the seedlings transplanted in May-June.

Seed rate: Seed rate varies from 350 to 500 g per hectare.
 Nursery bed preparation:
 .Seeds are sown in the area of 250 m2. A raised bed prepared by well decomposed
FYM is mixed @ 4kg FYM per m2 of nursery bed. A fertilizer dose of 0.5 kg N, P, K
per bed is also mixed in the soil.
 Seeds are treated with fungicides (Thiram or Bavistin @ 2g/kg) and 40% formalin
solution at 500ml/m2 area of nursery bed sterilisation.
 During summer and rainy season, there is very heavy incidence of damping off. To
protect seeds and seedlings, the beds should be treated with 10% formaldehyde. After
fumigation the beds are covered with polythene for 24 hours.
 Seeds are sown 4 to 5 days after removal of polythene sheets. In line sowing 7.5cm
distance is kept between the rows. The beds are covered with straw or polythene till
the seeds germinate.
 Seedlings are protected against wind, exposure to sun and excess rainfall. Fungicides
are sprayed weekly to avoid of damping off. Nursery can also be grown in poly house.
Hardening is done by withholding water 4-5 days before uprooting seedlings.
 Adding 4,000ppm sodium chloride or spraying of 2,000ppm CCC is effective for
hardening of seedlings.

Transplanting:
 Seedlings are of 8 to 10 cm height with 2 to 3 true leaves are ready for transplanting.
Seedlings should be hardened before lifting for transplanting.
 The summer crop may be transplanted on ridges and furrow system for effective use
of water. Hardening of seedlings is achieved by withholding water for 4 to 6 days
before transplanting.
 Light irrigation should be given on due day of nursery pulling. Seedlings are pulled
without any injury to the root. At the time of transplanting soil around the seedlings is
pressed firmly.
 Distance of transplanting depends on soil fertility, climatic conditions and varieties.
Long fruited varieties are transplanted at a spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm. Round fruited
varieties at 75 cm x 75 cm.

Manuring:
 Brinjal occupies the land nearly 6 to 8 months, about 25 to 30 tons of well
decomposed FYM is incorporated in the soil before transplanting in one hectare.
 NPK @ 100, 80, 60 kg per ha is generally applied, ½ of nitrogen, full quantities of P
and K is applied at the time of transplanting while the remaining quantity of nitrogen
may be applied either twice or thrice depending upon soil conditions at 30 days, 45
days after transplanting.

Irrigation:
 Brinjal is a shallow rooted crop it needs frequent irrigation. The crop is irrigated at 3
to 4 day interval during summer season 12 to 15 days during winter season. However
during rainy spells irrigation is not needed. Brinjal is generally irrigated by furrow
system of irrigation.
 Drip irrigation is recommended to improve water use efficiency and also to reduce
weed growth.
 Inter culture:
 Generally, manual weeding is done to remove weeds. Shallow cultivation is followed
to put down the weed growth.
 Mulching in brinjal with black polythene film reduces weed growth, increases crop
growth, early bearing and total yield.
 Weeds can be controlled by applying herbicides like fluchloralin @1-1.5 kg a.i. / ha.
Harvesting:
 Fruits are harvested when they attain good size and when the surface is bright and
glossy appearance.
 If the fruit is too immature we press the fruit the pressed portion springs back.

Yield:
In case of open pollinated variety 200 to 500 q per ha. Hybrids 300 to 700 q per ha.

Chilli and Capsicum

Botanical name
Chilli : Capsicum annum
Capsicum: Capsicum annum
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome no. (2n) : 24
Origin:
Chilli from Peru
Capsicum from South America

Importance and nutritive value:

 Green chillies are rich in proteins 2.9 g per 100 g. Ca, Mg, P, K, Cu and S. vitamins
like Thiamine, Riboflavin and Vitamin C.
 Chillies are the major ingredients in curry powder. In powdered form it is mixed in
red or cayenne pepper.
 Pungency of chillies is due to capsaicin. The pigment (colour) in chillies is due to
capsanthin also contains many other oleoresins.

Botany and floral biology: Genus capsicum 20 wild species have been reported at
only few are cultivated.
 Capsicum annum (sweet pepper and chilli): it has blue anthers, milky white corolla.
 C. baccatum: it has yellow or brown spots on corolla. Its cultivation is restricted to
South America.
 C. fruitescens: tobacco pepper. It has blue anthers. Milky yellowish white corolla.

Chilli Varieties :
 Andhra Jyothi or G5 (G2 x Bihar variety): released from Lam Guntur. Fruits are
short and called as Gundu types.
 Bhagya laxmi (G4): selection from thohian chillies grown largely for green chillies.
 Sindhuri: Tall growing and less pungent variety suit for green chillies
 Baskar/ CA-235: released from Lam, Guntur. It is a cross between G4 x yellow
anther mutant.
 Prakash (LCA 206): developed from RARS, Lam Guntur.
 Hissar sakthi: multiple resistant variety developed at hissar.
 N. P. 46A: Medium, early prolific and pungent variety of IARI (N.P. means New
Pusa)
 Arka lohit: highly pungent variety released from IIHR, Bangalore.
Hybrids:
 Pusa Jwala- Pusa Red X N.P 46 A
 Pusa sadabahar- Pusa jwala X IC 31339
 Punjab lal- Perennial X long red
 Kiran (x235) -G4 X anther mutant

Bell pepper Varieties:

 Arka basant: released from IIHR, Bangalore. It was improved from the variety
Soroksari, suitable for both kharif and rabi.
 Arka gourav: pureline selection from golden caliwonder released from IIHR,
Bangalore. Fruits are 3 to 4 lobed. Good for kharif and rabi.
 Arka mohini: selection from variety known as Taitan. Fruits are 3 to 4 lobed
becomes red on ripening. Suitable for both kharif and rabi season.
 California wonder: an introduction from US. Fruits are 3 to 4 lobed.
 Yolo wonder: plant is dwarf and as medium flesh thickness.
 Pusa deepthi: released from Katrain. Suitable for both kharif and rabi.

Climate:
 Chilli is grown in both tropical and sub-tropical areas. It can grow up to 2000 MSL
altitude. For vegetative growth, it requires warm humid climate.
 For fruit maturity, it requires warm dry weather. It requires a well distributed annual
rainfall of about 800-1200 mm. Heavy rainfall leads to poor fruit set and high
humidity leads to fruit rot.
 The crops continue to develop at high temperature but root development is retarded at
a temperature of 300C. Fruit development is adversely retarded at 380C.
 Average night temperature favours high capsaicin content. Day length of 9 to 10
hours light stimulate plant growth. In general capsicum is grown at low temperature
conditions than chillies.

Soil:
 Chilli can be grown on a wide variety of soils provided. They are well drained, well
aerated and rich in organic manure.
 In ill drained soils plants shed their leaves and turn sick. Cannot tolerate water
logging conditions.
 Sandy loam soil with adequate irrigation and manuring can support better crop of
chilli. Black soils also preferable to grow chillies as rainfed crop.
 Strongly acid soils and alkaline soils are not suitable. Chilli can be grown in saline
soils. Seed germination and plant vigour affected by salinity. Ideal pH 6 to 7.

Time of sowing:
 Chilli seeds are sown in nursery beds during May-July. Sowing is little early in the
north east India.
 In south states where rainfed cultivation is in voge chillies can be in May-June and
September to October. In hills it is sown during March to April.
 Seed rate:
 1 to 2 kg seed is required to raise seedlings for hectare. Chilli seed bed are sometimes
made in the dimensions of 3 x 3 m, it can accommodate 6000 seedlings and requires
about 50 g of seed.
 However, generally nursery of chilli is prepared by following method. Selected area is
ploughed to a fine tilth.
 Nursery bed should be prepared to a size of 6 m length 1 m width with a 15 cm raised.
Raised beds are preferred than flat beds because on flat beds root development is poor
and incidence of damping off is more.
 Well decomposed FYM @ 20 to 25 kg per bed is mixed thoroughly in seed beds in
one month advance.
 Seeds are treated with fungicides like Capton 2 to 3 g per litre used to prevent seed
borne [Link] are sown preferably 5 cm lines. Paddy straw used for mulching.
Mulching is. removed as soon as seeds start germination. Phytolon 0.25 g per litre
solution is used to drench the nursery beds at fortnightly intervals against damping
off.

Transplanting:
 Seedlings ready for transplanting 35 to 45 days. Short thick stem seedlings are
preferred for better establishment.
 In older seedling topping has to be done one week prior to transplant. Early seedlings
are transplanted singly different spacing 30 x 30 cm, 45 x 30 cm, 45 x 45 and even 30
x 20 were tried in chillies.

Manuring:
 It needs good fertile soils supplied humus. Excess nitrogen lead to increase the
vegetative growth and delays maturity.
 10 to 15 tones of well decomposed FYM need to be applied in the last ploughing.
Besides that 120 kg N, 60 kg P, 50 kg K per ha is to be applied.
 Entire quantity of FYM, Phosphorus, potassium and half of nitrogen is to be applied
at the time of field preparation. Remaining half nitrogen is to be given as top dressing
in two equal splits at one month interval of transplanting.

Irrigation:
 First irrigation is given just after transplanting for better establishment in the soil.
Second irrigation is given 10 days after transplanting.
 During this time gap filling can be taken up. After wards irrigation is given as per the
requirement.
 Generally 8 to 9 irrigations have given depending on rainfall, soil type, humidity and
temperature. Method of irrigation adopted is ridges and furrows.

Interculture:
 Chilli is a slow growing crop cannot compete with aggressive weeds hand weeding or
hoeing or application of herbicides need to be done in order to ensure weed free
conditions.
 Frequent shallow conditions are under taken to facilitate soil aeration and proper root
development. However deep cultivation should be avoided because, it damages roots.
Herbicides like Alachlor 2.5 kg per ha can be used on chillies.
 Harvesting:
 Flowering begins 40 to 60 days after transplanting depending upon variety climate,
nutritional status of plant.
 Fruits starts ripening about 3 months after transplanting and picking may go on for 2
to 3 months.
 Commercial chilli variety yield 2-2.5 tonnes per ha. dry pods. and 7.5 to 10 tonnes per
ha in normal conditions.
 Green chillies can be stored for about 40 days at 0 0C and 95 to 98 % RH. Dried
chillies can be kept for a month in dry places well protected from insect pests.
 Cucurbits
Introduction:
 Cucurbits form an important group of vegetable crops cultivated extensively during
summer season ( Largest group of warm season vegetables)
 Family- Cucurbitaceae
 Botanically known as Pepo. Majority of vegetables are Monoecious/ Andromonecious
or diecious. These group of vegetables have trailing habits.
 This group consist as of wide range of vegetables which are used either as salad, pickling
(cucumber) or for cooking (all gourds) or candied or preserved (ash gourd) or as desert
fruits (musk melon and water melon).
 The cultural requirements of all crops in this group are more or less similar.
 Pollination is by Insects
 Bitter principle is due to Cucurbitacin
 These crops requires dry weather and high temperature at the time of maturity.

Crop/botanical name Origin Varieties

Cucumber (Cucumis India Japanese Long Green, Pusa Uday, Pusa Barkha,
sativus) Pant Kheera-1, Pusa Sanyog (H1 )
(2n = 14) Poinsette, Sheetal, Priya
Bottle Gourd Africa Pusa Naveen, Pusa Samridhi, Pusa Sandesh, Pusa
(Lagenaria siceraria) Santushti, Pusa Hybrid 3, Punjab Round, Punjab
(2n = 22) Komal, Punjab Long, Arka Bahar
Bitter Gourd (Momordica AFRICA Arka Harit, Pusa Do Mausami, Pusa Vishesh, Pusa
charantia) Hybrid-2, Coimbtore Long, Kalyanpur Baramasi,
(2n = 22) Solan Hara, Solan Safaid
Summer squash (Cucurbita Central America Pusa Alankar, Australian Green, Punjab Chappan
pepo) (2n = 40) Mexican region Kaddu1, Early Yellow Prolific
Sponge Gourd (Lufa India Pusa Sneha, Pusa Supriya, Pusa Chikni
cylindrica)
(2n = 26)
Ridge Gourd (L. India Pusa Nutan, Pusa Nasdar, Arka Sumeet, Arka Sujat,
acutangula) Satputia (hermophrodite flower)
(2n = 26)
Ash Gourd Japan and Jawa Pusa Ujjawal, Co-1, Co-2, S-1 (PAU),
(Benincasa hispida) (2n = Karikumbala, Boodikumbala, APAU Shakti
24)
Snake Gourd India Co-1, Co-4, TA-19, Chichinda
(Trichosanthes anguina)
(2n = 24)

Water melon Africa Arka Jyoti (F1), Arka Manik, Sugar Baby,
(Citrullus lunatus) (2n = 22) Durgapur Meetha, Durgapur Kesar, Asahi Yamato

Musk melon (Cucumis North west India Pusa Madhuras, Pusa Sharbati, Hara Madhu, Punjab
melo) (2n = 24) and hot valleys of Rasila, Punjab Sunheri, Punjab Hybrid, Arka Jeet,
Iran Arka Rajhans, Hisar Madhu, Durgapur
Madhu, Kashi Madhu
 Climate: Cucurbits are warm season crops. They do not withstand even light frost and strong
winds though cucumber tolerates a slightly cooler weather than melons. Seed does not
germinate below 11oC, optimum germination occurs at 18oC and germination increases with
rise in temperature till 30oC. Cucurbits grow best at a temperature range of 18-24oC. Proper
sunshine and low humidity are ideal for the production of cucumber. Melons prefer tropical
climate with high temperature during fruit development with day temperature of 35-40oC.
Cool nights and warm days give better quality fruits in melons.

Soil: A well drained soil of loamy type is preferred for cucurbits. Lighter soils which warm
quickly in spring are usually utilized for early yields while heavier soils are suitable for more
vine growth and late maturity of the fruits. In sandy river beds, alluvial substrata and
subterranean moisture of river streams support the cultivation of cucurbits. The soil should
not crack in summer and should not be waterlogged in the rainy season. It is important that
soil should be fertile and rich in organic matter. The most suitable pH range is between 6.0
and 7.0
Time of Sowing , Seed rate and Spacing
In northern plains, most of the cucurbits are sown during winter season i.e. in the month of
November (in the riverbeds).In the garden soils, sowing is done in February. Melons are
grown only when the weather is warm and dry during fruit development i.e. November to
[Link] rainy season, grow only those cucurbits which can tolerate rains. e.g. bitter
gourd in [Link] north-eastern states most of the cucurbits are sown from November to
March when the weather is comparatively [Link] southern and central India, winters are not
severe and long, therefore, these can be grown throughout the year. November sown crop is
over by [Link] Northern Indian hills, sowings start from April-May and the crop is
over by August- [Link] western India, sowings are done from September upto
February.

Crop Season Seed rate Spacing (m) Fruit yield

(kg/ha) (q/ha)
Cucumber Summer/rainy 2.5-3.5 1.5 × 0.60-0.90 250-300
Bottle gourd Summer 4-5 2-3 × 1-1.5 300-400
Bitter gourd Summer/Rainy 4-6 1.5-2.5 × 0.60-1.20 150-200
Summer Summer/rainy 8-10 0.60-0.75 × 0.45-0.60 250-300
squash (dwarf)
Sponge gourd Summer/rainy 2.5-3.0 2.50-3.00 × 0.60-1.20 150-200
Ridge gourd Summer/rainy 3-3.5 2.50-3.00 × 0.60-1.20 150-200
Snake gourd Summer/rainy 4-6 1.5-2.5 × 0.60-1.20 200-250
Ash gourd Summer/Rainy 5-7 1.5- 3 × 0.6-1.2 100-150
Water melon Summer 3-4 2.5-3.5 × 0.90-1.20 300-500
Musk melon Summer 1.5-2.0 1.50-2.0 × 0.60-0.90 150-200

Chow –Chow (Sechium edule) is a perennial crops propagated by viviparous single seed fruits.
Vivipary: Seed germinates inside the fruit while still attached to the parent tree and nourished by it
Methods of planting: Mostly in cucurbits, in situ method of sowing is followed.
But in certain areas of Northern India and hills where the main objective is to get
early fruit harvest, the seedlings are raised in polythene tubes and plantation is
done in the field when the conditions are favourable without disturbing the soil
ball. Transplanting is done at 2 true leaves stage.
Furrow method: Furrows are made at 1 to 1.5 m in case of cucumber and bitter
gourd. The sowing is usually done on the top of the sides of furrows and the
vines are allowed to trail on the ground especially in summer season.
Bed method: In some regions, bed system is in fashion where the seeds are
sown on the periphery of beds. The width of the bed is almost double to the row
to row spacing.
Hill method or raised beds or raised point: The hills are spaced at a distance
of 0.5- 0.75m and 2-3 seeds are sown per hill, after germination retain only one
or two plants per hill. This method facilitates proper drainage especially in
heavy rainfall regions.
Pit Method: Generally, it is followed in southern India. The pit is lower than the
normal bed surface. Training is done by Pargolla or Pandal system.
Manures and fertilizers:
Farmyard manure Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P2O5) Potassium (K2 O)
(q/ha) (Kg/ha)
200-250 60-100 50-75 50-85
Full dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus and half of potassium and N
should be applied at the time of sowing. Remaining part of N should be top
dressed in two equal parts after one month and at flowering stage while half of K
is applied when good growth takes place.
Interculture and weed management: Thinning of plants should be done 10-15
days after sowing retaining not more than 2 healthy seedlings per hill. The beds
or ridges are required to be kept weed free in the early stages before vine growth
start. Weeding and earthing up are done at the time of top dressing of split
application of nitrogenous fertilizers. Apply Fluchloralin or Trifluralin @ 0.75-
1.0 kg/ha or Bensulide @ 5-8 kg/ha as preplant soil incorporation at 2 weeks
before sowing. Butachlor @ 1 kg/ha or chloramban @ 2-3 kg/ha as pre
emergence & Naptalam @ 2-4 kg/ha as post emergence after first weeding
efficiently helps in controlling the weeds in cucurbitaceous crops. In general,
vertical training is more helpful in increasing the yield of cucumber.

Irrigation: In spring-summer crop, frequency of irrigation is very important,

while in rainy season crop, well distributed rainfall between July to September
reduces the frequency of irrigations. Ridges or hills or beds are to be irrigated a
day or two prior to sowing of seeds and then light irrigation is to be given 4 or 5
days after sowing. Flooding of hills is to be avoided and crust formation of the
top soil should be prevented. Irrigation once in 5 or 6 days is necessary
depending upon soil, location, temperature etc. Irrigation water should not wet
the vines or vegetative parts, especially when flowering, fruit set and fruit
developments are in progress. Wetting will promote diseases and rotting of fruits,
so it is essential to keep beds or inter row spaces dry as far as possible so that
developing fruits are not damaged. In rainy season, therefore, these crops are
trailed over supports to prevent rotting of fruits
 Sex expression and sex ratio
Cucurbits are cross pollinated vegetable crops. There are nine types of sex forms
found in these crops, of which monoecious type is the most common. “Satputia”
variety of ridge gourd bears hermaphrodite (bisexual) flowers. Gynoecious lines
(Bears only female flowers) are used for hybrid seed production in cucumber and
bitter gourd. It is of great significance in most of the cucurbitaceous crops which
have monoecious plants that meansthey bear male and female flowers separately
on the same plant. In the beginning, monoecious plants bear only male flowers
and female flowers appear late. The female to male ratio goes on increasing with
the age of the plant. Though sex expression and sex ratio are varietal
characteristics but they are influenced by environmental conditions. Low fertility,
high temperature, and long light periods induce maleness. Gibberellic acid (GA)
at higher concentration induces maleness but at lower concentration of 10-25 ppm
increases the number of female flowers. Two sprays, first at 2-leaf stage and
again at 4 –leaf stage with 100 ppm of NAA, 200 ppm of etheral, 3 ppm of Boron
or 3 ppm of Molybdenum can suppress the number of male flowers and increases
the number of female flowers, fruit set & ultimate yield. Silver nitrate sprays
induces male flowers.
Harvesting:
Harvesting of crop at right time is very important in cucurbits as in most
cases, seed development is undesirable. Harvest cucumber, bottle gourd, bitter
gourd, snake gourd, ridge gourd and sponge gourd when they are still young,
tender and have soft seeds inside. Harvest before fruit colour changes from green
to yellow.
Musk melon: It is a climacteric fruit which ripe during transportation and
storage. Hence, it should be harvested before it attains fully ripe stage.
Full slip stage i.e. a crack develops around the peduncle at the base of the fruit and when
fully ripe the fruit slips easily from the stem.
Half slip stage: Only a portion of the disc is removed when the fruit is pulled out. The
scar on the fruit is smaller than the full slip stage.
Water melon: It is harvested at fully ripe stage. Maturity signs are withering of
tendril, change in belly color or ground spot to yellow and the thumping test
produce dull sound on maturity and metallic sound in unripe fruits.

River bed cultivation

It is kind of vegetable forcing being used in India where cucurbits are sown
during winter season in the river beds.
 Pits or trenches are made during October-November.
 They are of convenient length, 30 cm wide and 60 cm deep or to a depth at
which the sand is moist.
 A distance of nearly 2-3 m is kept between the trenches.
 Normally, 3-4 pre-germinated seeds are planted/hill in pits or trenches.
 Before sowing, the trenches are manured with FYM.
 Sprouted seeds are carefully sown. Spot watering during the initial stages is essential.
 Protection from low temperature/chilling winds during Dec-Jan (1-2
o
C) is provided probably from Saccharam spp. on north side of the pit.
It serves following purposes:
 Checks the sand drifting on dug up trenches.
 Provide protection against chilly winds.
 This grass spread over the sand later on & vines spread over this
 [Link] does not blow off in hot months.
 Fruits from river bed are available 30-50 days before then the normal
field sown crop.
 Cucurbits have following salient features which make them fit for river
bed cultivation:
 Long tap root system which makes use of subterranean moisture.
 These are more space planted crops, less no. of plants per unit area are to be
managed.
 Hot & dry weather with maximum sunshine prevails right from
March-June/July which is an essential requirement for melons.
Problems: Leaching of nutrients, Risk if floods due to winter rains, Occurrence
of diseases & Fruits having undesirable quality due to inbreeding depression.
Disease management:
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum/Sphaerotheca fuliginea)Powdery
mildew is often serious in dry weather and is the main cause of early dying of
plants. White or greyish spots with powdery mass appear on the upper surface of
leaves which may cover the whole [Link] with dinocap or bitertanol or
hexaconzole @ 0.05% at the first appearance of symptoms on the leaves have
been reported effective.
Downey mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis): It does not attack the fruit but
causes defoliation and yield loss. Symptoms first evident are as blocky, chlorotic
spots that become later necrotic. Grayish fungal sporulation may be observed on
the underside of the lesions. Poor air circulation and overhead watering aggravate
the problem. Spray the crop with zineb (0.25%) to control this disease.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum orbiculare): Leaves initially show small, pale
yellow or water-soaked areas that enlarge rapidly and turn tan to dark brown.
These lesions may develop holes or cracks in the center. Depending on weather,
spotting may occur on young plants and fruit especially in late [Link]
resistant varieties such as Poinsette (cucumber), Arka Manik (water melon). Sow
the seed after treatment with Blitox or Bavistin (2.5 g/kg of seed).
Fruit rot: Symptoms occur on the underside and blossom end of the fruit that are
in contact with soil. As the disease progresses, lesions become sunken and
irregular in shape which result in rotting of the entire [Link] the seed with
carbendazim or thiram or captan (2.5 g/kg of seed). Avoid flood irrigation.
Cucumber mosaic: Plants have mottled yellow-green and green leaves, and may
be
stunted. They may show epinasty, downward bending of the petioles. It is
transmitted by aphids, so control this pest at right stage is essential.

Insect-pests management
Fruit Fly: The adult female lays egg on the flowers, buds and fruits. The
maggots after hatching feed on pulp of the fruits and render them unfit for
human consumption.
Field sanitation should be ensured by removal and destruction of fallen fruits and
infested fruits daily to minimize the pest [Link] 2-3 rows of maize as
a trap crop in between the cucurbits. Trap crop act as resting site for the adult
fruit fly. Any contact insecticides can be sprayed on maize during evening hours
to kill adult fruit flies.
Use of pheromone traps (Palam trap @ 25 nos./ha) for monitoring pest
population. Apply malathion (0.05%) as cover spray to kill the insects on contact
or a bait spray that attracts and kill the adults. Bait spray prepared by adding 50
g gur + 10 ml malathion in 10 litre water can be used.
Epilachna beetle: Adults and larvae (grubs) feed on leaves leaving a fine net of
veins. Damaged leaves shrivel and dry up. Young plants can be entirely
destroyed while older plants can tolerate considerable leaf damage. Hand
picking and destruction of eggs, grubs and adult beetles is effective, if the
cropped area is small. Foliar application of malathion (0.05%), carbaryl (0.1%)
and lambda-cyhalothrin (0.004%) checks the pest.
Red pumpkin beetle: It is the most serious insect pest of cucurbits. The larvae
and adult of this pest cause damage by eating away the young leaves and
flowers at the seedling and flowering stage respectively. Creamy yellow
coloured larvae feed on the roots, stem and fruits touching the soil whereas red
coloured adults feed on leaf and flowers. Collection and destruction of beetles in
the early stage of infestation. Spray the crop with malathion (0.05%) or
dichlorvos (0.05%) or carbaryl (0.1%).
Aphids: The first sign of aphid damage is a downward curling and crinkling of
the leaves. Aphids are often found on lower leaves and on flower buds and
flowers. They are also involved in the spread of several viruses that affect all
cucurbits. Spray cypermethrin (0.01%) or acetamiprid (0.01%) bifenthrin
(0.01%) or malathion (0.05%).
Whiteflies: They can affect the crop directly by its feeding and by acting as a
vector of viruses. When whiteflies are very numerous, the sticky honeydew they
produce supports the growth of sooty mold on leaves. Spray acetamiprid (0.01%)
or triazophos (0.04%).
 Garden Pea
Botanical Name: Pisum sativum L.
Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae
Chromosome no: 14
Origin: Central Asia, the near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean

Importance and uses:

 Pea is highly nutritive containing high percentage of
digestible protein (very valuable for the vegetarians)
alongwith carbohydrates and vitamins A and C.
 It is also very rich in minerals Ca and P.
 It is an excellent food for human consumption taken
either as a vegetable or in soup.
 Large proportion is processed (canned, frozen or
dehydrated) for consumption in the off-season.
 Being N fixing legume, it is recognized as a soil building crop
 Pea is being used in a growing snack market.
 Garden pea has white coloured flowers and wrinkled seeds whereas field/pulse pea bears purple flowers
and round seeds.
 Garden pea is sweater having high sugars while field pea has more starch contents.

Varieties recommended for different regions :

1. Early wrinkle seeded: Arkel, Pusa Pragati, Matar Ageta 6, Azad P3, Pant Sabzi Matar 3
(PSM-3), VL Ageti Matar 7 (VL-7), Vivek Matar -10, Kashi Nandini (VRP-5) , Kashi
Uday(VVRP-6), Palam Triloki

2. Main season wrinkle seeded varieties: Bonneville, Lincoln,

Azad P-1, Punjab-89, Palam Priya, Vivek Matar-6, Vivek Matar -8,
Vivek Matar -9,Arka Ajit

3. Edible poded peas: Sylvia, Punjab Mit hi Phali, Arka Sampoorna.

Soil: Pea can be grown on all kinds of soils but the best crop can be taken from well drained
and fertile loam soil. Light soils are good for early crop whereas heavy soils are suitable for
main season crop. The soil pH 6-7.5 is the best for its proper growth and development.

Climate: Pea is a cool season crop and requires frost-free weather particularly at flowering
and pod formation stage though vegetative growth is not affected by the frost. The optimum
temperature for its germination is about 22oC and that for better growth and yield is 13-19oC.
High temperature reduces the pod quality as sugars in the seeds changes to hemicellulose and
starch. Temperature above 27oC shortens the growing period and adversely affects
pollination.
Sowing time

Area Early varieties Main season varieties

North India September First fortnight of October –end
November
Peninsular India June- July Adverse effect when sown after
November

Seed Rate (kg/ha): Early varieties: 120-130 kg/ha, Main season varieties: 75-100 kg/ha
Spacing (inter-row x intra-row): Early varieties: 30cm × 5cm,
Main season varieties: 45-60cm × 10cm

Seed inoculation: Inoculation of seed with Rhizobium culture can be used. The culture
material is emulsified in 10% sugar or jaggery solution sufficient to moist the seed. Mix the
emulsified culture thoroughly with seed and dry in shade before sowing. Seed inoculation
helps in quick nodulation on the roots which in turn fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Seed treatment: The seeds may be treated with fungicides like thiram or captan (3g/kg of
seed) or bavistin (2.5-3 g/kg of seed) to save the crop against wilt disease. If both seed
inoculation and fungicide treatments are to be given, then at first the seeds are treated with
fungicide followed by inoculation with Rhizobium culture.

Manures and fertilizers: Full dose of farmyard manure @ 20 tonnes, 20-50 kg nitrogen, 30-
60 kg phosphorus and 30-60 kg potassium per hectare should be applied at the time of sowing
based on fertility status of the soil.

Interculture and weed control: First hoeing and earthing up is to be done after 2-3 weeks of
sowing and second at flower initiation to get higher yield. Hoeing helps in removing the
weeds and pulverizes the soil for proper aeration. Herbicides have also been found beneficial
in controlling weeds. Pre-emergence application of Alachlor @ 3litres/ha or Pendimethalin @
3litres/ha or Fluchloralin @ 2.5 litres/ha may take care of weeds in the initial growth stages

Irrigation: In general, pre-sown irrigation is essential for proper germination. It is important

to apply irrigations before flowering, during flowering and at pod formation stage to obtain
quality pods and good yield. It is possible to grow pea under rainfed conditions but sufficient
moisture must be present in the field at the time of sowing.

Harvesting: The peas are harvested when the pods are fully green and well developed. The
seeds should be fully developed but tender i.e. should not harden. Picking should be done as
soon as green ovules are fully developed and pods still not over mature. Early varieties give
2-3 pickings while 3-4 pickings at 7-10 days interval are taken from main season varieties.
Picking should be done either early in the morning or late in the afternoon. Picking during
mid day deteriorates the quality of pea pod due to heat.

Yield (q/ha): Early varieties: 60-85 q/ha Main season varieties: 100-150 q/ha
Disease management:
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi): First symptoms appear on the upper surface of
the leaves as very small and discoloured spots which soon give rise to enlarge
white powdery areas on the leaf, stem and pod. Multiple infection may cover the
whole plant.
Management:
Grow resistant varieties like Palam Priya.
Spray Dinocap or Bitertanol or Hexaconzole @ 0.05% as the initial symptoms
appear on the leaves.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum [Link]. pisi): Near wilt attacks young
plants. The affected plants shoe yellow-orange internal discolouration in
the lower internodes.
Bacterial blight: Lesions appear on all above ground parts of the
plant. They begin as
small, water soaked, oval spots. Multiple lesions often appear together which
may cover large portions of infected plants and give blighted appearance.
Management: Slurry treatment of seed with streptomycine sulphate (2.5 g/kg of
seed) or soaking seeds in streptomycine solution for 2 hours.
Ascochyta blight: Small purple spots develop on the surface of leaf, stem and pod.
Management: Use 3-4 years crop rotation. Remove and dispose off diseased plants.
Insect-pest management:
Pea aphid: It attacks young vine sucking the juice from growing tip, later
covering the whole plant. It causes curling of the leaves and pods.
Management: Spray Dimethoate @ 0.01% or spray of 0.06% nicotine sulphate
Pod borer: The young caterpillars first feed on the surface of the pods, bore
into them and feed the seeds.
Management: Spray Malathion or Cypermitherin @ 0.01%
Leaf minor: The greenish larvae make serpentine tunnel in the leaves and feed
on it. The infested leaves wither and dry. Flowering and pod formation is
drastically affected. Management: Spray Cypermethrin or Fenitrothion or
Fenthion @ 0.01%
Pea Weevil: The elongated, yellow eggs are laid on green pods and after
hatching of eggs, the larvae burrow through the pod into the seed. They develop
inside pea and come out by damaging the seed in storage.
Management: Spray methiocarb @ 0.05% is effective.
 French bean
Botanical name: Phaseolus vulgaris
Family: Leguminosae.
Chromosome no (2n) : 22
Origin: South and central America

Climate: A warm season crop, sensitive to frost and very high temperature. The
seeds do not germinate in cold soil. In very hot or rainy weather, plants drop their
blossoms or pods. Mean monthly temperature of 10.0 to 23.9 oC is the most ideal.
The best pod setting is obtained at temperature range of 15-25oC for 4 hours after
pollination.

Soil: A well drained, fertile and sandy loam soils are preferred with pH between
5.3 and 6.0

Varieties of French bean are classified into two categories:

A. On the basis of fibres:

1. String type: Pods contain fibre. The indigenous beans are stringy.
2. Stringless type: Pods are free from fibre.

B. On the basis of growth habit

1. Pole type: Varieties are tall, indeterminate in growth, larger internodes & number
depends upon the length of growing season. It requires support. Main shoot goes on
putting growth. Branching is unlimited

2. Bush type. Plants are dwarf & bushy in their growth habit. It has a short, erect stem
with the main axis consisting of 4-8 shortened internodes. It is popular because of
compactness, easy harvest & short duration. Each vegetable stem terminates or ends in
the form of terminal inflorescence.

3. Semi-pole or summer type: It has 4-8 internodes which are longer than those in bush
type. Inflorescence is terminal but appears somewhat late & gives vine type growth. It
requires staking for better growth.

Varieties recommended for cultivation in different parts of India

Dwarf varieties Pole type varieties
Contender, VL Boni 1, Pusa Parvati, Arka Komal, Kentucky Wonder, SVM-1, Luxmi,
Pant Anupama, Arka Suvidha, Arka Anoop, Phule KKL-1
Surekha, Kashi Param

Sowing
time
Northern Indian plains  Spring-summer crop: January-February
 Autumn-winter crop: July- September
South India  September-October and crop is over by February

Soil preparation: Soil should be thoroughly prepared by employing 4 to 5

ploughings before sowing the seeds. Farmyard manure or compost should be
applied and incorporated well into the soil. Sowing is done as follows:
• Flat bed: Generally, it is followed in spring-summer and autumn-winter crop.
• Hill method: Maintain row to row distance between the hills. Sow 5-6
seeds per hill and then retain only 3 plants per hill. This method
facilitates proper drainage especially in heavy rainfall regions.

Seed Rate (kg/ha): 80-90 kg/ha (Bush type) and 30-40 (Pole type) kg/ha

Seed inoculation: Rhizobium culture can be used to inoculate the seed before
sowing. This seed inoculation helps in quick nodulation on the roots which
inturn fix atmospheric nitrogen

Spacing (inter- row x intra-row) 45cm X 15 cm (Bush type) and 90cm X 10-
15cm (Pole type)

Manures and fertilizers: Farmyard manure @200-250 q/ha is applied at the

time of field preparation. The full dose of recommended fertilizers i.e. 30-50 kg
N, 60-100 kg P2O5 and 30-60 kg K2 O /ha should be applied at the time of
sowing.

Interculture and weed control: Hoeing and earthing up are to be done after 2-3
weeks of sowing and second at flower initiation to get higher yield. Root injury
should be avoided during the operation. Therefore, hoeing should be followed
by earthing up to strengthen the plants and to encourage the root growth. Weeds
can be controlled effectively with the pre-
emergence application of Alachlor 3litres/ha or Pendimethalin @ 4 litres/ha or
Thiobencarb @ 4 litres/ha or Fluchloralin @ 2.5 litres/ha.

Irrigation: Beans are shallow rooted and are sensitive to an oversupply of

water. Therefore, avoid excessive watering and water logging conditions. Pre-
sowing irrigation is essential for proper germination of the seeds. The critical
stages of irrigation are flowering and pod setting. Additional irrigation is to be
given when needed.

Use of plant growth regulators: Spray of PCPA @ 2ppm or NAA 5-25 ppm induce
fruit set when normally pods do not set at prevailing temperatures.

Harvesting: Pods are usually ready to harvest 2-3 weeks after the first blossom.
The pods are picked when they are tender, immature and non-fibrous. Delay in
harvesting increases the total yield but the quality falls rapidly. Bush varieties
are ready for picking after 45 days of sowing where as pole types after 70 days
and continue to give picking up to 6 months. Bush varieties give 2-3 pickings
while pole types can be harvested in 4-6 pickings.

Yield (q/ha): 80-100 (Bush type) and 100-140 (Pole type)

Physiological disorders:
1. Transverse Cotyledon Cracking: This is a major disorder in French bean. It
is enhanced by planting dry seeds in wet soil. White seeded varieties are more
 prone. Hard seed coat is essential for resistance to this disorder and seed coat
shattering. Therefore, seed containing 12% moisture has better germination.
2. Hypocotyl necrosis: It means death of hypocotyls tissues. It is associated
with low Ca and Mg content in the seed.

Disease Management:
Anthracnose: Small, pink lesions produce on cotyledon and stem which may
spread to the leaves. The typical symptoms appear on pods as ulcer like
sunken lesions having reddish brown to black blemishes centers and distinct
circular, reddish brown margins.
Management:
Use disease free certified seed.
Treat seed with carbendazim or captan @ 2.5-3.0 g/kg of seed.
Spray carbendazim @ 0.1% or mancozeb @0.25% to control the
disease. Grow resistant varieties (Tweed wonder).

Rust: Pustules are formed on all above ground plant parts but are more frequent on
underside of the leaves. Spray the crop with carbendazim @ 0.1%.
Web blight (Rhizoctonia solani): The first symptoms appear as small, circular,
water soaked spots on stems, pods and foliage which later become tan-brown
with a dark border. Plants become seriously blighted.
Management:
Spray carbendazim (0.1%) for effective management of this disease.
Bacterial blight: Irregular, , red to brown leaf spots surrounded by a somewhat
narrow yellowish halo appears.
Management:
Use disease free seed.
Soak the seed in a mixture of Streptocycline (1g) and Hexacap (25g) in
10 litres of water for 4 hrs before sowing.
Common bean mosaic virus: It is transmitted by an insect vector, aphid. It
produces chlorotic, crinkled and stiff young leaves as primary symptoms. This is
followed by chlorosis and mottling and the compound leaves show downward
curling and rolling.

Management:
It is transmitted by vector aphids so, it is essential to control this pest.
Spray recommended insecticide against vector control.
Insect- pests management:
Aphids: They are tiny soft-bodied insects. Initially, damaged leaves show
general yellowing. Young leaves become curled when aphids are numerous.
They often transmit virus diseases.
Management: Foliar application of dimethoate (0.03%), methyl demeton
(0.025%) or malathion (0.05%) before flower initiation stage.

Jassids: In severely infested crop, it produces typical „hopper burn‟ symptoms.

Follow same control measures as in aphid.

Red spider mite: Feeding of mites result in large chlorotic patches on leaves.
Often these damaged leaves curl when the infestation is concentrated on middle
part of lower leaf surface. Severe infestation causes extensive yellowing and
browning of entire leaves and eventually leaves drop.
Management: Spray azadiractin (0.03%) or malathion (0.05%) or dicofol
(0.04%). Repeat sprays at 10 day intervals.

Pod borer: The larva feed on pods and also eats seed totally or partially. Spray
carbaryl (0.1%) or cypermethrin (0.01%) at 15 days interval.

Bean beetle: Both larvae and adults feed on the leaves. Spray cypermethrin @
0.01% to control the pest.

Bean bug: It is sucking pest and causes discolouration of leaves and pods. Spray
cypermethrin @ 0.01% to control the pest.

Hairy catterpillar: The larvae cause damage by eating the leaves resulting in
defoliation. In early stages, collect and destroy the larvae. Spray malathion
@0.05% to control caterpillar.

Bean weevil (Bruchus spp.): The eggs are laid on green pods and after hatching
of eggs, the larvae burrow through the pod into the seed. They develop inside
seed and come out by damaging the seed in storage. It is a storage pest. Put 1-2
tablets of Celphos/tonnes of material.

Okra
Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench)
Family: Malvaceae
Chromosome no (2n): 70 -130 ( Presence of polyploidy)
Origin: Ethiopia

Importance and uses: Okra is rich in vitamins, Ca, K and other [Link] is
grown for its green, tender and nutritive fruits which are cooked in curry and are
also used in soups besides being processed as canned and frozen.

Soil: Okra grows best in light soils ranging from sandy loam to loam though it
gives good crop in heavy soil with efficient drainage facility during rainy
season. The soil should be well drained as it is sensitive to water logging. The
most ideal pH range for its cultivation is 6.0 to 6.8.

Climate: It is a warm season crop, sensitive to fluctuating environment and

grows luxuriantly in warm and humid weather. The optimum temperature for
better seed germination should be atleast 18oC, optimum temperature being 25-
30oC. Optimum temperature for its better growth is 24-27oC and temperature
above 42oC causes flower drop. A temperature range of 30-35oC is desirable for
improved pollination and subsequent seed setting.

Varieties recommended for cultivation in different parts of India

Parbhani Kranti, Punjab Padmani, Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Pusa A-4,
Varsha Uphar, Hisar Unnat, Hisar Naveen, HBH-142(Hybrid) Azad Kranti,
Azad Bhindi1,Kashi Pragati, Kashi Vibhuti, Kashi Kranti,Phule Utkarsh,
 Gujarat Anand Okra-5 Kerala: Kiran, Salkeerthi, Aruna , SusthiraPusa Sawani,
Parbhani Kranti, Varsha Uphar and Pusa A-4 varieties find favour for export.

 Sowing time
Indo-Gangetic plains  Spring-summer crop: February-March
 Autumn-winter crop: July- September
Eastern India  January-February
Western & South India  November to March-April. and crop is over by
February
Hilly regions  April-June
Most parts of India  Rainy season crop: June-July.

Soil preparation: Okra should be planted in well pulverized field by ploughing

first with soil turning plough and afterwards with 4 to 5 ploughings with country
plough. Ploughing should be followed by levelling.

Seed Rate (kg/ha): 15-20 (Spring-summer crop) and 10-12 (Rainy season)
Seed germination can be enhanced by soaking the seed in water for 12-24 hours
or GA3 at 10 and 50 ppm or immersing the seeds for 5 minutes in pure acetone

Spacing : 30-45cm × 15 cm(Spring-summer) and 60cm × 20-30 cm (Rainy

season)

Manures and fertilizers: FYM @200-250 quintals per ha should be applied

at the time of field preparation. In addition, apply 60-75 kg N, 50-60 kg
phosphorus (P2O5) and 50-60 kg potassium (K2O) kg per hectare depending
upon the fertility status of the soil. Apply half of nitrogen and full dose of
phosphorus and potassium at the time of sowing and remaining nitrogen can
be top dressed after one month of sowing.

Interculture and weed control: Weeds cause more than 50% reduction in the
marketable yield of okra. Frequent weedings are necessary to keep the crop
weed free. First weeding may be done at 15-20 days and second at 40-45 days
after sowing to keep the crop weed free at critical stages. Pre-emergence
application of Pendimethalin @1 kg ai/ha or Alachlor @ 4litres/ha or
Fluchloralin @ 2.5 litres/ha + 1 hand weeding is effective to keep crop weed
free.

Irrigation: Pre-sowing irrigation is necessary especially in spring-summer crop

which ensures adequate germination and uniform crop stand. Then, next
irrigation is to be provided after seed germination and the subsequent irrigations
at 4-5 days interval during summer crop. Drainage of water is required as per
frequency and intensity of rains during monsoon season.

Harvesting: The fruits attain marketable maturity in about 45-60 days after
sowing. Only tender and small fruits (6-10cm long) should be harvested
preferably in the evening or morning. Frequent pickings are necessary for
getting better quality fruits and handsome prices in the market. Delayed
harvesting though increase yield but reduce the quality and profit margin, and
even sometimes the entire produce is rendered unfit for marketing. For export
purpose, dark green fruits about 6-8cm long should be harvested.

Yield: 80-100q/ha (Spring-summer) and 120-150q/ha (Rainy season)

Post-harvest management: For local markets, fruits are cooled and packed in
jute bags or baskets, covered or stitched and then water is sprinkled over the
bags, which helps in cooling as well as maintaining the turgidity of fruits thereby
saving the produce from bruises, blemishes and blackening. For export, 5-8 kg
size perforated paper cartons are ideal wherein pre-cooled fruits are packed and
transported preferably in refrigerated vans.

Storage: Fresh okra fruits can be stored at 7-9oC at 70-75% relative humidity for
a couple of days without much loss of colour, texture or weight. Fruit can be
stored for 2 weeks at 8-10oC at 90% relative humidity.

Disease Management:
Powdery Mildew: White powdery growth on both sides of the leaf. The diseased
leaves drop off from the plant.
Management: The disease can be controlled effectively by spray Sulfex (0.2%)
or dinocap (0.05%) at 10 days interval.

Cercospora Leaf Spot: There is appearance of spots in the leaf with grey centers
and red borders. When the disease is severe, complete defoliation occurs.
Management: Seed treatment with is effective to manage the disease.
Spray mancozeb (0.2%) or Captan (0.2%) or carbendazim (0.1%) at the appearance
of the disease incidence to check the infection.
Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus: The veins of diseased leaves become yellow resulting
in homogenous interwoven net work of yellow veins.
In extreme cases, the infected leaves become totally yellow or cream
colour. Infected plants remain stunted and bear very few deformed and small fruits.
The disease causes heavy loss in yield if the plants get infected within 20 days after
germination. It is transmitted by white fly.
Management:
Disease incidence can be reduced by checking the development of insect vector by the
application of 4 to 5 foliar sprays of recommended insecticides.
Infected plants must be removed from the field
Grow resistant varieties like P-8, Varsha Uphar, Arka Anamika, and Parbhani Kranti.
Root rot (Fusarium solani): Severely infected plants die as their roots turn dark brown.
The fungus perpetuates in the soil or in the infected plants debris.
Management:
Seed treatment with carbendazim @ 3g/kg of seed Soil drenching with carnebdazim @
0.1%,
Follow long crop rotation.

Insect- pests:
Fruit borer: The insect larvae are light yellow with black spots. They bore into the
shoots during vegetative stage and feeds inside as a result of which the shoots droop
down and dry-up. In the later stages, it infests the fruits which become disfigured and
show holes.
Management:
Grow tolerant varieties like Perkins Long Green, Varsha Uphaar.
Remove and destroy damaged shoots and fruits. Application of carbaryl (0.1%) and
malathion (0.05%) is effective.
Flower feeding beetle/ Blister beetle: Beetles feed on pollen, petals of flowers and
flower buds, thus affecting fruit set adversely.
Management
Hand collection and destruction of beetles. Application of 0.1% carbaryl or 0.05%
malathion or 0.01% cypermethrin is effective.
White fly: It causes chlorotic spots on leaves. The insects secrete a sticky substance
known as honeydew, which covers leaves and flowers. As a result, the sooty mould
develops and plant growth is reduced.
Management
Plants affected by viral disease must be uprooted and destroyed.
Monitoring the adult population with yellow sticky traps for early prediction and timely
application of insecticide.
 Cole Crops
This group of vegetables includes cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, knolkhol, kale and
Brussels‟ Sprout. The word “cole” seems to have derived from the abbreviation of the word
“caulis” meaning stem. It is a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a
single wild ancestor Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (sylvestris), commonly known as wild
cabbage. Cole crops are the most popular vegetables grown during winter season and among
these, cauliflower and cabbage are the important ones. Broccoli is also gaining popularity due
to its high medicinal value.
Cauliflower
Botanical Name: Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.,
Family: Brassicaceae/Cruciferae
Origin: Mediterranean region
2n: 18
Edible portion: Curd

Cultivars: Cauliflower cultivars grown in India can be classified in two broad groups:
1. Indian Cauliflower/tropical/hot weather/heat tolerant.
2. European types/ Early temperate type known as Snowball or late cauliflower

Indian Type/Tropical types European /Temperate Type

Annual and tolerant to heat Biennial and not tolerant to heat
Curd formation at and above 20oC. Curd formation at 5-20oC
Yellow to creamish curds, loose with Snow white curds with very
strong flavour. mild or no flavour
(better quality curds).
Plants are short having long stalk and Steady plants and long leaves
loosely arranged giving protective
leaves. jacket to curd.
Early in maturity Late in maturity
More variable (heterozygous) Less variable (homozygous)
More self-incompatible. Less self incompatible.
Small juvenile phase. Long juvenile phase.
No need of vernalization but needs cold Needs vernalization at 7 o C for
treatment at 8-10 weeks.
10-13 oC.

Soil: Cauliflower can be grown in all types of soil with good fertility and good water holding
capacity. The mid season and late crop grow very well in medium, medium heavy and heavy
soils. For early crop, a light to light medium soil should be preferred so that the drainage is
easier in the rainy season. The water stagnation checks the growth, which leads to
disappointment to the growers. It prefers a soil reaction ranging from pH 6 to 6.5.

Climate: Climatic factors play an important role during transformation from vegetative to
curding and curd development stages. Temperature 10-21oC is good for germination. It is
highly sensitive to temperature i.e. temperature influences growth from vegetative to
reproductive stages. Transformation from vegetative to curding takes place when plants are
exposed to 5oC to 28-30oC, depending upon the cultivar of a particular maturity group.
Optimum temperature for growth of young plant is 23 oC in initial stages while for growth in
later stages, favourable temperature range is 17-20oC. Plants continue to grow vegetatively
without any curd formation if temperature remains higher than optimum for curding. Late
group cultivars require 15-20oC for optimum growth but the same temperature would cause
curd formation in the early cultivars.

Conclusion: Temperature higher or lower than optimum for curding results in physiological
 disorders like riceyness, leafyness, blindness, loose and yellow curd. Accordingly, varieties of
cauliflower have been divided into four different maturity groups (I-IV) on the basis of their
temperature requirement for curd formation under the northern Indian plains
Maturity group Nursery Transplan- Opt. temp. Varieties
sowing ting time range for
curding
o
Early I (A) Sept. Mid May July 20-25 C Early Kunwari, Pant
maturity (mid beginning Gobhi-3, Pusa Meghna,
Sept- Pusa Kartik Sankar
mid Nov.)
Early I (B) May end to Mid July 20-25oC Pusa Katki, Pusa Deepali,
Oct. maturity Mid June Pant Gobhi-2
(Mid Oct-mid
Nov)
Mid Early (II) July end Sept 16-20oC Improved Japanese, Pusa
Nov. maturity beginning Hybrid-2, Pusa Sharad, Pant
(Mid Nov-mid Gobhi-4
Dec)
Mid late (III) Aug end Sept end 12-16 oC Pusa Synthetic, Pusa
Dec maturity Subhra, Palam Uphar, Pant
(mid Dec-mid Subhra, Pusa HimJyoti, Pb
Jan) Giant 35,
Pusa Paushja, Pusa Shukti
Late (IV) Sept end to Oct end- 10-16 oC Snowball 16, Pusa
Snowball (Jan- mid Oct mid Nov Snowball-I, Pusa Snowball
March) K-1, Pusa Snowball KT-
25,Dania,
Ooty-1,

Nursery sowing
Seedlings become ready for transplanting in 4-6 weeks time. Seedlings 5mm in diameter
and about 10-12cm in length are appropriate for transplanting in the field as they have better crop
stand with low mortality.
Seed Rate: The seed requirement for raising nursery for one hectare area is as under:
Early varieties 600-750g
Mid-Early season 500g
varieties
Mid-late varieties 400 g
Late varieties 300g
Soil preparation and transplanting: The soil should be well prepared by ploughing first with
soil turning plough and afterwards with 4 to 5 ploughings with country plough. Ploughing should
be followed by leveling and bringing the soil to a fine tilth. The manure should be applied at the
time of field preparation. Drainage is a problem for early and some times for mid season crop
when rains coincide with cropping period. Therefore, early crop should be transplanted on ridges
or raised beds while the mid and late cultivars can be planted on flat [Link] should
be done during late afternoon to avoid losses due to sun heat.
Spacing:
Early varieties 45cm × 30cm
Mid and Late season 60cm × 45cm
varieties
 Manures and fertilizers: Manures and fertilizer requirements in cauliflower depend upon
fertility of soil. Mix 200-250 q/ha farmyard manure thoroughly at the time of field preparation.
Application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash @ 120-180: 75-80: 60-75 kg per
hectare,respectively is required to raise a healthy crop of cauliflower. Full dose of phosphorus
and one-third of N and half of potassium should be applied at the time of transplanting.

Interculture and weed control: Cauliflower is a shallow rooted crop, so it is essential to do

shallow hoeing to remove weeds and to avoid any injury to the roots. Regular hoeing
operations keep crop weed free and provide aeration to the root system. Earthing up is
important in rainy season as roots get exposed after every shower and should be done after 4-
5 weeks of transplanting. Critical period for crop- weed competition is between 30-50 days
after transplanting. Use herbicides in initial stages followed by hand weeding in later stages
of plant growth along with fertilizer top dressings. Application of Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2kg
a.i./ha before transplanting is beneficial for controlling annual and broad leaved weeds.
Pendimethalin (Stomp) @1.2 kg a.i./ha or Oxyflurofen (Gol) @ 600 ml/ha) can also be used
before transplanting if there is problem of annual weeds only.

Irrigation: Cauliflower needs very careful irrigation that should be applied at right time and
in sufficient quantity as both overwatering and insufficient irrigation are harmful to the
standing crop. First light irrigation is given immediately after transplanting of the seedlings.
Regular maintenance of optimum moisture is essential during growth and curd development.

Use of growth hormones: NAA 10ppm treatment to cauliflower seedlings as starter solution has
been found effective in respect of plant stand in the field and vegetative growth. Application of GA4
+ GA7 @ 80 mg/l of water shortened the period from transplanting to the harvest.

Harvesting: The harvesting of curds is to be done as soon as the curds attain prime maturity
and compactness. It is better to harvest little early than late if there is any doubt about the
maturity. Delayed harvesting leads to the elongation of flowering stalk, loose, ricey, fuzzy
and over matured curds which deteriorates the quality of the curd. Such curds should be
eliminated from the consignment to be sent to the markets as they wilt rapidly and spoil the
appearance of the consignment. The curd should be cut-off with stalk along with sufficient
number of jacket leaves to protect the curd. Severe trimming of leaves is to be done after
unloading or before marketing.
Yield (q/ha):
o Early varieties: 100-150 q/ha
o Mid and late season varieties: 150-225q/ha
o Snowball group may produce yield upto 500 q/ha.

Physiological disorders:
1. Buttoning: It means development of small curds or buttons. The general basis is that any
check in the vegetative growth of the seedlings may induce buttoning. Buttoning is the result
of planting of over-aged seedlings which do not get sufficient time to initiate vegetative
growth before transformation to curding or selection of wrong cultivars means planting early
variety late or root injury by insects or diseases. Planting suitable variety at appropriate
seedling growth stage and at optimum time helps in managing this disorder.
2. Riceyness: A premature initiation of floral buds or elongation of peduncle stalk of
inflorescence is characterized by riceyness. The curds are considered to be of poor quality for
marketing. Temperature higher or lower than the optimum required for curding or high
application of nitrogen result in riceyness. Manage proper soil moisture and fertility during
curd development stage.
3. Fuzzyness: It is the elongation of pedicels of the individual flower. Almost all the prefloral
bud which develops precociously on the curd surface give the fuzzy appearance. The possible
reasons for the occurrence of this disorder are same as that of receyness in cauliflower.
4. Blindness: Blind plants are those, which are without terminal bud. They do not form curd. It
is due to poor fertility of the soil or damage to the terminal portion during handling at the
time of planting or by insects, diseases etc. Healthy and vigorous seedlings with terminal
portion intact should be planted.

5. Bracting: The bracts are underneath the prefloral meristem which corresponds to axillary
buds. These bracts or leaves come out of the curd resulted in poor quality of curds for
marketing as they turn green or purple in colour on receiving the direct sunlight at the surface
of the curd. Temperature higher than the optimum during curding leads to this disorder.

6. Purple colouring: Some time various pigmentations develop on the curd which deteriorates
the quality of the final produce. Fluctuations in the temperature are the main reason for this
disorder.

7. Whip tail: It is caused by the deficiency of Molybdenum (Mo). Young plants become
chlorotic and turn white particularly along the leaf margins. In older plants, the lamina of the
newly formed leaves is irregular in shape and leaves have only a large bare midrib. This is
because of this condition, the disorder is called as “Whip tail”. Apply molybdenum @ 1kg/ha
to manage the deficiency.

8. Browning (Red or Brown rot): It is caused by boron deficiency. The stem become hollow
with water soaked tissues surrounding the walls of the cavity. In more advance stages, a
pinkish or rusty brown area develops on the surface of the curd
 Cabbage
Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Family: Brassicaceae
Origin: Mediterranean region
2n: 18
Edible portion: Head

Varieties: White cabbage cultivars are divided into three groups on the basis of maturity of
heads after transplanting. These are as under:
Early Group: It takes 55-70 days for maturity. The commonly grown varieties are Golden
Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Pusa Ageti,Pusa Mukta, Pusa Cabbage Hybrid-1
(KGMR-1).
Mid season Group: The cultivars fall between early and late maturity groups. September, and
Pusa Drum Head are the common varieties from this group.
Late Group: It takes about 85-130 days for maturity e.g. Late Large Drum Head

Cabbages are classified into three broad groups:

White cabbage: It is the most commonly cultivated. Pointed, Round and Flat or Drumhead
Red cabbage – Leaves have distinct coat of wax and tolerant to diamond
back moth.
Savoy cabbage – Blistered leaves and the shape is pointed round and flat

Soils: The soil requirement for cabbage is almost same as that of cauliflower. On
heavy soils, plant grows slowly and the keeping quality is improved because of compactness.
Most cabbages are somewhat tolerant to salt.

Climate: It can withstand extreme cold and frost better than cauliflower. It thrives best in a
relatively cool and moist climate. The optimum seed germination is obtained at 12.6-15.6oC
soil temperature. The optimum temperature for growth and head formation is 15-20oC whereas,
the growth is checked above 25oC.

Planting time: In the Northern Indian plains, transplanting of different varieties can be done
from October –January.
 Seed Rate: For raising nursery for one hectare area, early season varieties needs 600-800
g/ha whereas the seed requirement for main season varieties is 200-500 g/ha.
Soil preparation and transplanting: Prepare the field for transplanting in the same manner
as described for cauliflower.
Spacing: The spacing depends upon the head size to be produced as per the demand in the
market. For getting small sized heads, transplanting is done at closer spacing while plants are
transplanted at larger spacing for producing big size heads. General spacing which is
recommended is as under:
Early varieties: 45cm × 30cm or 30 cm × 30 cm (round & smaller heads)
Late varieties: 60cm × 45cm or 60 cm × 60 cm
Nutrient management: Manures and fertilizer requirements in cabbage depend upon fertility
of soil. Mix 200-250q/ha farmyard manure thoroughly at the time of field preparation.
Application of 120-180 kg nitrogen, 75-80 kg phosphorus and 60-75kg potassium per hectare
is required to raise a healthy crop of cabbage. Half quantity of nitrogen and full quantity each
of phosphorus and potash is applied at the time of transplanting. Remaining quantity of
nitrogen is applied after 30-45 days of transplanting.

Intercultural operations: Similar to cauliflower, cabbage is a shallow rooted crop, so it is

essential to perform shallow hoeing to remove weeds and to avoid any injury to the roots.
Regular hoeing operations keep crop weed free and provide aeration to the root system. Crust
formation in medium heavy and clay soils hinder water and air penetration in root system.
The crust should be broken otherwise it adversely affects plant growth. Earthing up is
important in rainy season as roots get exposed after every shower and should be done 4-5
weeks after transplanting. Critical period for crop-weed competition is between 30-50 days
after transplanting. Use herbicides in initial stages followed by hand weeding in later stages
of plant growth along with fertilizer top dressings. Application of Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2kg
a.i./ha or Trifluralin@ 0.5 kg/ha or Fluchloralin @ 0.5 kg/ha before transplanting is
beneficial for controlling annual and broad leaved weeds. Pendimethalin (Stomp) @1.2 kg
/ha or Oxyflurofen (Goal) @ 600 ml/ha) can also be used before transplanting if there is
problem of annual weeds only.

Water management: Cabbage is very sensitive to soil moisture. Maximum growth and yield
can only be obtained when sufficient quantity of water is available to the plants. First irrigation
is given just after transplanting of seedlings. Irrigation may be applied at 10-15 days interval
according to the season and soil but optimum soil moisture should be maintained regularly.
Cabbage is usually irrigated by furrow method of irrigation. Heavy irrigation should be avoided
when the heads have formed, as it results in cracking of heads.

Harvesting: In general, the heads are harvested when they are firm and solid. The heads are cut
with a knife, frequently attached with some non-wrapper leaves. These non-wrapper leaves give
protection to the heads from bruising injury.

Yield (q/ha): Early varieties: 250-300 q/ha, Late season varieties: 400-500 q/ha
 Knol Khol

Botanical name: Brassica oleraceae var. gongylodes

Family: Brassicaceae/Cruciferae
Chromosome No (2n): 18
Origin: Mediterranean region (Northern Europe)
Edible Part: Tender Knob
Common names: Kohl rabi, kohlrabi greens, Novalkol, GunthGobhi,
GanthGobhi

Knol Khol also known as,is characterized by the formation of tuber, which
arises as thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. This tuber or knob
develops entirely above the ground. It is this portion that is used for vegetable,
though young leaves are also used. It is excellent vegetable if used at early stage
before it becomes tough and fibrous. The edible portion is globular to a slightly
flattened stem. The cultivation of knolkhol or Kohlrabi in India is not very popular
except in Kashmir, West Bengal and some parts of the south. In India, mainly two
cultivars are commonly cultivated.

Varieties: White Vienna, Purple Vienna, Large green, Grand Danuke, Early
Purple
Vienna, Early White Vienna

Climate and Soil: It is mainly grown as a winter vegetable crop and thrives well in
relatively cool moist climatic conditions. Seeds germinate well at 15-30oC.
Optimum temperature requirement for its growth is between 15-25oC depending
upon cultivars. It can be grown on all types of soil but sandy loam and clay loam are
best soils for cultivation. It doesnot grows in acidic soil. pH of soil should be 5.5-
5.8

Sowing and transplanting

Planting time under North eastern plains is September -October. Seed rate of
800-1000 g/ha is required to raise a crop of broccoli in one hectare area. The
seedlings are transplanted at 30- 40 cm between the rows and at 20-25 cm between
plant-to-plants in a row. Proper moisture should be maintained during its growth.
Pre-planting application of herbicides followed by hoeing and weeding in the later
stages keep the crop free of weeds. Any check in the growth results in the
development of fibrous knobs. Mix 200-250q/ha farmyard manure thoroughly at
the time of field preparation.

Manure and Fertilizers: Application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash @ 75-

100: 60- 80: 60-80 kg per hectare, respectively is required to raise a healthy crop of
knokhol. Half quantity of nitrogen and full quantity each of phosphorus and potash
is applied at the time of transplanting. Remaining quantity of nitrogen is applied
after 30 days of transplanting.

Harvesting and yield: Tubers are harvested before they are fully developed as
delayed harvesting make tubers fibrous. Generally bright colour tubers of 5-8 cm
diameter along with the foliage are favoured in the market. For its marketing, the
main root is cut off and the enlarged stem along with the leaves are tied up.
Individual tuber may weigh 200-250 g while the yield may vary from 12- 25 t/ha
under Indian conditions.

Diseases and Insect-pests of cole crops

The important diseases and insect-pests of cole crops are described as under:
Black leg: (Phoma lingam): It occurs in areas with continuous rainfall during the
growing period. It is a seed borne disease and hence infest crop plants at an early
stage. Stem of the affected plant when split vertically shows severe black
discolouration of sap stream. Whole root system decays from bottom upwards.
Often, the affected plants collapse in the field.
Management:
Use disease free seed.
Hot water treatment of seed before sowing Spray the seed crop with copper
oxychloride,
Variety, Pusa Drum Head of cabbage is tolerant under field condition.
Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris): The tissue at the leaf margin becomes
yellow; chlorosis progresses towards leaf center creating a V-shaped area at the
mid rib.
Management: Use disease free certified [Link] Streptocycline @ 5g and
Blitox @ 10g per 10 litre of water after transplantation.

Insect- pests:
Diamond back moth: Spindle shaped pale yellowish green caterpillars feed on
the lower side of leaves but later feed on the exposed leaves and enter the head/
curd affecting the produce as well as quality.
Management: Indian mustard is effective as a trap crop in suppressing the
incidence of diamondback moth and cabbage aphid. Release Trichogrammatoidea
bactrae @ 0.5-0.75 lakh eggs per ha at weekly intervals for its effective control.
 ONION
 Botanical Name: Allium cepa L.
 Family: Amaryllidaceae
 Chromosome No: 16
 Origin: Central and South Western Asia

Uses:
The green leaves, and immature and mature bulbs are eaten raw.
It is used in preparation of sauces, soups and seasoning of food on accounts of its
special characteristic pungency.
Also used in processed form e.g. flakes, powder and pickles.
Onions are diuretic, applied on bruises, boils and wounds.
It relieves heat sensation.
Bulb juice is used as smelling on hysterical fits in faintness.
It is used to relive insect bites and sour throat.
Onions play a part in preventing heart diseases and other ailments.
Onions are given in jaundice, spleen enlargement and dyspeptic after cooping in
vinegar.
Roasted onions mixed with cumin, sugar candy and butter oil are a demulcent of great
benefit in piles.
The essential oil contains a heart stimulant, increases pulse volume and frequency of
systolic pressure and coronary flow and stimulates the intestinal smooth musculature
and the uterus.
It reduces blood sugar & has lipid lowering effect.
 Pungency in onion is due to allyl-propyl- disulphide.

Varieties: The onion varieties have been classified on the basis of size and skin colour.
Further, onion has been classified as common and multiplier onion. There are 4 classes on
the basis of colour of bulb: White, Yellow, Red and Brown. Red colour is due to
anthocyanin pigment and yellow is due to quercetin pigment

 Red Coloured: Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Arka Niketan, Arka Kalyan, Pusa Madhavi,
Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa Riddhi ,Udaipur 101, Udaipur 103, Bhima Raj, Bhima Red
 Kharif Onion: Arka Kalyan, Arka Pragati, N-53, Arka Niketan
 White skinned varieties: Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Punjab-48, Udaipur-102
 Yellow skinned varieties: Brown Spanish (Long day variety, suitable for growing in hills), Early
Grano (Good for salad, suitable for green onions).
 Multiplier Onion: Agrifound Red, CO-1, C-2 (resistant to purple blotch), CO-3 (resistant to thrips),
CO-4 (moderately resistant to thrips), MDU-1.
 Small Onion: Agrifound Rose (pickling type, suitable for export), Arka Bindu
  Rabi season varieties: Palam Lohit, Patna Red, Agrifound Dark Red, Palam Lohit
 N-53 (Kharif onion variety),
 Brown Spanish (long day variety)

Soil: Soil should be friable, fertile, well drained and have an abundant supply of humus. A
heavy soil is not desirable that bakes and crusts after irrigation. Sandy loam and silt loams
are best suited to it. The soil pH should be in the range of 5.8-6.5. It is sensitive to high
acidity and alkalinity.

Climate: It grows in mild climate without extremes of high and low temperature. The
optimum temperature for seed germination should be 20-25oC. Low temperature and short
photoperiods are required for vegetative growth, while relatively high temperature and long
photoperiods are needed for bulb development. It requires 13-21oC temperature for
vegetative growth before bulb initiation and 16-25oC for bulb development and 25-30oC for
bulb maturation.

Sowing time
Season Time of sowing Time of transplanting Harvesting time
Northern India
Rainy(Kharif ) May- June (July) July- Aug (Mid Aug) Nov-Dec
Winter (rabi) Oct-Nov (Nov) Dec-Jan (Jan-early Feb) May-June
Maharashtra and parts of Gujrat
Rainy (kharif) May-June July Aug Oct-Dec
Late rainy (kharif) Aug-Sept Sept-Oct Jan-March
or
early winter (rabi)
Winter (rabi) Nov-Dec Dec-Jan April-June
Tamilnadu, Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh
Early rainy April-May May-June August
(kharif)
Rainy (kharif) May-June July-Aug Oct-Nov
Winter (rabi) Sept-Oct) Nov-Dec March-April

Seedlings become ready for transplanting in 8-10 weeks time. Seedlings must be
about 15-20cm in length at the time of transplanting.

Seed Rate:8-10 kg/ha

Spacing: The onion seedlings are planted at a spacing of 15-20 cm between rows and 5-10
cm between plant-to-plant. Transplanting on ridges is ideal for kharif onion crop.
Soil preparation and transplanting: Onion should be planted in well-pulverized field by
ploughing first with soil turning plough and afterwards with 4 to 5 ploughings with country
plough. Leveling should follow ploughing. Onion is normally planted in flat beds however
kharif onion is planted on ridges. Transplanting should be done during late afternoon
 Manures and fertilizers: Apply well rotten farmyard manure@200-300 q/ha, nitrogen @ 60-
150 kg, phosphorus @ 35-150 kg and potassium@ 25-120kg per hectare depending upon the
soil test, cultivar and growing season. FYM is applied at the time of field preparation. Apply
50% nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus and potash at the time of transplanting or bulb
sowing. Remaining half of the nitrogen is top dressed 5-6 weeks after transplanting.

Interculture and weed control: Onion is a closely planted and a shallow rooted crop and
thus, hand weeding is difficult to be performed which may damage the crop. Therefore, use of
chemical weedicides at initial growth stage followed by 1-2 hand weeding is beneficial. The
critical period of crop-weed competition is between 4-8 weeks. Application of Alachlor
(Lasso) @ 2 litres/ha or Pendimetalin (Stomp) @ 3 litres/ha in 750 liters of water before
transplanting is beneficial for controlling weeds. Three hand weedings are sufficient to
harvest economic crop if done at 30, 50 and 75 days after transplanting.

Irrigation: Onion needs very careful and frequent irrigation as it is a shallow rooted crop.
Water requirement of the crop at the initial growth period is less and increases during later
growth stages. Irrigation should be applied at an interval of 10-15 days in cool weather and at
a weekly interval during hot weather. Bulb formation and bulb enlargement stages (70-100
days after transplanting) are critical for water requirement. Insufficient moisture tends to slow
down bulb growth while over supply causes rotting. Generally, 10-12 irrigations are given in
rabi season. Stop irrigation when the tops mature and start falling down.

Harvesting: Onions are ready for dry bulb harvesting when the tops get dried (or at neck fall
stage) and bulbs are mature. Harvesting at this stage results in higher yield, longer storage life
of bulbs and less neck rot. The green onions can be harvested when they reach pencil size
until bulbing begins. It is desirable to leave 1.5-2.0 cm of the tops attached to the bulb as it
helps to close neck and reduce storage losses.

Curing: Onion bulbs should be adequately cured because curing or drying of bulbs is an
important process to remove the excess moisture from the outer skin and neck of onion bulb.
Curing helps to reduce the chances of disease infection, minimizes shrinkage due to loss of
moisture from the interiors and helps to develop good skin colour. Bulbs are either cured in
field or in open shades before storage. Onions are considered cured when neck is tight and the
outer scales are dried until they rustle. Bulbs are cured in field for 3-5 days in wind row
method. Then bulbs are placed in shade and cured for 7-10 days to remove field heat. This
shade curing improves bulb colour and reduces losses during storage.

Yield: Rabi crop: 250-300q/ha, Kharif crop: 200-250q/ha

Curing:
 Curing or drying of bulbs is an important process to remove the excess moisture from the
outer skin and neck of onion.
 This helps in reducing the infection of diseases and minimizes shrinkage due to removal of
moisture from the interiors. This is, further, an additional measure for the development of skin
colour.
 Bulbs are either cured in field or in open shades before storage. Onions are considered cured
when neck is tight and the outer scales are dried until they rustle. Bulbs are cured in field for
3-5 days in wind row method. Then bulbs are placed in shade and cured for 7-10 days to
remove field heat. This shade curing improves bulb colour and reduces losses during storage.
 Yield: Rabi crop:250-300q/ha, Kharif crop: 200-250q/ha

Storage: Onion bulbs have a rest period for about 2 months. Proper storage is important as
higher temperature induces sprouting. Thorough ventilation, uniform comparatively low
temperature, low humidity, proper maturity, optimum application of fertilizer (s), freedom
from diseases and insect-pests is essential for successful storage.

Growing kharif onions by sets:

 Onion sets are small bulbs (around 0.25-1.0 inch in diameter) grown in the previous year.
 These sets are used as the propagating material for the production of dry bulbs and bunching
onions.
 Varieties recommended for this crop are N-53, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan etc.
 5-7.5 kg seed is enough to raise sufficient number of sets to plant one hectare area.
 Sowing of seed is done during end of January or beginning of February (left plants at same
place till April).
 In April, plants form small sets due to close spacing. The plants are uprooted and tops are
removed.
 The sets having 1.5-2.0 cm in diameter and disease free are selected and stored till July.
 About 10q sets are enough to plant one-hectare area.
 Sets are planted at 10cm apart in rows on both sides of ridges spaced 35-45 cm.
 Sets are normally planted by July-August to get an early crop by early November.
 These are commercially used to produce early green onions but also used for dry bulb
production.

Physiological disorders

1. Bolting: It means emergence of seed stalk prior to time of bulb formation and adversely affects
the formation and development of bulbs.
Reasons:
 Transplanting of aged seedlings
 Early sowing of seeds in the nursery beds, which result in the formation of small sets.
 Late transplanting of seedlings
 Low temperature (10-12oC) for prolonged period.
Management: Time of planting should be adjusted in such a way that the crop may expose to
moderate temperature at bulbing. Sow nursery at proper time.

2. Sprouting: An important disorder in storage of onion and results in huge losses. It is associated
with excessive moisture at maturity and supply of nitrogen.
Management: Adjust time of planting in such a way that harvesting can be done in dry period.
Stop irrigation as soon as bulbs reach maturity. Spray iron sulphate or borax @ 500- 1000 ppm
2-3 weeks prior to harvesting.

Disease Management

Purple blotch (Alternaria porri): Small white sunken spots develop on leaves. The lesions
enlarge and turn purple under moist condition. The bulb tissue becomes papery.
Management: Three summer ploughings reduce the disease severity. Spray Mancozeb or
copper oxychloride (2g/liter) at 10 days interval, if required.
Downy Mildew (Peronospora destructor): There is violet growth of fungus on the surface of
leaves and flower stalks which later become pale-green yellow and finally collapse.
Management:Follow crop rotation with a 4 year break in onion cultivation.
Maintain field hygiene and sanitation. Remove primary infected onion plants. Spray Zineb @
0.2%

Onion Smut (Urocytis cepulae): It is a soil borne disease and infects cotyledon and seedlings
which result in heavy mortality. Management: Treat nursery soil with Thiram or Captan (0.2%)
along with Methocal sticker. Treat the seed before sowing with Thiram or Captan (3 g/kg of
seed).

Insect- pests
Onion thrips: It is the major pest of onion and garlic. Onion plants infested with thrips
develops spotted appearance on the leaves which turn into pale white blotches due to drainage
of sap. The adults hibernate in soil, on grass and other plants in the onion field.
Management: Application of malathion (0.05%) or cypermethrin (0.01%) is effective.
Onion maggot: Maggots enter the bulbs through roots and attack the tender portion. Infested
plants turn yellowish brown and finally dry. The affected bulbs rot in storage as infestation
leads to secondary infection by pathogenic organisms.
Management:Crop rotation should be followed. Application of phorate @ 10 kg/ha

Mites: They suck sap and plants turn yellow with sickly appearance.
Management:Infested bulbs should be exposed to sun for 2 days. Dusting of sulphur in the
onion fields @ 22 kg/ha can be helpful.
 Garlic ( Allium sativum L)
Botanical name : Allium sativum L
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Origin: Central Asia
Chromosome No(2n): 20
Pungency in garlic is due to the compound diallyl-disulphide.

Cultivars: GHC-1, Agrifound Parvati, Large Segmented, Solan Selection, Selection 1

Soil: Soil should be friable, fertile, well drained and have an abundant supply of humus.
A heavy soil is not desirable that bakes and crusts after irrigation. Loam soils are best
suited to it. The soil pH should be in the range of 6-7. It is sensitive to high acidity and
alkalinity.
Climate: It is a winter season crop requiring cool and moist atmosphere (12-18oC) during
growth and relatively dry weather (20-25oC) during bulbing and 25-30oC at bulb
maturity. It is a frost hardy plant. Low temperature and short days are congenial for
proper bulb formation and hence the pre-requisites for higher yield. Adequate vegetative
growth promotes bulb formation
Sowing time
Region Sowing time
North India September- November
Mah., Karnataka, AP August-November
WB, Orrisa, Gujarat October-November

Planting material: Vegetatively propagated by cloves. Healthy cloves should be selected

and 500-700 kg/ha of bulbs are required. For large cloved varieties like GHC-1, the seed
rate is 15-20q/ha. Bulbs are separated into single segment i.e. cloves at planting time.
Soil preparation and transplanting: same as onion
Spacing: 15-20cm between rows and 10 cm between plants to plant. Sowing depth is 2-4
cm.
Planting methods:
1. Dibbling: Cloves are dibbled 5-7.5 cm deep keeping their growing ends upwards.
2. Furrow planting: Cloves are dropped in the furrows by hand and covered lightly by
loose soil.
Manures and fertilizers, Interculture and weed control: same as onion
Irrigation: In general, irrigation at an interval of 8-10 days during vegetative growth and
10- 15 days during bulb formation and development. Critical stages are bulb formation
and bulb enlargement.
Harvesting: Crop is ready for harvesting when the tops turn yellow or brownish and
shows signs of drying up and begins to fall over. Bulbs are taken out alongwith tops
manually.
Bulbs are cured in field for one week. The bulbs are covered alongwith the tops of
each other to avoid damage from the sun. Then, these bulbs are cured in shade for 7-
8days either with tops or after cutting tops, leaving 2.5cm of the stalk. Roots are also
trimmed leaving 1cm of root.
Yield: 100-150q/ha.
Curing:Curing or drying of bulbs is an important process to remove the excess moisture
from the outer skin and neck of Garlic. This helps in reducing the infection of diseases
and minimizes shrinkage due to removal of moisture from the interiors. This is, further,
an additional measure for the development of skin colour. Bulbs are either cured in field
or in open shades before storage. Garlic are considered cured when neck is tight and
the outer scales are dried until they rustle. Bulbs are cured in field for 3-5 days in wind
row method. Then bulbs are placed in shade and cured for 7-10 days to remove field
heat. This shade curing improves bulb colour and reduces losses during storage.

Storage: Thoroughly cured bulbs keep fairly well in ordinary ventilated room. Cold
storage at 0-2.2oC and 60-70% RH is congenial. The storage life is prolonged and loss in
weight is reduced by spraying maleic hydrazide @ 2000-3000 ppm, 2-3 weeks before
harvesting.

Diseases: Purple blotch, Downy mildew

Insect-pests: Mites, Aphids, Thrips.

 CARROT
Botanical name: Daucus carota L.
Family: Umbelliferae
Chromosome no (2n):18
Origin: Afghanistan
Importance and Uses:
 It is valued as a nutritive food mainly because of high carotene contents.
 It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, soups and stew etc.
 It increases the quality of urine and helps in the elimination of uric acid.
 Black carrots are used for the preparation of a soft beverage called Kanji, which is
supposed to be a good appetizer.
 Red type is good for preparation of various types of sweets especially Gajar Halwa in
northern India.
Classification of roots: Roots can be classified on the basis of shape as
1. Long rooted: 25 cm or more in length, generally tapering.
2. Half-long rooted: Does not exceed 20 cm.
i. Roots cylindrical with straight or sloppy shoulder e.g. Nantes
ii. Roots tapering with blunt or semi-blunt type e.g. Chanteney or Imperator.
3. Short-stump rooted: These are suitable for growing in heavy soils.
i. Heart shaped: e.g. Oxheart. ii. Oval: Early Scarlet Horn. iii. Round: French Forcing.
VARIETIES: The varieties of carrot are divided into two groups
Asiatic or tropical type European Type or Temperate Type Varieties
1. It produces seed in plains. 1. It produces seed in hills
o
2. It does not require low
2. It requires chilling (4.8-10 C) for flowering.
temperature treatment for 3. Roots are medium in size and orange in
flowering. colour with centre core.
3. Roots are long and red in colour 4. Rich in carotene
with white or creamy core.
4. Rich in lycopene

Varieties
Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali, Pusa Pusa Yamdagini, Jeno, Imperator, Chantaney,
Vristi, Pusa Rudhira, Pusa Ashita Danvers, Early Nantes, Nantes, Nantes Half
(black coloured), Hisar Gairic, Black Long, Ooty, Pusa Nayanjyoti(hybrid)
Beauty

Soil: Carrots prefer deep, loose, well-drained, sandy loam to loam soil with a slightly acidic
reaction. The edible roots become misshapen due to poor soil structure or obstructions such
as stones, clods or trash.
Climate: It is predominantly a cool season crop. A temperature range of 7.2 to 23.9oC is
suitable for seed germination and 18.3 to 23.9oC for better root growth. The optimum
temperature for better colour development of roots is 15.6-21.1oC.

Sowing time: In north Indian plains, sowing can be taken up from middle of August to
beginning of December.
Seed Rate:6.25 kg/ha
 Seeds are to be mixed with fine sand before sowing to facilitate even distribution.
The seeds should be rubbed to remove fine hair before sowing.
Soil preparation: The soil should be thoroughly pulverized so as to obtain fine tilth for getting
the best crop, otherwise roots get deformed in shape.
Spacing:30cm × 8-10cm.
The seed should be sown at a depth of 1-1.5 cm deep on the ridges and after germination
maintain distance of 8-10cm between the plants with in row by following thinning of plants.
Manures (q/ha) and fertilizers (kg/ha):
Farmyard manure 100 50- 40- : 40-80
q/ha 90 80P2 K2O
N: O5
The nutrient dose depends upon the nutrient status of the soil. Full dose of farmyard
manure, phosphorus, potassium and half dose of N should be applied at the time of transplanting.
Remaining nitrogen should be top dressed in two equal installments at an interval of one month
each.
Interculture and weed control: Carrots grow slowly at the seedling stage, therefore, the
removal of weeds is quite essential especially at an early stage. For effective weed control, a pre-
emergence application of Propazine @ 1.12 kg/ha has to be done. Earthing up is also essential for
better growth and development of roots.
Irrigation: A pre-sowing irrigation is to be given to ensure better seed germination. Carrots
require abundant and well-distributed water supply. Cracking of roots occur due to exposure to
dry weather followed by wet weather. Carrots should be irrigated before any wilting of leaves
takes place. It should not be irrigated heavily as it leads to excessive vegetative growth and thus
the quality of roots gets deteriorated along with delay in maturity.
Harvesting: Carrots for fresh market are harvested before plants reach full maturity in order to
assure quality, while those for processing are allowed to grow longer in the season to maximize
yield. For fresh market, smaller, tender, milder in flavour and uniform in appearance are to be
harvested for getting good returns. The common Asiatic varieties attain the marketable stage at
2.5-4.0 cm dia at the upper end. A light irrigation before 2-3 days of harvesting is to be given to
facilitate the pulling of the roots from the soil without any damage. Roots harvested with top are
called bunch carrot while those without the tops are called bulk carrots. Most carrots for fresh
market are now topped which greatly reduces water loss from the roots and increases storage life.
Yield: Asiatic types: 250-300 q/ha. European Types: 100-150 q/ha
1. Root splitting: Splitting or cracking of carrot roots is a major problem.
Possible reasons:
 Wider spacing as larger roots tend to split more.
 Dry weather followed by wet weather is conducive to cracking of roots.
 High nitrogen application
2. Cavity spot: It appears as a cavity in the cortex. In most cases, the subtending epidermis
collapses to form a pitted lesion.
Possible reasons: Calcium deficiency associated with an increased accumulation of K and
decreased accumulation of Ca.
3. Forking: It is a common disorder in carrot and radish formed by the enlargement of
secondary root growth.
Possible reasons: Excess moisture during the root development. It occurs on heavy soils due
to soil compactness.
Diseases: The important disease are leaf blight, leaf spot or Cercospora blight, powdery mildew,
watery soft rot, black rot, and bacterial soft rot.
Insect-pests: The serious pests are rust fly and turnip moth
 RADISH

 Botanical Name: Raphanus sativus L.

 Family: Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae
 Chromosome No (2n): 20
 Origin: Western Asia (China)
 Edible Portion: Modified roots ( Fusiform) basically primary root hypocotyl
 Winter season vegetable crop
 Popular in both tropical and temperate countries of the world
 Quick growing crop, easily can be grown as companion crop, intercrop between rows of
different vegetable crops, can be grown along the ridges of beds ( vacant areas around other
vegetable crops)

Uses:
 The roots and leaves are consumed both as salad and as cooked vegetable.
 The leafy tops are very rich in vitamin A, B, C and minerals particularly Ca and Fe.
 The roots are good appetizer, effective in curing liver, gall bladder and urinary disorders, piles
and gastrodynia.
 It has cooling effect and prevents constipitation
 Red colour is due to presence of Anthocyanin
 Pungency in Raddish is due to isothiocyanate

Varieties
Asiatic/tropical/subtropical type European/temperate Type
These produce seeds in plains Seed production is limited to high hills.
Pusa Desi, Pusa Reshmi, Pusa Chetki, Japanese Pusa Himani, White Icicle, Rapid Red
White, Pusa Mridula, Punjab Safed, Punjab White Tipped, Scarlet Globe, Scarlet
Pasand, Arka Nishant, Chinese Pink, Hisar Mooli Long, Silver Queen, French breakfast,
No. 1, Kalyanpur No. 1, Kalyani White, CO-I, and Palam Hriday
Jaunpuri Mooli, Kashi Sweta, Kashi Hans

Soil:
 Light, friable loamy or sandy loam soil containing high amount of humus are suitable
for radish cultivation.
 Usually, the heavy soils produce rough ill shaped roots with small fibrous laterals.
 Heavy soils results in mis-shapening of roots and make it unfit for cultivation.
 The optimum soil pH is 5.5-7.0.
 Ploughing and 3-4 planking should be done to bring soil to the fine tilth and make it
fertile
Climate:
 It is predominantly a cool season crop and best adapted to cool or moderate climate.
 The optimum temperature for best flavour, texture, root growth and development is 10-
15oC.
 However, different varieties respond to varied range of temperature. This is the fact that
radishes are available throughout the year by growing different varieties in different
months.
 Indian types with greater temperature adaptation can resist heat better than the
European types.
 The Asiatic types are tolerant to high temperature than European types. During the
 hot weather, the roots become tough, pithy and pungent before reaching the edible type.
 Long days coupled with high temperature leads to premature bolting without adequate
root formation.
Sowing time: In Northern plains, time of sowing is as under:
1. European type: September-March
2. Asiatic type: August-January
3. Mild Climate areas: Through out the year
Low Hills: August-September Mid Hills: July – October High Hills: March- August
Schedule of growing radish throughout the year in the plains
Variety Sowing time Harvesting time
Pusa Chetki Early April-Mid August Early May- September
Pusa Desi Mid August- Mid October Last week of September-Early
December
Pusa Reshmi Mid September- Mid Last October- early January
November
Japanese White Mid October- Mid December Mid December- Early March
Pusa Himani Mid October- Mid February Mid February- Mid April
White Icicle Last October-end February Late November- Early March

Seed Rate: 9-12 kg/ha

Asiatic type – 10 kg/ha European type – 12-14 kg/ha

Soil preparation: The soil should be thoroughly pulverized so as to obtain fine tilth for
getting the best crop, otherwise it results in deformed roots.

Spacing: European type - 30cm × 5-10cm

Asiatic types – 45 cm × 6-8 cm
The seed should be sown at a depth of 1.5- 3cm deep on the ridges for semi-long type
and 1.25cm for round cultivar sand after germination maintain the distance of 5-10cm
between the plants with in row by following thinning of plants.
Manures and fertilizers:
Farmyard manure N P2O5 K2 O
(q/ha) (Kg/ha)
100 50-90 50-80 40-80

Full dose of farmyard manure, P, K and half of N should be applied at the time of
transplanting. Remaining part of N should be top-dressed in two equal instalments at an
interval of one month.

Interculture and weed control: Weeding and hoeing are necessary after 20-35 days of
sowing in mid maturity group of Asiatic type, while temperate and early Asiatic types require
weeding after 15-20 days of sowing. Earthing up is also necessary to get well developed,
quality and elongated roots as generally the growing roots tend to push out of the soil.
Application of Pendimethalin 1.2 kg a.i./ha or Alachlor 1.5 kg a.i./ha or Fluchloralin
(Basalin)@ 0.9 kg a.i./ha or Isoproturan 1.0 kg a.i./ha or metalachlor @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 750
litres of water as pre-emergence is very useful for effective weed control.

Irrigation: A pre-sowing irrigation is to be given to ensure high seed germination. Irrigation

frequency and amount of water required depend upon the planting season and available soil
moisture. The soil should have sufficient moisture to obtain tender and attractive roots.
During summer, frequent irrigation is necessary otherwise the growth will be checked and
root will be pungent making them unfit for market.
Harvesting: The roots are harvested when they are of usable size and relatively young. The
roots are washed and graded according to size and are tied into bunches alongwith tops for
marketing. European types are ready to harvest in 25-30 days. Asiatic types require longer
period [Link] type 30-40 days and mid maturity group 40-60 days.
Yield:
European type 50-80q/ha
Asiatic type 200 –500 q/ha

Physiological disorders:
Pore extent or pithiness: It affects the marketable value of radish roots. Pores develop due
to excessive root growth. Pores development is a sign of senescence. Delay in harvesting is
the main reason for this disorder. Therefore, harvesting should be done at an appropriate
time.
Elongated root or Forking: It is the secondary elongating growth in the root. It is due to
excessive moisture during root development in heavy soils which leads to soil compactness.
Use well decomposed organic manure to overcome this problem and ensure irrigation at
proper time.

Diseases and insects:

Problem Management
Damping off Seed treatment with bavistin/thiram/captan
Alternaria blight Seed treatment with bavistin/thiram/captan
White Rust Arka Nishant is reported to be resistant
Aphids Use systemic pesticides
 Beet Root
Botanical Name: Beta vulgaris sp vulgaris.
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Origin: Europe, North Africa & West Asia
Variet ies: Detroit Dark Red, Crimson Glo be

Roots are served as boiled, pickled or as a salad. Beet root is rich in protein, carbohydrates,
Ca, P, Fe and vitamin C. Red colour of table beets is due to betacynin and yellow
pigmentation is due to betaxanthin.
Climate: It is a cool season crop that can tolerate mild frosts and light freezes. It grows best
in the winters in the plains of India. Optimum seed germination occurs between 65 and 75 oF.
Beets are very sensitive to low temperature and if exposed to 4.5oC – 10oC for 15 days,
bolting occurs even if the roots have not attained marketable size. It grows well in warm
weather but the best colour, texture and quality are achieved in a cool weather condition.
Excessive hot weather causes zoning – the appearance of alternating light and dark red
concentric circles in the rot.
Sowing is taken up during September- November in north India and from July to November
in South India. The seed balls are planted at a rate of 7-9 kg/ha in rows 45-60 cm apart and
thinned later to an in-row spacing of 8-10 cm. Beet root has multigerm seeds in a fruit
containing usually 2-6 seeds.

Thinning is an essential operation in beet cultivation because the seed ball is actually a fruit
containing 2-6 seeds each of which may germinate and produce a plant. Generally, the plants
emerge in groups unless segmented seed or monogerm seed is used.

Manures and fertilizers:

Farmyard manure N P2O5 K2 O

(q/ha) (Kg/ha)
100 50-90 50-80 40-80

Full dose of farmyard manure, P, K and half of N should be applied at the time of
transplanting. Remaining part of N should be top-dressed in two equal instalments at an
interval of one month.

Interculture and weed control: Weeding and hoeing are necessary after 20-35 days of
sowing. Earthing up is also necessary to get well developed, quality and elongated roots as
generally the growing roots tend to push out of the soil. Application of Pendimethalin 1.2 kg
a.i./ha or Alachlor 1.5 kg a.i./ha or Fluchloralin (Basalin)@ 0.9 kg a.i./ha or Isoproturan 1.0
kg a.i./ha or metalachlor @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha in 750 litres of water as pre-emergence is very
useful for effective weed control.

Irrigation: The soil should be kept sufficiently moist until emergence of seedlings. Three
irrigations are sufficient when there are winter rains.
Harvesting and Yield:

The marketable maturity is just depending on the size ranging from 3-5 cm diameter. Usually,
the top is removed for marketing the roots. Yield varies from 250-300 q/ha.

Physiological Disorder

Internal black spot, a physiological disorder is associated with boron deficiency. Plant
usually remains dwarf or stunted
 Potato
Botanical Name: Solanum tuberosum L.
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: Peru and Bolivia in South America
Chromosome no(2n) : 48

Importance and Uses: Potato is the staple food of many European countries of the world
and has proved its worth in feeding the nation in emergency. It is an important source of
starch. It is a rich source of body building substances such as carbohydrates, vitamins (B 1, B2,
B6 and C), minerals (Ca, P and Fe) and protein. It contains all the dietary substances except
fat.

Soil: It can grow in almost all types of soil. The well drained clay loam soil is considered as
ideal for its cultivation. On sandy loam soil, crop can be successfully grown provided
manuring is done heavily and the crop is irrigated properly and timely. It produces best when
soil reaction is 6.0-6.5

Climate: It is a cool season crop and can tolerate moderate frost. It requires 20 oC soil
temperature for better germination. Young plant growth is good at 24 oC but later growth is
favoured by a temperature of 18oC. No tuberization takes place when the night temperature
exceeds 23oC. Maximum tuberization occurs at 20oC. Tuber formation stops completely at
about 29-30oC.

Varieties: The varieties of potato are categorized into three groups on the basis of their
maturity. The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) is the premier institute working on
research on potato and is situated at Shimla in Himachal Pradesh. The varieties released from
CPRI have Kufri‟ as their first name.

Early varieties: These varieties are ready for harvest in 70-80 days such as Kufri Ashoka,
Kufri Chandermukhi, Kufri Jawahar, and Kufri Lauvkar.

Main season varieties: They are ready for harvest in 90-95 days. Among the white coloured
varieties, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri Megha, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Anand,
Kufri Bahar, Kufri Sadabahar, Kufri Deva, Kufri Sherpa, Kufri Swarna, Kufri Shailza, Kufri
Surya, Kufri Himalini, Kufri Girdhari and Kufri Khyati are important.

Late varieties: Kufri Jeevan, Kufri Neelamani, Kufri Khasigaro, Kufri Naveen

Varieties for processing: Kufri Chipsona 1, Kufri Chipsona 2, Kufri Chipsona 3, and Kufri
Himsona

Soil preparation and planting: A well prepared soil provides sufficient room for the
development of tubers and also helps to retain moisture. The fields are ploughed to a depth of
20-35 cm first with soil turning plough and afterwards by 4 to 5 ploughings with country
plough/disc harrow. Clods must be broken to make the field well pulverized and levelled.

Planting time
Region Season Planting time Harvesting time
North western hills
Very high hills Summer April-May Sept-Oct
High hills Summer Mid-March-April Sept-Oct
Mid hills Spring Jan-Feb May-June
North central high hills Summer Mid Feb-March August-Sept.
North eastern high hills Spring Mid Dec-Mid Jan July-August
Shillong hills Summer March-April July-August
Autumn March-April Dec-Jan
Winter Jan-Feb May-June
North western plains Early Mid-Sept Mid Nov-Dec
(Jammu, Punjab, Western Autumn Mid-Oct Feb-March
U.P., Haryana, Rajasthan, Spring Jan April
Plains of M.P)
North Central Plains Winter Mid-Oct Feb-March
North eastern plains
Bihar Winter Oct end to 2nd week of Jan-Feb
Nov.
W.B. Winter Early Nov Jan-Feb
Orissa Winter Early Nov Jan-Feb
Plateau regions Kharif June-July Sept-Oct
Rabi Oct-Nov Feb-March

Seed Rate:25-35 q/ha.

Potato is traditionally propagated through tubers. The eyes on the tuber surface contain axillary
buds. The tubers have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks after harvesting. The axillary buds
on the tubers start germinating by producing sprouts only when this dormancy is over. The
sprouted tubers put up fast and vigorous growth when planted in the soil.

Breaking of Dormancy: Hill tubers can not be used for autumn crop immediately because of
dormancy period of 2-3 months in tubers. This dormancy can be broken by using some
chemicals; Thiourea (Sodium Potassium thiocynate) @ 1-2% solution which is used as a
treatment to cut tubers for 1-11/2 hours and about 1 kg of thiourea is sufficient for 10 quintals
of seed tubers. Tubers are kept in 5ppm solution of GA3 for 10 seconds. orTreat the tuber
with aqueous solution of thiourea for one hour followed by dipping in 2 ppm solution of GA
for 10 seconds. The tubers from cold storage are warmed up at 60oF for 10-14 days before
sowing which sprout quickly and give good germination stand.
Seed size and Spacing
Proper combination of seed size and spacing is essential to get the required number of stems
per unit area. It can be obtained by planting 40-50 g tuber with 40-50 mm diameter at a
spacing of 45-60 cm between rows and 20-25 cm between the tubers with in the rows. Large
tubers are cut into pieces and each should contain atleast 1-2 eyes. Tuber cutting is not
recommended especially for the production of a seed crop as it transmits viruses and bacteria.

Treatment of cut seed tubers

Cut tubers should be treated with 0.2% solution of Dithane Z-78 which help in improving
tuber size and crop [Link] cut pieces should be allowed to heel at 18-21oC and 85-90%
relative humidity for 2-3 days which prevents rotting of cut tubers as seed (this process is
known as suberization/healing).Do not treat the tuber with any of the chemicals if sprouts are
coming out.

Methods of Planting: Ridge and furrow method is the most popular method carried out
manually or mechanically. Care should be taken that seed tubers should not come in direct
contact with fertilizers. In mechanical method, furrows are made with the help of tractor
drawn 2-4 row marker cum fertilizer drills so as to apply fertilizer in one sequence. This is
followed by planting of tubers with the help of 2-4 row planter-cum-ridger.

Manures and fertilizers: Apply farmyard manure @100q/ha at the time of field preparation.
Fertilizer dose varies depending upon the fertility of the soil. However, fertilizers are applied
@ [Link] kg N: P2O5: K2O /ha, respectively. Full dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus
and potassium and half of N should be applied at the time of planting. Remaining part of N
should be top dressed at the time of earthing up for effective utilization by the crop.

Interculture and weed control: Mulching helps in conserving soil moisture, reducing soil
temperature and inducing quick germination. Local available materials such as pine needles
or leaf litters are quite effective in controlling run off losses and conserving moisture. Weeds
are effectively managed by cultural or chemical methods or combination of both methods.
Weeds can be managed by hoeing and weeding when the crop is about a month old followed
by earthing up. Pre-emergence application of fluchloralin@ 1 kg a.i. per ha or alachlor @ 1
kg a.i. per ha or pendimethalin @ 1.8 kg a.i. per ha or atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. per ha can
effectively control the weeds. Post emergence application (only 5-10% plant emergence) of
paraquat @ 0.36 kg a.i. per ha is also effective. Application of Tok-e-25 @ 2.5kg a.i. per ha
as post emergence application at about 2-3 leaf stage is also helpful in managing the weeds.

Irrigation: Pre-planting irrigation is advantageous for uniform germination. Second

irrigation is given after about a week and subsequent as and when required. Light and
frequent irrigations are better than heavy and less frequent irrigations. Water is applied
effectively and economically at critical stages in crop development i.e. stolon formation,
tuber initiation and tuber development stages of the crop. Irrigation is stopped about 10 days
before harvesting of crop to allow firming of tuber skin.
 Harvesting: The crop is harvested when it is fully matured which can be characterized by
Yellowing of haulms and no pulling out of skin on rubbing of tubers. At the time of
harvesting, field should not be too wet nor too dry. Tractor operated potato diggers are
available for digging the tubers from the fields.

Yield:
Early varieties 200 q/ha
Late varieties 300 q/ha

Post harvest handling

Grading: The tubers are, generally, categorized into 3 grades according to the size and
weight of the tubers.
1. Grade A (Large): Tuber weight more than 75g
2. Grade B (Medium): tuber weight between 50-75g
3. Grade C (Small): Tuber weight less than 50g

Value added products: Potatoes can be easily processed into dehydrated and canned
products like Chips, Flakes, French fries, Finger chips, Granules, Disc, Cubes, Flour etc.
Processing industry is also picking up in the recent past. It is desirable to avoid glut and
consequent difficulty of storing large quantities of potatoes during period of high temperature
after harvest in the plains.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
1. Hollow heart: It is caused by rapid growth of tubers. Tubers become oversized and remain
empty inside leading to the formation of cavity in the centre with the death of the small area
of pith cells. This results in adjacent cracks and hollowness as the centre expands during the
growth of the potato. Maintain soil moisture conditions to the optimum level. Avoid over
fertilization particularly nitrogen. Grow those varieties which are less prone to this defect.
2. Black heart: It is caused by sub-oxidation conditions under potato tuber storage as there is
no aeration in the centre of the piles. Due to high temperature and excessive moisture,
blackening of tissues in the centre occur. The appearance of the tuber affect the consumers
otherwise there is no decay. Provide proper ventilation. Keep potato tubers in layers. Do not
store tubers in the heap.
3. Greening: The various factors which increase the glycoalkaloid contents are mechanical
injury, premature harvest, and excessive application of fertilizers or exposure of tubers to
sunlight. High glycoalkaloid contents lead to solanin production which is slightly poisonous.
Proper earthing up of tubers as the tuber formation takes place. Store tubers in darkness after
digging up.
4. Knobbiness: It occurs due to uneven growth of tuber cells/tissues. Uneven watering
conditions lead to an obstruction in tuber growth. Heavy irrigation after a long dry spell leads
to fast growth of some cells and as a result knobs are formed. Ensure frequent and optimum
irrigation.
5. Cracking: It is due to boron deficiency or uneven water supply. Application of Borax @
20kg/ha. Ensure frequent and optimum irrigation.
6. Sun scalding: It occurs, generally, in the autumn crop when both the temperature and
sunshine are high. Emergence of sprouts and leaflets is drastically affected at that time
leading to tip burn. It appears when temperature is more than 30 oC. Water should be passed
through the furrows to lower the soil temperature.
7. Black spot: It means the internal browning of potato tubers. It occurs in vascular tissues with
in 3 days of mechanical injury. Phenols are related to black spot in potato tubers. Genetic
make up of the varieties. Provide proper storage and growing conditions.
8. Freezing injury: It occurs due to the exposure of tubers to freezing temperature during or
after harvest. It takes place at -1.5oC or below temperature. There is discolouration of the
tissues and affect the vascular tissues at the ring and this is called as called ring necrosis and
when fine elements or cells of vascular ring are affected, then it is called as net necrosis.
Freezing injury render tubers unmarketable. Tubers show more damage towards proximal
end. Avoid exposure of tubers to freezing temperature during storage or harvest.
9. Sprouting: It is often a serious problem in storage. It can be inhibited by spraying borax or
iron sulphate @ 1000-1500 ppm about 2-3 weeks before harvesting. Chemicals like Chloro
IPC (N-tetra chloro isopropyl carbonate) @ 0.5% and/or nomyl/amyl alcohol @ 0.05-
0.12mg/ha also help in inhibiting sprouting.

Diseases:
1. Early Blight (Alternaria solani): Spots with concentric rings of brown to black colour are
formed on the leaves. Heavily infected leaves fall off after drying. Spots also appear on
stems.
Management:
Destroy crop debris by burning.
Spray mancozeb or zineb @ 2g/l or 0.3% copper oxychloride at fortnight intervals 3-4
times.
Grow resistant varieties e.g. Kufri Naveen and Kufri Jeevan.
2. Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans): Lower leaves are infected generally from margin or
apex and having cottony growth on the lower side. Water soaked lesions appear on the
margins. Tubers decay under severe infection.
Management:
Use disease free certified seed.
Follow crop sanitation.
Spray Ridomil MZ 72@ 2g per litre of water.
Grow resistant varieties like Kufri Griraj and Kufri Himsona.
3. Brown Rot (Ralstonia solanacearum): Wilting and stunting of plants occur. The disease
is soil and seed borne.
Management:
Follow crop rotation with maize and wheat.
Use disease free tubers.
4. Black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani): Sprouts are killed before emergence. Cankers cause
wilting of plants. Black crust on tubers gives ugly appearance.
Management:
 Use disease free certified seed.
Seed tubers should be treated with recommended fungicides.
Follow crop rotation.

Other common diseases

Disease Management
Common Scab Seed treatment with 0.5% Agalol-3 for 30 minutes.
Grow scab resistant varieties.
Verticillium Wilt (Soil borne) Use disease-free seeds. Follow long crop rotations.
Charcoal Rot Surface disinfection with some fungicides.
Wart disease Soil sterilization by steam, mercuric chloride,
copper sulphate or 5% formalin. Grow resistant
varieties–Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Sherpa and Kufri
Kanchan
Black Leg and Soft Rot Use disease-free seeds. Long crop rotations.
Bacterial Soft Rot Remove diseased tubers from healthy ones before
storage. Treat seed tubers with 0.5% solution of
Agalol-3/Aretan-6/Emisan-6 before storage for 30
minutes
Viral diseases
Latent Mosaic Virus is mechanically transmitted (PVX, PVS or
PVM). Use disease free seeds. Local quarantine
Mild Mosaic Use disease free seeds. Grow resistant varieties.
Rugose or Vein-banding Mosaic Use disease free seeds. Grow resistant varieties.
Purple top leaf roll It is transmitted by leaf hopper. Use of certified
disease-free seed. Control insect vectors by
spraying systemic pesticides

Rot knot nematode Keep land fallow for a quite long time. Follow crop rotation.
Nematicides like DD @ 225 l/ha should be injected in the soil. Place between the rows EDB
@ 175 kg/ha 2 weeks before planting.

Insect-pests:
1. Cut worm (Agrotis ipsilon): Creamy white, dome-shaped Eggs, laid singly on lower
surface of the leaves. Newly emerged young larva is yellow in colour. Dark brown pupae are
found in earthen cells lying underground in the potato fields. Adult moth is dark with some
grayish patches on the back and dark streaks on the forewings.
Symptoms of damage
Young larvae feed on the epidermis of the leaves.
Older larvae come out at night and feed young plants by cutting their stems
They also damage the tubers by eating away part of them.
Management
Flood the infested fields.
Hand pick and destroy the larvae during morning and evening hours on cracks and
crevices in the fieldPlough the soil during summer months to expose larvae and pupae
to avian predators Set up light trap @ 1/ ha, Pheromone traps @ 10/ ha to attract male
moths. Spray insecticides or chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 1 lit/ha or neem oil 3% @ 5.0ml/
lit.
 2. Potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella): Eggs are laid singly on the ventral surface of
foliage and exposed tubers. Larva is yellow coloured and caterpillar has dark brown head. Pupation
occurs within a cocoon among the trash and clods of the earth in the field. Adult is small narrow
winged moth with greyish brown forewings and hind wings are dirty white.
Symptoms of damage
It is a pest of field and storage
Larva tunnels into foliage, tubers Galleries are formed near tuber eyes
Management
 Select healthy tubers
 Avoid shallow planting of tubers. Plant the tubers at depth of 10 - 15 cm. Install pheromone traps@
15 in numbers/ha.
 Collect and destroy all the infested tubers from the field
 Do earthing up at 60 days after planting to avoid egg laying on the exposed tubers Spray NSKE @
5% or quinalphos 25 EC @ 2ml/lit of water to manage foliar damage Spray Bacillus thuringiensis @
1 kg /ha at 10 days interval
 Store the tubers under 3 cm thick layer of sand Fumigate the stores with carbon disulphide
 Sweet Potato
Botanical name: Ipomoea batatas
Family: Convolvulaceae.
Chromosome no (2n):90
Origin: Tropical America

It is important tuber crop of tropical and subtropical climate and belongs to

family Convolvulaceae. Tubers are generally used for human consumption. It is
used in preparation of alcohol and starch. It contains 16% starch & 4% sugar i.e.
20% alcohol producing material.

Climate: It requires a long, warm growing period both days and nights (frost
free 4 months) and plenty of sunshine and moderate rainfall. It is the most
draught resistant vegetable. The Optimum temperature requires for its better
growth and development is 21-27 oC. The optimum soil temperature is 20-30 oC,
above this the vines grow at the expense of tuber formation.

Soil: Well drained sandy loam rich in organic matter is considered the best.
Roots tend to be long and slender on deep soil, so deep ploughing is not
advocated. Optimum pH is 5.8-6.7 (Slightly to moderately acidic).

Varieties: Varieties are grouped according to their colour:

1. White 2. Golden 3. Orange to Red
1. Pusa suffaid 10. Sree Vardhani
2. Pusa Lal (skin red, flesh white) 11. Kal Megh
3. Pusa Sunchari (flesh orange) 12. OP-23 (Kiran)
4. Jawahar Sakarkand-115 (early var.) 13. Cross-4
5. Jawahar Sakarkand-145 14. H-41
6. Rajendra Sakarkand-35 15. H-42
7. Rajendra Sakarkand-5 16. H-268 (Varsha)
8. Rajendra Sakarkand-43 17. Konkan Ashwini
9. Sree Nandani

Propagation: It is grown from sprouts or draws produced from tubers and from
vine cuttings. The vine cuttings are generally used as a propagation material in
India. The cuttings are obtained from previous crop or sometimes by sprouts
obtained from tubers. It is desirable to propagate sweet potato in the nursery to
obtain good yield. 100 kg tubers are sufficient to raise the cuttings for one
hectare. Selected tubers (125-150 g) are planted at a spacing of 45 x 30 cm & 5-
6 cm deep that covers an area of 100 m2. After 40-45 days, cut the sprouts
having 20-30 cm length & raise in the secondary (another) nursery for further
growth which covers an area of around 500 m2. Ultimately when the nursery
vines reach a sufficient length, cuttings are made & planted at about 60 x 30 cm
spacing. 40000-50000 cuttings are required to plant one hectare. The length of
cutting depends upon the length of internode i.e. at least 4 nodes/cutting. The
cuttings from the upper portion of vine should be preferred for getting more
tuberous roots. General practice is to bury the two middle nodes & expose the
two extreme ones.
 Planting time:
 In northern India, the vine cuttings are planted during June-July.
 Cuttings for rabi season are planted in Oct-Nov. in south India and Central
India (MP, AP, Maharashtra & Gujrat).

Manures and Fertilizers: Farmyard manure -100-150 q/ha. 90: 60: 90 kg N:

P2O5 and K2O per ha. Half of dose nitrogenous fertilizer is applied as basal and
half dose 40 days after planting.

Interculture and Weed Control: In the early stages the field should be inter-
cultured often to keep down the weeds. It establishes within 10 days of planting
and starts growing vigorously after 3 weeks when it is given the first weeding.
Two manual weedings at 20 and 45 days after planting are sufficient to keep the
weeds under control. Earthing up is done at second weeding to prevent exposure
of roots (particularly during rainy season). Incorporation of EPTC (Eptam) @ 1-
2 kg/ha) or Fluchloralin @ 1.0 kg/ha) in the soil as pre-planting to control the
weeds is effective. Also, application of EPCC @ 1.5-3.0 kg/ha as pre-plant soil
incorporation and chloramban @ 3.0 kg/ha after planting control the weeds.

Irrigation: Planting should be done when monsoon rains are received or at the
time of drizzling. Rainy season crop generally does not require irrigation except
long dry spell. In rabi season, apply irrigation at 8-10 days interval depending
upon the type of soil to ensure better root development and yield. Newly planted
cuttings need watering frequently for 1-3 weeks. Once new growth begins
watering can be reduced to that needed when visible wilting is seen. Very little
water will be necessary the 4th and 5th month.

Turning of vines: The plant has a tendency to develop roots from all the nodes
which come in contact of soil. So, during early stages, it is essential to lift and
turn the vines to disconnect then from soil to increase the availability of nutrients
to the main root. It is important to avoid turning of vines at later stages since it
results in uprooting of developing tubers.

Harvesting: Depending upon variety , the crop is ready to harvest in 120-180

days after planting. Harvesting is done when the leaves turn yellow and start to
shed. The surface of mature tuber is cut and exposed to the air, dries up soon,
while the immature ones remain moist and turn dark in colour. Irrigate the field
4-6 days before harvesting to facilitate digging of tubers. After harvesting, keep
the tubers at 29-40oC temperature & 80-90% RH for 5-7 days for healing the
wounds & to increase the storage life.

Yield: 100 q/ha in rainfed conditions, It is possible to get yield as high as 300-
400 q/ha under better growing conditions.

Diseases Management
1. Stem Rot or Wilt: Dip cutting in 0.2% solution of Aretan or Agallol before planting.
2. Black rot: Dip cutting in 0.2% solution of Aretan or Agallol before planting.
Insect Pests
1. Sweet potato weevil: Spray malathion/carbaryl.
2. Leaf eating caterpillar: Spray Carbaryl (0.01%)
 Spinach
Botanical Name: Spinacea oleracea L.
Family: Umbelliferae
Chromosome number 2n=12
Origin: Central Asia

Spinach beet or vilayati palak is an important leafy vegetable commercially grown in

Himachal Pradesh .Among vegetable crops, it ranks second only to broccoli in total nutrient
concentration. Though, it is rich in Ca, but the element is said to be unavailable owing to the
fact that it unites with oxalic acid to form calcium oxalate.

Importance and uses: Normally consumed as cooked vegetable and sometimes as a salad in
company with lettuce and other vegetables. It is not commercially grown in India except hilly
areas. It ranks next to broccoli in total nutrient concentration among vegetable crops. Rich
source of vitamin A, Fe, Ca and also contain appreciable quantity of ascorbic acid, riboflavin
and small quantity of thiamine. Ca is unavailable since it unites with oxalic acid to form
calcium oxalate.

Plant growth and development: Spinach is an annual. Plants are usually dioecious. Some
monoecious plants may develop rarely in certain cultivars. Dioecious types produces two
different kinds of male plants:
1. Extreme males: small with very little vegetative development and tend to bolt quickly.
2. Vegetative males and females: slower to flower and produces considerably more
foliage, making them the preferred plants type for commercial cultivation.
Eliminate the extreme males from commercial strains by selection.
Cultivars: These are classified in two groups;
On the basis of seed: Further in 2 groups :a) Prickly seeded b) Round seeded
On the basis of leaf: a) Smooth leaved eg Early Smooth Leaf b) Savoy leaved: Virginia Savoy

Soil: This crop is susceptible to injury by high acidity

Climate: It is a hardy, cool season crop that does best at temperature of 60-65oF. Withstands
hard frost and temperature as low as 20oF, but the growth is depressed below 35oF. The plant
is very intolerant of warm temperature above 77oF which in combination with long days
causes plants to bolt. Seed germination at 10-15.5oC (50-60oF) and decreases at higher
temperature
Sowing time: North Indian Plains September-October
Himachal Pradesh
Low Hills Mid Hills High Hills
October-November September-October March- July
Seed Rate: 30-35 kg/ha (37-45 kg/ha)
Spacing: 30cm X 5-10cm (thinning is done to maintain the spacing within the rows)

Harvesting: The crop will be ready for harvest about 4 weeks after sowing. It gives about 3-
4 cuttings in the season. Harvesting by hand gave higher yield than mowing. A plant with
seed stalk is considered unmarketable.
Yield:100 q/ha

Diseases: Damping off, Leaf spot (spray 0.2% Blitox at 15 days interval), White rust, Downy
mildew: (0.2% Dithane-M-45)

Insects: Aphids and Catterpiller

Beet leaf
Botanical name: Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis
Family: Chenopdiaceae
2n-18
Origin: Indo-China
Varieties: Pusa Bharti, All Green, Jobner green

Sowing time: In plains of India can be grown 3 times in a year i.e. Early spring, In the
beginning of rainy season and as main crop during Sept.- [Link] the year in places
with mild climate.
The seed rate for raising crop in one hectare area is 25-30 kg/ha.
The crop is planted at a spacing of 30cm × 5-10cm (thinning is done to maintain the
spacing within the rows).
Farmyard manure @ 100q/ha can be added at the time of field preparation.
The recommended dose of fertilizer is 40-70:30-50:30-50 kg NPK/ha, respectively
depending upon the nutrient status of the soil.
Full dose of phosphorus, potassium and half of N should be applied at the time of
sowing. Remaining part of N should be top dressed in two equal installments at an
interval of one month.
To keep the fields weed free and to loosen the soil for proper aeration, 2-3 hoeings-
cum-weedings are required.
A pre-sowing irrigation is done to help the seeds to absorb moisture and germinate
properly.

The spring summer crop need frequent irrigation at 6-7 days interval whereas autumn
winter crop requires irrigation at about 10-15 days interval.
The crop is ready for harvesting in about 3-4 weeks after sowing. Subsequent cuttings
are done at 15-20 days interval.
Only well grown green succulent and tender leaves should be trimmed.
Winter crop gives more cuttings than spring-summer crop.
The average yield is 150-200q/ha
Difference between beet leaf and spinach
Beet leaf Spinach
Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis. Spinacea oleracea.
Chr. No. 2n=18. Chr. No. 2n=18.
Leaves with entire margins. Leaves with lobed leaf margin.
Produces bisexual flowers. Produces staminate/ pistillate and/or
hermaphrodite flowers.
Tolerates high temperature and grows Purely a cool season crop and cannot tolerate
well in hot weather. high temperature. In warm season and long
days, it quickly tends to flower.
 Amaranthus

It is a common leafy vegetable grown during summer and rainy season. The important
characteristics are rapid growth, quick rejuvenation after each harvest, high yielding capacity
and high nutritive value. There are 8 cultivated species of amaranthus, of which only two are
most common belong to family Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus blitum: chhoti chaulai
Amaranthus tricolor: Badi chaulai

Varieties: The varieties recommended for cultivation are Pusa Chhoti Chaulai, Pusa Badi
Chaulai, Pusa Kirti (most suitable for summer), Pusa Kiran (for rainy season), Pusa Lal
Chaulai (red pigmented variety), Arka Suguna, Arka Arunima

Climate: Warm humid climate is congenial. It responds well to full [Link] loam
soils with slight acidic pH are preferred. It is susceptible to water logging.

Sowing: Direct sowing is followed in north India for which 2.0-2.5 kg seed/ha is sufficient.
Transplanting is done in Kerala and Tamil Nadu for which 1.0-1.5 kg seed is required to
raise seedlings for one hectare area. It can be sown throughout the year except May-June in
Northern plains. It should be planted at a spacing of 20cm × 15 cm

Irrigation: It requires plenty of water for its fast growth and high yield. Frequent irrigation
may therefore be applied at 5-7 days interval depending on the soil, weather and season.
Proper drainage must be provided during rainy season.

Weeding: Two to three weedings or hoeings are sufficient to keep the weeds under control
and to ensure good aeration.

Harvesting: First cutting can be taken about 25-30 days after sowing and subsequent
harvestings can be done at 8-10 days. Normally 6-8 cuttings are can be taken till the crop
starts flowering or becomes unfit for consumption.

Yield : 60-80 q/ha.

 Perennial vegetables
Moringa
Botanical Name : Moringa oleifera
Family: Moringaceae
Origin: India

In India, it is grown for its tender pods and also for its leaves and flowers. The pods of moringa
are used for preparation of many cuisines in South India and are valued for distinct flavour. It
has a lot of medicinal value. It is fast growing and drought tolerant crop which can be grown
under varied agro-climatic [Link] cultivation of moringa in India is done mainly in the
southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh.

Varieties: There are two types of moringa cultivated in India

Perennial: Jaffna (yazhpanam), Chavakacheri murungai, Chemmurungai, Palmurungai and Puna

murungai

Annual moringa: PKM-1, PKM-2, GKVK-1, GKVK-2, GKVK-3, Dhanaraj

Climate: It can grow from sea level to 1800 amsl. Dry, warm and semi-arid conditions are
congenial for its growth. It performs best at 26-360C. It is highly susceptible to frost and high
temperature exceeding 400C.

Soil: Sandy loam soils are most suitable for its

cultivation with pH around 6.5 and good drainage. Water logging and heavy clay soils are not
suitable.

Sowing: Perennial moringa is propagated by stem cuttings (limb cutting). Limb cuttings 100-
150cm in length with a diameter of 14-16 cm are planted in situ during the rainy season. Elite
trees are cut down, leaving a stump with a 90cm head from which 2 to 3 branches are allowed to
grow. From these shoots, cuttings 100 cm long and 4 to 5 cm in diameter are selected and used
as planting material. The limb cuttings are planted in pits of 60×60×60 cm at a spacing of 5x5 m,
during the months of June to August.

Annual moringa is a transplanted crop. It is raised through seed. Seed rate is 600g/ha is sown in
nursery. Seedlings of 15-20 cm height are ready for planting in 6-8 weeks of sowing. The
seedlings are transplanted in pits of 45×45×45cm at a spacing of 2.5×2.5 m, during the months
of June to July, giving a plant population of 1600 plants/ha. The seeds of annual moringa may be
directly dibbled in the pit to ensure accelerated and faster growth of the seedlings. The best
suited season for sowing the seeds is September under Southern Indian conditions.

Manures and fertilizers: Moringa trees are generally grown successfully without fertilizers.
FYM 12-15t/ha (8-10 kg/plant), crop requires 44 : 16 : 30 g NPK/ tree at the time of pinching
(75 days after sowing). Nitrogen @ 44g / tree must be top dressed at first flowering (150-160
days after sowing) stage.
After care: Pinching the terminal bud on the central leader stem is necessary when it attains a
height of 75cm (two months after sowing). This promotes the growth of many lateral branches
and reduces the height of the tree. In addition, pinching reduces the damage due to heavy winds
and makes harvesting much easier.

Irrigation: It is hardy and drought tolerant crop. Irrigation is required only in hot summers.

Ratooning/Pollarding: Cutting down the plant to a height of one meter from the ground level
can be practised after one year to allow ratooning of the crop. Pollarding or pruning following
harvesting is recommended to promote branching, increased pod production and easy harvesting.
This is done during winters (November-December) when no fruit production is seen and start
bearing four or five months after ratooning. Crop can be retained for 3-4 years with regular
pruning once in a year. During each ratooning operation, the plants are supplied with the
recommended level of N, P and K nutrients along with 20-35 kg of FYM. Perennial types are
also pollarded back to a height of 0.3-0.45m from ground level during October-November,
followed by manuring with organic matter (25kg) and the recommended input of fertilizers.

Harvesting and yield: The pods are harvested mainly between March and June. A second crop
is normally harvested from September to October. Perennial types raised through cuttings take
nearly a year to bear fruit. In general, the yield during the first two years of fruit-bearing is low
(80-90fruit/year) and gradually increases to 500-600 fruit/tree/ year by fourth to fifth years. The
annual moringa tree bears 250-400 fruit depending on the type.

Insect-pests and diseases: Fruit fly Gitona distigmata is a major pest while no major disease in
India has been reported
 Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis)

 It is grown for its young and tender green fruits which are used as salad or [Link] requires
warm and humid climate with an ideal temperature of 20-300C.
 It produces fruits through out the year in South India but plants remain dormant during
winter in Northern [Link] can be grown on well drained light, medium (loam).
 Important varieties are Indira Kundru 5 and Indira Kundru 35
 It is propagated by stem cutting. Stem cutting should be 12-15 cm long with pencil thickness
having 5-6 leaves.
 It is planted in basins which are 60 cm in diameter and are dug 3 m apart. Add 5 kg
farmyard manure in each pit.
 Planting is done in June-July or February- March
 Plant population should have atleast 10% male plants.
 Vines are often trained on bower or bamboo structures.
 The recommended dose of fertilizer is [Link] kg NPK/ha, respectively. Half dose of N
plus full P and K are applied at planting time and rest of N in four equal splits.
 It requires good quantity of water but cannot withstand water logging conditions.
 Pruning of vines is most important. Repeated pruning of vines must be done when the plant
seems to be weak and leaves turn yellow i.e. after every 3 to 4 months to maximise yield
(newly developing vines produce more flowers and yield).
 Flowering starts after 50-60 days of planting and average yield is 10-15 t/ha.
 Harvesting of fruits is determined by change of colour from dark green to bright or light
green.
 FENNEL
Botanical name of fennel is Foeniculum vulgare. It is a stout and aromatic spice crop which
is commercially cultivated as an annual herb. In Hindi, fennel is known as ‘saunf’ and in
Tamil it is known as ‘perungeerakam’. Major production centers of fennel in India are
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, and
Haryana.
Essential oil extracted from fennel seeds is used for manufacturing cordials and as a fragrant
agent in toiletries such as soaps and shampoos. Fennel oil is extensively used as a flavouring
agent in baking and confectionary industries. Fennel water is commonly given to infants as
medicine. The root of fennel plants may be used as a purgative. Fennel seeds are used as
stimulant and as a carminative. Fennel is extensively used in cure of colic pains also. Fennel
seeds alone or in combination with sugar are used as a mouth freshener in India.

Climatic
Cool and dry climate is best for the cultivation of fennel crop. Dry and cool weather during
the seed set increases seed yield as well as the quality of the produce.

Soil
Fennel can be cultivated in all types of soils that are rich in organic matter. Shallow sandy
soils are not suited for fennel cultivation. Best soils for fennel cultivation are black cotton soil
and loamy soil containing lime. Proper drainage is also an important requisite for commercial
cultivation of fennel crop.

Commercial Varieties
RF 101
Tall, erect and with stout stem; long, and bold grains; matures in 150–160 days; average yield
is 15.5 q/ha.
RF 125
Short plants with compact umbels; long, bold grains; matures in 110–130 days; yield is 17.3
q/ha of seed
RF 35
Tall, spreading plats with medium-sized, hairless and green seeds; tolerant to sugary disease,
leaf-spot and leaf-blight; matures in 225 days; average yield of 12.8 q/ha.
Gujarat Fennel 1
Tall and bushy plants with oblong, medium-bold and dark green seeds; tolerant to sugary
disease and leaf-spot; matures in 225 days; average yield is 16.5 q/ha; suitable for early-
sowing; tolerant to drought.
Cultivation Practices
Fennel seeds can be directly sown in the main field or seedlings can be raised in nursery beds
and later transplanted in the main field.
Sowing
Ideal sowing time for fennel is Mid-September to mid-October. Delay in sowing reduces the
yield. Seed rate required for direct sowing is 10–12 kg/ha. Sowing should be done deep in
rows with spacing of 45–60cm apart. The field is irrigated after sowing.
Transplanting
Seedlings are raised during June or July on well-prepared nursery beds. Afterwards, 7–8
weeks old seedlings are transplanted in the field in August.
Fertilization Schedule
At the time of field preparation FYM (farmyard manure) is added @ 10–15 tons/ha.
Afterwards, apply 90kg N/ha in three equal splits– first as basal dose along with 40kg/ha
P2O5, second and third applications at 30 and 60 days after sowing.
Weed control
Weed infestation is a serious problem in commercial cultivation of fennel crop. First hoeing
and weeding is recommended at 30 days after sowing. Both mechanical and chemical control
of weeds can be practiced. If herbicides are used for weed control, Pendimethalin is most
effective. Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin @1.0kg/ ha supplemented with one
hand-weeding 50 days after sowing controls weeds effectively.
Irrigation
First irrigation is done soon after seed sowing and thereafter one or two light irrigations are
required until seed germination. Afterwards, the crop is irrigated at an interval of 15–25 days.
Water stress must be avoided during flowering and seed formation as water stress during this
phase may adversely affect the seed formation and grain yield.
Harvesting
Fennel matures in 170–180 days. Harvesting is done by plucking the umbels when seeds are
fully developed and mature but still green. Harvesting duration lasts for a month with
plucking being done twice or thrice at 10 days intervals.

Yield
On an average, fennel yields 9–10q/ha.

PESTS
Aphids:
Spray 1.6 ml Monocrotophos or 2 ml Dimethoate per liter of water.
Caterpillars ( Helicoverpa sp. and Spodoptera sp.)
Spray 1.6 ml Monocrotophos or 2 ml Quinolphos or 2.5 ml of Chloripyriphos in one liter of
water twice in 10-15 days interval.
DISEASES
Damping off
Drenching with Copper oxy chloride @ 3g/lt of water.
Powdery mildew
Spray 3 gm Wettable sulphur or Kerathane 1 ml or 1 gm Carbendazim per liter.
Blight :
Spray Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/l.
 CUMIN
Cuminum cyminum.
In India, it is known as 'Jeera' or 'Zeera' in Hindi. It is an important spice used in
Indian kitchens for flavoring various food preparations. The flavor of cumin seeds is due to
the presence of a volatile oil. In indigenous varieties of cumin, this volatile oil is present up to
2.5–3.5%. Cumin seeds are extensively used in various ayurvedic medicines also especially
for the conditions like obesity, stomach pain and dyspesia. Nutritional value of cumin seeds is
as follows: 17.7% protein, 23.8% fat, 35.5% carbohydrate and 7.7% minerals.
In India, cumin is mainly cultivated in western Indian states like Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Climatic Requirements
Moderate sub-tropical climate is ideal for cumin cultivation. Moderately cool and dry climate
is best. Cumin crop does not stand high humidity and heavy rainfalls.
Soil Requirements
Well-drained, loamy soils that are rich in organic matter are best for cumin cultivation. For
commercial cultivation of cumin, a field in which cumin crop has not been taken up at least
during last 3 years should be selected.
Commercial Varieties
RZ 19
A tall variety of cumin with erect stems, pink flowers and bold pubescent grains; tolerant to
wilt as well as blight; matures in 120–140 days with an average yield of 5.6 q/ha.
RZ 209
An erect-growing variety of cumin with pink flowers and bold, grey, pubescent
grains, resistant to wilt and blight diseases; matures in 140–150 days with an average yield of
6.5 q/ha.
Fertilizer Schedule
10–15 tons of farmyard manure/ha is added at the time of land preparation. Afterwards, a
dose of 20kg P2O5/ha should be applied at the time of sowing, 30 kg N/ha may be applied as
top P2O5 dressing either in single dose 30 days after sowing or in 2 equal splits.
Weed control
Weed is a severe problem in cumin cultivation. Weeding at 30 and 60 days after sowing is
necessary. Thinning should also be done during first hoeing and weeding to remove the
excess plants. Chemical weed control by the application of herbicides may also be practiced.
Application of pre-emergent Terbutryn or Oxcadiazone @ 0.5–1.0kg/ha or pre-plant
Fluchloralin or pre-emergent Penimethalin @ 1.0kg/ha is very effective.
Irrigation
A light irrigation is done soon after sowing and thereafter second irrigation should be applied
8–10 days after first irrigation. Depending upon the soil type and climatic conditions the
subsequent irrigations may be given at 15–25 intervals. Last heavy irrigation must be given at
the time of seed formation. Avoid irrigation at the time of active seed filling because
it increases the incidence of powdery mildew, blight and aphid infestation.
Harvesting
Field is cleaned and wilt affected plants are uprooted before harvesting. Harvesting is done
by cutting the plants with sickle. The plants are stacked on clean threshing floor for sun-
drying. After drying, seeds are separated by light beating with sticks by winnowing.
Yield
An average yield of 5 q/ha is obtained under proper management. Improved varieties may
yield up to 7 – 8 Q/ha.
 Coriander
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is an annual herb, mainly cultivated for its fruits as well as for the
tender green leaves. It is native of the Mediterranean region. In India, it is grown in Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Major portion is though consumed locally; a
small quantity is being exported [Link] fruits have a fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste. The
odour and taste are due to the essential oil content, which varies from 0.1 to 1.0 % in the dry seeds.
These essential oils are used for flavouring liquors, coca preparations in confectionary and also to
mask the offensive odours in pharmaceutical preparations.

The dried ground fruits are the major ingredients of the curry powder. The whole fruits are also used
to flavour foods like pickles, sauces and confectionary. The young plants as well as the leaves are
used in the preparation of chutney and are also used as seasonings in curries, soups, sauces and
chutneys. It has medicinal properties too. Fruits are said to have carminative, diuretic, tonic,
stomachic and aphrodisiac properties.

Coriander belongs to the family Apiaceae. It is a smooth, erect annual herb 30 to 70 cm high, lower
leaves broad with crenately lobed margins, upper leaves finely cut with lineary lobes, flowers small,
white or pink in compound terminal umbels, fruits – schizocarp, globular, yellow-brown, ribbed, 2
seeds, ripe seeds are aromatic

Climate and Soil

It is a tropical crop and can be grown throughout the year (except very hot season i.e. March-May) for
leaf purpose, but for higher grain yield it has to be grown in specific season. A dry and cold weather
free from frost especially during flowering and fruit setting stage favours good grain production.
Cloudy weather during flowering and fruiting stage favours pest and disease incidences. Heavy rain
affects the crop. As an irrigated crop, it can be cultivated on almost all types of soils provided
sufficient organic matter is applied. Black cotton soils with high retentivity of moisture is best under
rainfed [Link] raising a rainfed crop, the land is ploughed 3 to 4 times following rains and
field must be planted immediately to break the clods and to avoid soil moisture. For irrigated crop the
land is ploughed twice or thrice and beds and channels are formed.

Sowing
In the North and Central parts of India and Andhra Pradesh, it is mostly grown as a Rabi season crop
and hence sowing is done between middle of October and middle of November. In certain pockets of
the above area, late kharif crop is sometimes sown in August-September. In Tamil Nadu, as an
irrigated crop, coriander is raised in June-July and September-October. A seed rate of 10 to 15 kg per
hectare is required. Seeds stored for 15 to 30 days record better and early germination than freshly
harvested seeds. Seeds soaked in water for 12 to 24 hours before sowing also enhances better
germination. The seeds are split into two halves by rubbing and generally done in rows spaced at 30 to
40 cm apart with 15 cm between hills. Soil depth should not exceed 3.0 cm. Three to five seeds are
sown in seeds are broadcast and covered with country plough. Germination takes place in 10 to 15
days.

Manures and fertilizers: 10 tonnes of FYM is applied at the time of preparation.30 kg of nitrogen, 30
kg P205AND 20 Kg of MOP is recommended.

Irrigation
First irrigation is given 3 days after sowing and thereafter at 10 to 15 days interval depending upon
the soil moisture available in the soil.

Interculturing
The first hoeing and weeding and weeding are given in about 30 days. Thinning the plants is also
attended simultaneously, leaving only two plants per hill. Depending upon the growth one or two
more weeding are done.

Harvesting and yield

The crop will be ready for harvest in about 90 to 110 days depending upon the varieties and growing
season. Harvesting has to be done when the fruits are fully ripe and start changing from green to
brown colour. Delaying of the harvest should be avoided lest shattering during harvest and splitting of
the fruits in subsequent processing operations. The plants are cut or pulled and poled into small stacks
in the field to beating with sticks or rubbing with hands. The produce is winnowed, cleaned and dried
in partial shade. After drying, the produce is stored in gunny bags lined with paper. The rainfed crop
yields on an average 400 to 500 kg/ha and the irrigated crop 600 to 1200kg/ha.

Plant protection
At the seedling stage coriander is often attacked by the leaf eating caterpillars and semi-loopers and at
the flowering stage by the aphids. Spraying the crop with methyl demeton (0.05%) is recommended to
control the aphids but a flowering stage
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) is a serious disease, which ruin the crop if allowed unchecked in
the initial stage itself. Spraying wettable sulphur 0.25% or 0.2% solution of Karathane twice at 10 to
15 days interval is recommended.
 Black Pepper
Botanical name: Piper nigrum
Useful plant part: Fruits / Berry

Introduction: Pepper is the most important of all spices and popularly known as the “king of
spices’. Black pepper is a dried mature fruit of perennial ever green climbing woody vine. It
is one of the most important earliest known spices produced and exported from India. It is the
most valuable and important foreign exchange earner among the important spices earning
nearly 50% of the total export earnings from all the spices. Because of its importance in the
spices and unique position in trade and large share in export earnings, it is popularly referred
as king of spices and black gold in trade.
Uses: Black pepper is used for a variety of purposes. One of the principal values of Pepper is
its ability to enhance the seasoning of dishes. It is valued for its characteristic aroma, hot
pungent and biting taste and is mainly used for flavouring and seasoning. It is largely used as
preservative by meat packers and in canning, pickling and baking confectionery and
preparation of beverages. Oil and black pepper is a valuable adjunct in flavouring of certain
beverages and liquors. The oil absorbed in soaps and in perfumes. It is considered as a
powerful remedy for various disorders such as dyspepsia, malaria, and delirium treatments.
The aromatic odour of pepper is due to an essential oil, while the pungency is due to
oleoresin. The Egyptians used it for embalming. The Asians are said to have used it as an
aphrodisiac. It is extensively used in Ayurvedic medicines and pharmacological studies.
Alcoholic extract of black pepper was found to be highly toxic to several weevils on stored
food products. Pepper extract acts as an effective repellent. The alkaloid ‘piperine’ is
considered to be the major constituent responsible for the bitter taste of black pepper, it is
absent in the leaves and stems. Piperine has insecticidal effect on its own.

Area and production: Outside India it is grown in Srilanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil
Mexico, China, Thailand and Madagscar. India accounts for 54% of the total area under
pepper in the world but its share of production is only 26.6% whereas the other countries like
Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia accounts for lesser percentage of area but with more share in the
total production due to their higher productivity. In India pepper cultivation is confined to
southern states only. It is grown mainly in Kerala (96% area), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry. Since, ancient times pepper is exported from India. On an average of 85% of the
pepper produced in the country is exported to USA, Canada and Italy. Till 19th century India
enjoyed monopolistic position in the world market. However now India lost its top position
due to low productivity, poor yield and raise of Indonesia and Malaysia countries.

Botany and taxonomy

Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: nigrum Linn.
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=52
Origin: western Ghats of South India (Malabar)
Botany: Black Pepper is an evergreen perennial woody climber reaching to a height of 10 m
or more. It has extensive but shallow root system. The vines branch horizontally from the
nodes but do not grow longer. Based on the growth habits, morphological characters and
biological functions, five distinct types of stem portions can be defined in the shoot system of
a pepper vine.
Branching in Pepper
1. Main stem: It originates from a seed or from a stem cutting. It climbs on a support with
the aid of aerial or adventitious roots.
2. Runner shoots: They are produced from the basal portion of the main stem, growing at
right angle to the main stem, usually restricted up to 50 cm from the ground.
3. Fruiting branches (plagiotropics): They are produced from the nodes of the main stem
and they grow laterally more or less at right angles to the main stem, bearing the spikes.
4. Topshoots (orthotropics): Vegetative shoots which arise on the top portion of the main
shoots. It gives a bushy appearance with stouter, thicker internodes and with large number of
adventitious roots at the nodes. They are used for the propagation.
5. Hanging shoots (geo tropics): In a fully grown vine, some of the plagiotropics at the top
portions are seen to give rise to special type of shoots which hang down and grow
geotropically. Leaves are broadly lanceolate, alternate, simple, dark green and shiny above,
pale green and gland dotted under neath. Size and shape vary according to the variety. The
inflorescence is a catkin. Born on opposite side to the leaves on plagiotropic branches, 5-15
cm long, bearing 50-150 minute flowers. The flowers are monoecious or dioecious or
hermaphrodite (bisexual) forms occurs in different varieties.
High yielding forms should have more percentage of bisexual flowers and in
cultivated varieties these plants will be more than 80%. Male flowers are very few 1-19% in
different varieties. The fruit is a single seeded berry, sessile, small globose or oval. It has thin
pulpy pericarp around the seed. It takes approximately 6 months to mature after flowering.
Each spike produces 50-60 fruits. The skin (exocarp) turns from green to red on ripening and
black on drying.

Soil: Pepper can be grown in a wide range of soils such as clay loam, red loam, sandy loam
and lateritic soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.0. It thrives better in soils rich in organic matters.
Climate: Pepper is a tropical plant it requires warm & humid climate for commercial
production. It grows successfully between 200 N and South latitude and from sea level up to
1500 m above MSL. The crop tolerates temperature between 10 0C to 400C. But it requires an
optimum temperature of 25 to 35 degrees Celsius. A well distributed annual rainfall of 125 to
200 cm is considered ideal for pepper. Prolonged droughts stop the vegetative growth of the
vines.

Varieties: More than 75 cultivars of pepper are being cultivated in India. Majority of the
cultivated types of Pepper are monoecious.
Karimunda: Most popular variety throughout Kerala. A prolific and regular bearer. Dry
recovery is 35%. Yields good quality of Pepper. Suitable for intercropping as well as for high
density cropping.
Kalluvally: This is grown in North Kerala. It is hardy and regular bearer. It withstands water
stress and is moderately tolerant to Phytophthora wilt. Spikes are medium long and have a
characteristic twisting due to very thick setting. Driage is 40%. It is grown either alone or
mixed with other cultivars.
Recently a number of improved cultivars have been evolved and released. They are Panniyur
1, 2 (Krishna), 3 (Shima), 4, 5, 6 and 7: released from Kerala Agricultural University, Pepper
Research Station, Panniyur.
IISR Thevam, IISR Malabar Excel, IISR Girimunda, IISR Sakthi, PLD-2
 Lower elevation and less shady areas- Panniyur 1
 Higher elevation and more shady areas - Karimunda
 Inter cropping in Arecanut – Panniyur 5

Improved varieties of black Pepper: Name of hybrid / variety

Parentage Parentage Yield /
vine(Kg)
Panniyur-1 F1 hybrid Uthirankotah x Cheriyakaniakadan 2.5
Panniyur-2 Krishna Open pollinated seedlings of Balankottah 4.5
Panniyur-3 (Shima) F1 hybrid of Uthirankotah x Cheriyakaniakadan 4.4
Panniyur-4 Selection from Kuthravally II 2.3
Panniyur-5 Open pollinated progeny of Perum kodi 2.75
Sreekara Selection from Kanmundu ( KS 14) 4.8
Subhakara Selection from Kariamunda ( KS27) 4.2
Panchami Selecton from Aimpiriyan Coll . 856 5.2
Pournami Selection from Ottaplackal Type coll. No.812 4.7
Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami, Pournami – Released from NRCS, Calicut.

Malabar types: grown in Malabar region in Kerala. Examples are Kalluvally, Balankottah.
They are suitable for shade, Cheriyakody, uthirankottah have high percentage of pistillate
flowers.
Malnad types: grown in malnad of Karnataka. Workaiamarata variety is preferred for white
pepper other examples include Doddagya, Karimarata, Arasilamarata, Malligesara, Tisara.
Travancore types: These are hardy; the cuttings root easily and climb the support without
external help. e.g.. Karimunda, veluthanamban (tolerant to wilt), kuthiravally, chola.

Propagation: Pepper is invariably propagated vegetatively (stem cuttings). This is because

of variation shown by the seedling progenies and also that the seedlings become dioecious
and come to bearing very late (7-8 years). Pepper is propagated by cuttings raised mainly for
the runner shoots. Cuttings from lateral branches are seldom used, because reduced number
of fruiting shoots, short living and bushy in habit.
The selection of mother vine for perpetuation is done as follows;
1. A variety suitable for locality should be selected for instance Panniyur-1 for open place
and Ballankottah for shady location.
2. A variety should be selected depending upon the system of cultivation to be followed for
instance, Kalluvally, Panniyur-1 for monocrop system. Balankottah, Karimunda for mixed
cropping.
3. A high yielder with high % of bisexual flowers should be selected. The runner shoots are
separated from the vine in February – March and after trimming in leaves, cuttings of 2-3
nodes each are planted either in nursery beds or polythene bag filled with fertile soil. Cuttings
from middle 1/3rd of the shoots are desirable as they are high yielding. Adequate shade is
provided and irrigated frequently. The cutting will be ready for planting in May – June.

Rapid multiplication technique in pepper

A rapid multiplication technology has been developed by NRCS, Calicut. In this a
trench of 0.75 m deep 0.3 m wide having convenient length is made. The trench is filled with
rooting medium (preferably forest soil, sand, cow dung [Link]). Split halves of bamboos with
septa having 8 – 10 cm diameter and 1.25 to 1.5 m length are fixed at 450 angle on a strong
support. The bamboos can be arranged touching one another. Rooted cuttings are planted in
the trench at the rate of one cutting each for one bamboo. The 10 cm portion of the bamboo
are filled with a rooting medium (coir dust and cattle manure at 1 : 1 ratio) and the growing
vine is tied to the bamboo in such a way as to keep the nodes pressed into the rooting
medium. The tying could be done with dried banana sheath fibre. The vines are irrigated
regularly. As the vines grow up, filling up the bamboo with rooting medium and tying each
node, pressing it down to the rooting medium are to be continued regularly. For rapid growth
each vine is fed at 15 day interval with 0.25 litres of nutrient solution prepared by dissolving
Urea (1kg), 0.75 kg SSP, MOP (0.5 kg) and Megnesium sulphate (0.25 kg) in 250 litres of
water. When the vine reaches the top in about 3 to 4 months, the terminal bud is nipped off
and the vine is crushed at about 3 nodes above the base, in order to activate the axillary buds.
After about 10 days, each vine is cut at the crushed point and removed from the rooting
medium and each node is separated. Such cuttings with bunch of roots intact are planted in
poly bags filled with pot mixture and kept in cool humid place. Care should be taken to keep
the axil above the soil. The buds start developing in about 3 weeks when the poly bags can be
removed and kept in semi shade. Subsequent harvesting can be had at every 2 – 2 ½ months
time.
Advantages:
 Multiplication is rapid
 The root system is well developed.
 Better field establishment and more vigorous growth as a result of better root system

Selection of site: Well drained, leveled land and hill slopes are suitable for growing pepper.
When they grown on a sloppy land, the slopes facing south should be avoided and the lower
half of north and north eastern slopes are preferred for planting. So that the vines are not
subjected to the scorching effect of the sun during summer.
System of cultivation: Pepper cuttings are generally planted with onset of South West
monsoon. When pepper is grown as pure crop, pits of 0.5 m3 are dug at a spacing of 2.5 x 2.5
m. Erythrina stem cuttings of 2 m length from 2 year old seedlings are planted on receipt of
early monsoon showers. Certain other trees like silver oak, Ailanthus excelsa and Garuga
pinnata are also used. With onset of regular rains, 2 or 3 rooted cuttings are planted around
the base of the standard nearly 30 cm away. But in case of coconut and areca nut which have
a thick intercoiled root not close to the trunk. Pepper cuttings are to be planted 100 to 120 cm
away from the tree trunk. Initially the vines may be allowed to climb on a stick or pole about
2 m tall which is tied to the trunk in a slanting position. After one year when the vine has
attained sufficient length it may be separated from the temporary stake and the lower leaves
may be nipped off. A narrow trench of 15 cm deep and wide should be prepared from the
base of the vine to the base of the tree trunk. The vines may be placed in the trench in such a
way that the growing tip is tied to the trunk while other parts of vine are covered with soil. A
small ridge is formed over the trench, which should not be disturbed while doing intercultural
operations to the palm.

Irrigation
Protective irrigation in basins during December - May at 10 days interval.
Cultural operations: The pepper vines are tied firmly as and when they grow. The tying is
done around the node, so that the nodal region is firmly attached and pressed against the
standards so as to allow the roots to cling to the standards. This is an important operation
which has to be attended to carefully as otherwise the vine will have no support. The another
practice is that when vine reaches at a height of 75 to 100 cm without branches all the leaves
are removed except the terminal 3-4 leaves. The defoliated portions are covered with friable
fine soil. This aid in establishing a well developed root system and lateral branches may arise
out of them.

Training and Pruning: The vines are trimmed at the top and prevented from growing too
tall for convenience of picking. In Tamil Nadu, pepper vines trained on Silver oak standards
are pruned at 6 m height from ground level for easy picking. The vines are trained up the
support to give one main shoot and two lateral orthotropic shoots. These are pruned regularly
to encourage the development of lateral fruiting branches but these lateral branches should
not be tied to support, as this would discourage the bushy side growth. The vines are first
pruned back to 15-20cm from the ground level, when they developed to 8-9 nodes length.
Second pruning is done when further 9-10 nodes have been produced, to a height of 3-4
nodes of the previous cut. In this way vines are pruned 7-9 times until they reach the top of
the support about 3 m high. When this is achieved, the terminal growth of vine is arrested by
frequent pinching. The lower portion of vine is kept clean and unbranched at least a meter
from ground level.

Regulation of shade: In Pepper plantation, shade is given to the pepper vines, especially
during the hot weather to keep the soil cool and moist and to allow sun light during cool
weather to encourage production of flowers and fruits. The young vines should be protected
from hot sun during the summer months by providing them with artificial shade. Regulation
of shade by lopping the braches of standards is necessary not only for optimum light to the
vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight. Excessive shading during flowering
and fruiting encourages pest infestation. Adequate mulch with green leaves, saw dust or coir
dust or organic matter should be given towards end of the North East monsoon. The base of
the vine should not be disturbed to avoid root damage. During the second year, practically the
same cultural operations are repeated. Lopping of standards should be done carefully from
4th year onwards. From the 4th year, usually 2 diggings are given one during May – June and
the other towards the end of South West monsoon in October and November. Growing cover
crops like Calapogonium mucanoides, Mimosa invisa are also recommended under west
coast conditions to provide an effective cover to prevent soil erosion during rainy season.
Further, they dry away during summer leaving thick organic mulch.

Manuring: Judicious and regular manuring is necessary to get good yields. About 10 kg of
well rotten cattle manure or compost is given in April – may. Fertilizers to supply 100 g
Nitrogen, 40 grams phosphate and 140 grams of Potash per standard for vines at 3 years and
above age may be applied annually in 2 split doses in April-May and August – September.
During the first year of planting 1/3rd of above dose and in second year 2/3 rd of the above
dose may be given. Manures are applied around the vines at a distance of 30 cm and forked in
to the soil. Lime may be applied at the rate of 500 grams per standard. During April in
alternate years .

Harvesting: Pepper vines start yielding usually from the 3rd or 4th year. The vines flower in
May-June. It takes 6-8 months from flowering to ripening stage. Harvesting is done from
November to February in plains and January to March in hills. When one or two berries on
spike turn red in early the whole spike is plucked. Yields vary with the variety and season. A
full bearing vine yields one kg of dry pepper. However, individual vines recorded yields up to
3-5 kg of dried pepper. Harvesting of pepper is carried out according to the purpose for which
it is harvested. For preparation of white pepper the berries are harvested at a slightly
advanced stage of ripeness i.e. when the berries turn red (bright orange). To get black pepper
the berries are gathered at younger stages.

Yield: Pepper vine attain full bearing stage in the 7th or 8th year after planting and yield starts
decline after 20-25 years and replanting has to be done thereafter. 7th or 8th year old pepper
vine gives 800 to 1000 kg of Black Pepper per ha.

Fruit drop
The spike shedding can be reduced by foliar spray of Diammonium Phosphate 1.0 % four
times viz., before flower initiation (May), during new leaves and flower emergence (June)
before spike initiation (July) and pinhead stage of berries (August).

Plant protection
Pests
Pollu Beetle and Leaf Caterpillars
Spray Quinalphos 25 EC 2 ml/lit once in July and again in October.
Leaf gall and thrips
Spraying Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml/lit or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit or
Chlorpyriphos 2 ml/lit or Dichlorvos 76 WSC 1 ml/lit or Phosphomidan 40 SL @ 2 ml/lit
three rounds at monthly intervals starting from new flush formation.
Top shoot borer
Top shoot borer can be controlled by spraying Monocrotophos or Quinalphos (0.05%) on
terminal shoots at monthly intervals (during July – October) to protect emerging new shoots.

Diseases
Foot rot
Nursery
Apply Trichoderma viride @ 1g/kg of pot mixture. Mulch the pot mixture with 150 gauge
polythene sheet for 30 days and inoculate with Pseudomonas.
Main field
Any of the following formulation can be drenched in the soil twice (May –June and October -
November).
 Neem cake 1/2 kg per vine + Swabbing of Bordeaux paste upto 1 m from the ground
level.
 Trichoderma viride @ 20 g/vine + FYM or Bordeaux mixture 1 % or Metalaxyl-
Mancozeb @ 2 g/lit.
  Neem cake 2 kg per vine + 0.1% Metalaxyl (pre monsoon foliar spray and soil
application).
 Pseudomonas fluorescens (50 g) (pre and post monsoon) + neem cake (2 kg) (post
monsoon) + metalaxyl 0.1 %.
Slow decline (Slow wilt): causal organism- nematodes. Apply Phorate 10 G @ 30 g or
Carbofuran 3G @100g per vine (May–June and September - October) + Copper oxy Chloride
@ 0.2 % (Soil drenching) or Potassium phosphonate @ 0.3% or Metalaxyl @ 0.1 %.
Anthracnose: Foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture @ 1 % or Mancozeb @ 0.2 %.
Nematode: Soil application Bacillus subtilis (BbV 57) or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10
g/vine is recommended for the management of root knot and reniform nematode population
in Black pepper.
Processing of pepper: Almost all the produce in India is processed in to black pepper and
only a very limited quantity is converted in to white pepper.
Black pepper: It consists of fully developed, but unripe dried berries of Pepper. The
harvested spikes are sun dried for 7 to 10 days on cement floor or mats, until the outer skin
becomes tough black, shrink and wrinkled. Drying is carried till the moisture content gets
reduced to 10-15%. Then the dried berries are separated from the spikes by beating or
rubbing between hands or trampling them under the feet. For making good quality of Black
pepper of uniform colour, the separated berries are collected in a perforated bamboo basket or
vessel and the basket with the berries is dipped in boiling water for 1 minute. The basket is
then taken out and drained. The treated berries are sun dried on a clean bamboo mat or
cement floor. The recovery of black berry is about 33 % (26 to 36% depending upon the
variety).
White Pepper: This consists of dried ripe fruits without pericarp (skin). It is prepared by
removing the outer skin along with the pulp before drying. White pepper is prepared by one
of the two methods.
I. Water steeping technique (traditional method)
II. Steaming or boiling technique (improved method)
I. Water steeping technique: It is a traditional and slow method. It involves 5 steps.
1. Steeping: Spikes with fully ripe berries are filled in gunny bags and are steeped in
flowing water for about 7 -8 days. During this steeping process, the skin gets loosened
from the seed. 2. Depulping: At the end of steeping, the berries are taken out and the skin
with the pulp is removed either by rubbing between hands or by trampling under feet.
3. Washing: These depulped seeds are then washed and cleaned with fresh water
repeatedly (3-4 times)
4. Drying: The cleaned seeds are sun dried for 3-5 days on cement floor or mats till they
become white and the moisture gets reduced to 10-15%.
5. Polishing: The dried seeds are now dull white with colour. They are further cleaned by
winnowing or by rubbing with a cloth. The percentage of recovery of white pepper is
about 25% of ripe berries.
II. Steaming or boiling technique: This is an improved and quick method developed at
CFTRI, Mysore. It involves 4 steps.
1. Boiling: Freshly harvested spikes or berries are boiled for about 15 minutes.
2. Depulping: The boiled berries are then pulped mechanically. Boiled berries passes
through motorized fruit pulping machine.
3. Bleaching: The depulped berries are washed thoroughly by using bleaching powder or
any bleaching agent.
4. Drying: The cleaned berries are sun dried for 3-5 days on cement floor or mats till they
become white and the moisture gets reduced to 10-15%.
 Cardamom
Origin: western Ghats of South India (Kerala)
Useful plant part: Fruit (capsule)
Introduction: Cardamom is popularly known as the Queen of Spices and also Green Gold. It
is one of the ancient species of India and is also one of the most valued spices of the world. It
is next only to black pepper as the largest foreign exchange earner among various Indian
spices. Cultivation of Cardamom is mostly concentrated in the evergreen rainy forests of
Western Ghats in South India. Besides India, Cardamom is cultivated in Guatemala,
Tanzania, Srilanka, Vietnam, Combodia and Newguinea. Among three cardamoms small one
is the most popular species. India has the largest area (90% of the world area) and is also
largest producer (70%). But of late India is facing still competition from Guatemala in the
world market for the top position. In India the cultivation of small cardamom is mainly
confined to the southern states viz., Kerala (60%), Karnataka (30%), Tamilnadu (10%).
Among the different spices, exported from India cardamom ranks second after black pepper.
Nearly 40% of the production is exported to more than 60 countries.
Importance/ uses: Cardamom is used for flavouring and seasoning various food stuffs,
confectionery, beverages and liquors. In Arab countries, a beverage of cardamom flavoured
coffee is prepared called ‘Gawa’. It is generally offered to guests at social and religious
functions. In Srilanka cardamom is used in manufacturing liquors. The essential oil of
cardamom is used for medicinal 28 purposes both in alllopathy and in Ayurveda. It is used as
powerful aromatic stimulant, carminative, stomachic and diuretic. Cardamom seeds are
chewed to prevent the bad bread, indigestion, nausia and vomiting. Eating one cardamom
daily with a table spoon of honey improves eye sight and strengthens the nervous system and
keeps one healthy. It is believed by some people that excessive use of cardamom causes
impotency.

Botany and taxonomy

Genus: Elettaria
Species: cardamomum
Botanical name: Small Cardamom: Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (Malabar cardamom)
Large Cardamom: Amomum subulatum (native to Eastern Himalayas)
Bengal cardamom: Amomum aromaticum
Family: Zingiberaceae
Cultivated cardamom has chromosome number 2n = 48.

Out of the above species, most popular species occupying a premier position is small
cardamom. Large cardamom is mainly cultivate in Darjeeling, Assam, Himalayas, Nepal,
Bhutan, Thailand, Indonesia. Bengal cardamom is grown in Northern Bengal.

Botany: Cardamom is an herbaceous perennial plant having underground rhizomes. A fully

grown plant is about 2- 4 m height. The real stem of the plant is the underground rhizome.
The aerial pseudo stem is made up of leaf sheaths. Leaves are lanceolate with dark green
colour. It has shallow root system; inflorescence is a long panicle with racemose clusters
arising from the underground stem but comes up above the soil. Flowers are bisexual, pale
white fragrant flowers. Fruit is trilocular capsule. Flower initiation takes place in March –
April and from initiation to full bloom it takes nearly 30 days; from bloom to maturity it takes
5 – 6 months. Honey bee is the principle pollinating agent.
Varieties
Based on the size of the fruit, two varieties are broadly recognized viz., Elettaria
cardamomum var. major consisting of wild indigenous types and var. minor comprising the
cultivated types viz., Mysore, Malabar and Vazhukka (natural hybrid between Mysore and
Malabar). The cultivated types are identified mainly based on the nature of panicle shape and
size of the fruits as follows.
Sl. No. Particulars Mysore type Malabar type Vazhukka type
1 Plant stature Robust Medium sized Robust
2 Panicle Erect Prostrate Semi-erect
3 Capsule bold, elongated round to oblong round to oblong
4 Adaptability high altitudes low altitudes wide range
(900 – 1200m) (600 – 900 m)
5 Productivity More Less Less
6 Resistance Withstand to Winds More tolerant to thrips More tolerant to
and less susceptible to thrips and less
drought susceptible to
drought
7 Fruits shape Pods are bold and Roundish or egg Roundish to Long
elongated shaped

Malabar: Mudigree 1, Mudigree 2, CCS 1, PV 1, ICRI 1, ICRI 3, TKD 4, IISR Suvarna,

IISR Vijetha, IISR Avinash, Mysore: ICRI 2, Vazhukka: PV2, Njallani (Green gold)

Improved varieties:
Coorg cardamom Malabar selection– 1 (CCS– 1) (Malabar type): it yields 408 kg per ha
dry capsules under rainfed conditions. It was released by National Cardamom Research
Station (NCRS), Appangala.
Mudigere– 1 (Malabar type): it yields 250 to 300 kg per ha of dry capsules. It was released
by Regional Agricultural Research station, Mudigere (Karnataka).
ICRI– 1 (Malabar type): it yields 265 to 650 kg of dry capsule/ha.. Released by Indian
Cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara.
ICRI– 2 (Mysore type): it yields 375 to 760 kg of dry capsule/ha. Released by Indian
cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara.
PV– 1 (Malabar type): it yields 500 kg of dry capsule. Released by Cardamom Research
Station, Pampadumpara.
SKP– 14 (Malabar type): it yields 430 to 590 kg dry capsule per ha. Released by ICRI
Regional station, Saklespur, Karnataka.
Soils: Grows best on well drained humus rich forest soils. Water logging and excessive soil
moisture conditions are detrimental. Moisture level should be 40 to 50% of the field capacity
of the soil. An ideal site is a sloppy land with good drainage. In India cardamom is grown on
red, deep and good textured laterite forest soils having plenty of humus and leaf mould. Ideal
pH is 5.0 to 6.5
Climate: Small cardamom is a humid tropical plant. It is grown under natural conditions of
ever green forests at an elevation from 600 to 1500 m above MSL. Optimum elevation is 900
to 1200 m. The plant prefers temperature of 10 to 350C and a well distributed rainfall of 1500
mm per annum. Summer showers are essential during summer i.e. February – April for
panicle initiation. Otherwise it affects yield. It does not stand drought and is highly sensitive
to winds. Under exposed conditions, the plant does not attain its full vegetative growth
because of sun scorching. It grows luxuriantly under shade. Shade trees besides providing
shade create a congenial micro climate in the plantation. It keeps the surroundings humid and
cool. Moderate shade, high humidity, cool surroundings, well distributed rainfall and wind
less areas is very essential for the satisfactory performance of Cardamom.

Propagation: Cardamom can be propagated by seeds, rhizomes and suckers. Out of which
seed propagation is most preferred because of certain advantages over vegetative
propagation.

By seed: Propagation by seeds prevents spread of khatte disease. This is the most common
and widely prevalent method. A large number of seedlings can be raised within a short time.
The main disadvantage is that the progeny is highly variable with no uniformity in the yield.
The seeds also do not remain viable for longer time.

By rhizomes: Planting material of rhizomes is collected by uprooting 2 to 2 ½ year old

clumps. These materials are noted for their high yields. The advantage of this material is
greater uniformity and earlier bearing habit compared to 30 seedlings. One of the very serious
disadvantage is that Cardamom Mosaic Disease spreads through rhizomes. Plantations raised
by vegetative means are short lived. Getting adequate plant material is another difficulty. If
rhizomes are used for propagation continuously. The plants tend to loose their vigour after a
few generations. Due to these limitations farmers use seedlings only.

Nursery site and planting: Seedlings are normally raised in primary and secondary
nurseries. The nursery site should be selected on gentle sloppy lands, having an easy access
to a water source. Raised beds are prepared after digging the land to a depth of 30- 45 cm.
The beds of 1 m width and of convenient length raised to a height of about 30 cm are
prepared. A fine layer of humus rich forest soil is spread over the beds. Seeds are to be
collected from well ripe capsules. Immediately after harvesting, the husk is removed and
seeds are washed repeatedly in water for removing the mucilaginous coating. After draining
the water the beds are to be mixed with wood ash and dried in shade for a day. In order to
ensure uniform and early germination, seeds should be sown immediately after extraction. If
the sowing is delayed, pre sowing treatment of seeds with 25% Nitric acid for 10 min is
advisable to get a quick and higher germination. One kg of capsules may produce 5000
seedlings.
Sowing may be taken up during November – January and is done in rows. Deep sowing
should be avoidesd for better and quick germination. Seeds are mulched to a thickness of 2
cm with paddy straw or any locally available material and are watered regularly. The
germination commences in about 30 days and may continue to a month or two. After
germination the mulch is to be removed.
Seed rate: 10 g per m2 of nursery bed area. An over head pandal with a height of 2 m is quite
desirable. Materials like coir mat, coconut leaves or tree species which do not shed their
leaves easily may be used but the coir mat is prepared as it allows uniformly filtered light.
The excess seedlings are to be thinned out of it after 75 – 80 days sowing. When the
seedlings attain 5-6 leaf stage light earthing up is to be done. This would encourage better
tillering and proper growth of seedlings. Generally in Kerala and Tamil Nadu the seedlings
are transplanted to the secondary nursery when they attain 4 – 6 leaf stage. The beds are
prepared in the same manner as that of primary nursery. Seedlings are transplanted in the
secondary nursery in March – May at a spacing of 20 x 20 cm and mulched. Immediately
beds are to be covered with an over head pandal and should be watered regularly. Recently
instead of secondary nursery beds, the seedlings are also raised in poly bags containing rich
forest soil. Manuring at the rate of 90 g N, 60 g of P, and 120 g of K per bed of 5 x 1 m size
in 3 equal split doses at an interval of 45 days is recommended to produce healthier seedlings.
The first dose of fertilizers may be applied 30 days after transplanting in the secondary
nursery.

Rapid Clonal multiplication technique developed by Cardamom Research Centre,

Appangala:
Cardamom is propagated mainly through seeds and also through suckers each consisting of at
least one old and a young aerial shoot. The suckers are commonly used for gap filling but
suckers may not be available in larger numbers. Therefore rapid clonal multiplication
technique evolved by NRCS-Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala is proved to be quick,
reliable and economical for production of large number of quality planting materials. The site
selected for their method should have a gentle slope and must be nearer to the water source.
Trenches of 45 cm width 45 cm depth and of any convenient length may be taken across the
slope or along the contour at 1-8 m apart. The top 20 cm depth soil is excavated separately
and heaped on the upper side of the trench. The lower 25 cm soil is excavated and heaped on
lower side of the trenches all along the line.
The top soil is mixed with equal portions of humus rich jungle soil, sand and cattle manure
and filled back by leaving a depression of 5 cm at the top to facilitate mulching for retention
of soil moisture. Suckers each consisting of one grown up tiller and a growing young shoot
are placed at a spacing of 0.6 m in the trenches during march – October. Regular cultural
operations are to be followed including a high fertilizer dose of 100: 50: 200 kg NPK / ha in 6
split doses at 60 days interval along with neem cake at 250 g per plant. Irrigation should be
provided at least twice a week. Overhead pandal at a height of 3.6 m covered with coir mat or
leafy twigs of any shade tree may be provided during non-rainy season. Within a period of 12
months, a plant could produce at least 32-42 suckers which may yield at least 16-21 planting
units i.e. about 1.5 lakh planting units per ha.
Planting: The best season of planting seedlings or suckers is May- June after the receipt of
monsoon showers. The seedlings or suckers are planted in the pits up to collar region for
better growth. Cloudy days with light drizzle are ideal for panting.

Shade and shade regulation: Cardamom is a shade loving plant (pseophyte). Shade helps to
regulate soil moisture as well as temperature and provides congenial micro climate for
cardamom. Shade protects plants from sun-scorching, rains and winds. Shade trees provide
mulch material through fallen leaves on the surface and prevent soil erosion through their
root system. Excess shade is also quite detrimental and shade has to be regulated so as to
provide 50-60% filtered sunlight.
In South India, many trees are available in the natural habitat to provide shade but an ideal
shade tree should have a wider canopy, minimum side branching and it should not shed the
leaves during flowering phase of Cardamom, so as not to affect pollination. Some of the
common shade trees in cardamom estates are karimaram (Diospyros ebenum and D. elongi),
Mimusops elangi, Balangi (Artocarpus fraxinifolius), Jack, Red cedar (Cedrella toona). The
temporary shade trees like Erythrina lithosperma and E. indica are the most unsuitable but
they compete for nutrients and soil moisture and hence not suitable as permanent shade trees.
In order to provide adequate light during monsoon, shade regulation may be taken up before
the onset of monsoon. A two tier canopy with a height of not more than 3m between the
lower and higher canopy may be maintained. Areas exposed to western side should have
adequate shade.

Manuring: Cardamom is a surface feeder and its growing areas are usually subjected to
heavy rain fall conditions, the top soil is subjected to frequent leaching, resulting in the loss
and plant nutrients, even though there is annual replenishment of nutrients through the
incorporation of fallen leaves of shade trees and cardamom plants. Therefore manuring is
very essential.
Under irrigated conditions – 75 kg N; 75 kg P and 150 kg K per ha.
Under rain fed conditions – 30 kg N + 60 kg P and 30 kg K per ha.
Organic manures may be applied at the rate of 5 kg per plant.
Two split doses one during May – June for production of suckers, Second during September
to October for initiation of panicle. Half dose can be applied during first year. Full dose can
be applied from second year onwards. Being a surface feeder deep placement of fertilizer is
not advocated. These fertilizers are applied 30 cm away from the plant.

Irrigation: Cardamom is generally raised as rain fed crop. However, it responds well to
irrigation. It is necessary to irrigate the crop during dry periods to get increased yields. Since,
cardamom is raised under evergreen forests and on undulated terrain, conventional irrigation
methods are not useful.

Intercultural operations:
Weeding: 2-3 weedings per year may be necessary during May-June, August–September and
December – January. Paraquat @ 625 ml in 500 litres of water may be sprayed.
Mulching: it is an important cultural operation in Cardamom. Fallen leaves of the shade trees
and up rooted weeds are utilized for mulching. Mulches should be applied during November
– December to reduce ill effects of drought conditions during ensuing summer.
Trashing or clearing: It consists of removing old and drying shoots of the plant once in a
year with the onset of monsoon under rain fed conditions and 2-3 times in high density
plantations. The plantation is provided with irrigation facilities. Weeding and clearing may be
done simultaneously during May- June and August – September.
Packing and digging: At the end of the monsoon rains a light raking or digging of soil
should be given around the pant up to a radius of 60-75 cm to conserve the moisture to the
ensuing dry period particularly in low rainfall areas.
Earthing up: After the completion of monsoon, a thin layer of fertile soil rich in organic
matter may be earthed up at the base of plant up to collar region to encourage new growth.
Cropping: Cardamom plants start bearing in about 3 years after planting. Flowering starts in
April – May and continues up to August – September. Peak flowering will be in the month of
May- June. From flowering to maturity the fruit takes 5-6 months.

Harvesting: Only ripe capsules are harvested at 25-30 days interval, the harvesting is
completed in 5- 6 pickings. Pick only those fruits which are just ripe but not fully ripe. Fully
ripe fruits tend to split on drying and do not develop the desirable dark green colour. In most
of the areas the peak period of harvest is during October – November.
.
Yield: Although the Cardamom plant start bearing from 2 nd or 3rd year of planting, an
economic crop can be obtained only from 4th or 5th year. Yield varies with variety and age.
Optimum average yield is 50-70 kg of dry capsule per ha. Yields decline from 10th year to
12th year.
1st year of bearing – 25-50 kg per ha (dry capsules)
2nd year of flowering 50-70 kg per ha (dry capsules)
3rd year of flowering 70-100 kg per ha (dry capsules)

Processing: The commercial product of Cardamom is the dried capsules. At the time of
harvesting the capsules are juicy and fleshy, so they must be cured before sending them to the
market.
Bleaching: Green colour of the cardamom capsules plays a vital role in the market. Green
colour of the capsules can be preserved by alkali treatment. So freshly harvested cardamom
capsules are soaked in 2 % washing soda (Na2 CO3 ) solution for 10 min.
Drying: After bleaching, the capsules are dried either by sun drying or in fuel kilns and
electric driers. The capsules are sun dried for 3-5 days. These capsules get bleached and does
not store well. Hence, now a day’s capsules are dried artificially in which drying is complete
and the green colour remains. In electrical drier in capsules are dried at 45 – 500C for 18
hours.
Fuel kilns: Temperature is set at 50 – 600C over night. The capsules kept for drying are
spread thinly and stirred frequently to ensure uniform drying. The dried capsules are rubbed
with hands or coir mat or wire mesh and winnowed to remove any foreign matter.
Storage: Then they are stored according to size and colour and stored in black polythene
lined gunny bags to retain green colour during storage. These bags are then kept in wooden
chamber. Sorting: The dried capsules are stored according to their size, colour and stored in
black polythene lined gunny bags to retain green colour during storage.

Plant protection
Pests
Thrips
Monocrotophos 36 % SL @10 ml/10 lit. Quinalphos 25 % EC @12 ml/10 lit.
Shoot and fruit borer
Setup pheromone trap @ 12 Nos/ha to attract and destroy the female moths.
Nematode
Fumigate the primary and secondary nursery beds using Methyl Bromide (@ 500 g/10 sq.m)
or Ethylene-di-bromide (@ 20 lit/ha) or Durofume (@ 30 lit/ha) under polythene cover for 2-
3 days or drench the nursery beds with 2 % Formalin.
Apply Carbofuran 3 G @ 5 kg a.i/ha

Diseases
Mosaic or Katte disease
This is a serious disease affecting the productivity of Cardamom. This is transmitted by
banana aphid which can be controlled by regular spraying with Methyl demeton 25 EC or
Dimethoate 30 EC or Phosphomidon 86 WSC at 750 ml/ha.
Damping off or clump rot or rhizome rot
Drench nursery with 1 lit of Formaldehyde in 50 lit water for 3 sq.m. before sowing.
Prophylactic drench with 0.25% Mancozeb or 1% Bordeaux mixture immediately after
germination to control Pythium and 0.05% Carbendazim after 15 days to control Rhizoctonia.
Capsule rot or panicle rot or Azhukal
Three sprays with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.25% Copper oxychloride or 0.2% Mancozeb
just before onset of South West monsoon in early August and in September. Drench the soil
with 1% Bordeaux mixture.
Large cardamom or Nepal cardamom or Greater Indian cardamom is the dried fruits
of Amomum subulatum. It is native of Eastern Himalayan region and is now cultivated in
Sikkim, Darjeeling and Assam hills.
It is a perennial crop, propagated from the seeds or cut bits of the dried rhizome. It
starts bearing in 3 to 5 years after planting and the economic age of the plantation is 12 to 15
years. The fruits are about 2.5 cm long, ovoid and triangular in shape brown or pink in colour
when ripe. They contain 40 to 50 seeds. Average yield is 300 to 1000 kg per ha from 4th or 5th
year.
 Turmeric
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa, a herbaceous perennial plant with a thick
underground rhizome giving rise to primary and secondary rhizomes called fingers, native to
tropical South East Asia. The rhizome has 1.8 to 5.4 per cent curcumin, the pigment and 2.5
to 7.2 per cent of essential oil. It is used as an important condiment and as a dye with varied
application in drug and cosmetic industries.
Botany and taxonomy
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Curcuma
Species: longa
Botanical Name: Curcuma longa Lin.
Ch. No. 2n= 3x=63
Origin: South East Asia or India
Botanical Features
Habit: Plant is herbaceous perennial with a thick under ground rhizome.
Root
It is herbaceous perennial but being grown as annual crop with a thick under ground rhizome
giving rise to primary and secondary rhizomes called fingers.
Stem Modified under ground stem i.e. rhizomatous.
Leaf Leaves are borne in a tuft and are about 60 cm long, broadly lanceolate, acceminate
with a lon leaf stalk.
Inflorescence Flowers scanty, borne on a separate peduncle arising directly from the
rhizome.
Flower Flowers white with pinkish splash on the apex, zygomorphic, bisexual, bracteates and
epigymous nature.
Fruit Capsule
Seed Arillate.
Varieties
CO1 (X-ray induced mutant from Erode Local), BSR 1 (X-ray induced mutant from
Erode Local), BSR 2, Suguna, Suvarna, Sudharshana, Krishna, Sugandham, Roma, Suroma,
Rajendra Sonia, Ranga, Rashmi, Allepy finger turmeric (AFT), IISR Prabha, IISR Prathiba,
IISR Alleppey Supreme and IISR Kedaram.
Soil and climate
Turmeric is grown under diverse tropical conditions from sea level to 1500 m in the
hills, at a temperature range of 20-30oC with a rainfall of 1500 to 2250 mm per annum. It is
grown in different type of soils from light black, sandy loam and red soils to clay loams, but
thrives in best a well drained sandy loam soil rich in humus content. It can be grown It is also
grown as an irrigated crop.

Preparation of land
 The land is ploughed four times deeply. Weeds, stubbles, roots etc. are removed.
Immediately after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers, beds of 1 to 1.5m width, 15cm height
and of convenient length are prepared. Planting is also done by forming ridges and furrows.
Spacing
40 to 50cm x 25cm.
Planting time (Season)
May-June is suitable. Since turmeric is a shade loving plant, castor or Sesbania
grandiflora may raised along with the border lines in the field.
Propagation
Mother rhizome & finger rhizomes are used for planting. 25-30 g weight rhizomes are
to be dibbled at a depth of 4 cm. Seed rate of finger rhizome – 2500 kg/ha.
Seed Treatment
 Seed rhizomes treated with 0.3% Copper oxychloride for 30 min or
 Seed treatment with P. fluorescens 10 g/kg and T. viride as 4 g/Kg.
Manures and manuring
Basal: FYM - 25 t /ha, neem or groundnut cake - 200 kg/ha, [Link] kg of NPK per ha; 30
kg of FeSO4 and 15 kg of ZnSO4, 10 kg in each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria per ha
to be applied at the time of planting.
Top dressing: 25: 60 kg of N and K/ha applied on 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after planting.
Beds are earthed up each time after top dressing.
Mulching
The crop is mulched immediately after planting with green leaves or banana
psuedostem or sugarcane trash at the rate of 12 to 15 tonnes per hectare.
After cultivation and growing as intercrop
Weeding may be done thrice at 60, 120 and 150 days after planting depending upon
weed density. It can be grown as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut plantations. It can also
be raised as a mixed crop with chillies, colocasia, onion, brinjal and cereals like maize, ragi
etc. in some places, double inter cropping viz., Fenugreek + Onion in turmeric field is
followed. Depending on soil types, irrigated crops require 15 to 20 irrigations in heavy soils
and 35 to 40 in light soils.
Harvesting
Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in seven to nine
months. Usually, it extends from January-March. The plants will start lodging, yellowing and
drying on crop maturity. The rhizomes are dug with spade or digging forks.
Yield
Fresh rhizomes : 25-30 t/ha
Cured rhizomes : 5-6 t/ha
Storage of seed rhizomes
Seed rhizomes can be stored after heaping under the shade of a tree or in well
ventilated shed and covered with turmeric leaves.
Plant protection
Pre planting treatment
The seed rhizomes are dipped in Carbendazim 1 g/lit and Phosalone 35 EC 2 ml/lit for
controlling rhizome rot and scales.
Pests
Thrips
Thrips can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 30 EC or Methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/litre.
Rhizome scale
Rhizome scale can be controlled by applying well rotten sheep manure @ 10 t/ha in two
splits (once basally and other at earthing up) or Poultry manure in 2 splits followed by
drenching Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit or Phosalone 35 EC 2 ml/lit.
Nematode
Avoid planting turmeric after Banana or other solanaceous vegetables. Plant only after taking
suitable control measures. Apply Carbofuran 4 kg a.i./ha twice on the third and fifth month
after planting the rhizomes.
Diseases
Rhizome rot
 Treat the seed rhizomes with 0.3% Copper oxychloride for 30 min or Drench with
Bordeaux mixture 1 % or Copper oxychloride 0.25 % or Ridomil 0.1 % or
 Seed treatment with P. fluorescens 10 g/kg and T. viride 4 g/ Kg and soil application
of 2.5 Kg/ha each of P. fluorescens and T. viride in 50 kg of FYM as basal and top
dressing on 150 Days after planting.
Leaf spot
Leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Carbendazim 500 g/ha or Mancozeb 1 kg/ha or
Copper oxychloride 1.25 kg/ha.
Leaf blotch
Leaf spot controlled by spraying Carbendazim 500 g/ ha or Mancozeb 1kg/ha or Copper oxy
chloride 1.25 kg/ha. Mix sticker solution @ 5ml / 10 litre of spray solution.

Processing and curing:

Fresh rhizomes are not useful for marketing. Curing makes fresh rhizomes
marketable. Curing involves boiling, drying and polishing.
A. Boiling: is done either by traditional or improved method.
I. Traditional method: Water is poured to cover rhizomes in the vessels of copper or
galvanized iron or earthen material. Mother rhizomes and fingers should be boiled
separately, since fingers take long time for boiling. Stop boiling when froth, fumes with
typical odour comes. Rhizomes yield to finger pressure. Over cooking should be avoided
as it spoils the colour, while under cooking renders the dried product brittle.
II. Improved method:
A. Boiling: 50 kg of cleaned rhizomes are taken in a perforated trough made of GI sheet. It is
immersed in a pan. Alkaline solution 0.1% sodium carbonate/ sodium bicarbonate are
poured in the trough. Boil till fingers become soft. Alkaline solution helps in imparting
orange yellow colour to the core.
B. Drying: The boiled rhizomes are sun dried in 5.7 cm thick layers for 10 – 15 days. Rake
 frequently for uniform drying. Dry until they become hard, brittle, break with a metallic
sound. After drying they should possess only 8 – 10 % moisture.
C. Polishing: The dried rhizomes are smoothened by manual or mechanical rubbing.
Manually they rubbed on hard surface or trampled under feet. Mechanically they are
polished by mechanically operated polishing drums.
D. Colouring: They are coloured to improve the appearance. Rhizomes are artificially
coloured in two way i.e. dry and wet colouring. Half polished fingers are coloured. In dry
process– turmeric powder is added in the last 10 min to polishing drum. In wet process–
turmeric powder is suspended in water and mixed by sprinkling. For brighter colour–
boiled, dried and half polished fingers are taken in baskets and shaken continuously with
an emulsion of
2 kg turmeric powder,
0.04 kg alum,
0.14 kg castor seed oil,
30 g of sodium bisulphate and
30 ml HCl.
Coloured rhizomes are again sun dried before sending to market.
 Ginger (Zingiber officinale L.)
Zingiberaceae
Ginger, an indigenous plant as is an important spice crop of the world. It is
herbaceous perennial with underground rhizomes. It is valued in medicinal as a carminative
and stimulant of the gastro-intestinal tract. Dry ginger is used for the manufacture of oil,
oleoresin, soft drink, non-alcoholic beverage and vitaminised effervescent soft drinks.

Varieties
Rio de Janeiro, Maran Nadan, Suruchi, Suprabha, Surari (X-ray induced mutant of local
cultivar), Himagiri, IISR Varada, IISR Mahima and IISR Rejatha Athira and Karthika are the
popular varieties.

Soil and climate

A friable well drained loamy soil rich in humus with warm and humid conditions with
150 cm of annual rainfall are preferable. This crop is cultivated in the tropics from sea level
to an altitude of 1500 metres, both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Dry weather with a
temperature of 28 to 35oC for about a month before harvesting is necessary.
Preparation of land
Preparation of land starts with receipt of early summer showers. The land is to be
ploughed 4 to 5 times deeply. Weeds, stubbles, roots etc. are removed. Beds of about one
meter width, 15cm height and of any convenient length are prepared. Planting is also done by
forming ridges and furrows.
Spacing
Irrigated crop- 40-50 x 20 cm in ridges and furrows. Rainfed crop – Raised beds of 20
x 20 cm or 25x 25 cm
Planting time (Season)
May - June is highly suitable for cultivation.
Propagation
Ginger is always propagated by portions of the rhizomes, known as seed rhizomes.
Carefully preserved seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5-5.0cm length weighing 20-
25g, each having one or two good buds. The seed rate 1500 - 1800 kg of rhizome/ha is
required.
Seed treatment:
Treat the seed rhizomes with Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride 3 g/lit or 200 ppm
Streptocycline for 30 minute.
Manures and Manuring
Basal: FYM 25-30 t + 30 tonnes green leaves as mulch in three splits : 15 tonnes-
immediately after planting, 7.5 tonnes – 60 days and 120 days after planting, 50: 25 kg of P
and K per ha.
Top dressing: 37.5: 12.5 kg of N and K per ha applied on 45th and 90th day after planting
Aftercultivation
Weeding is done before fertilizer application and mulching. Two to three weeding are
required depending on the intensity of weed growth. Mulching is done at the time of planting
with green leaves. After each top dressing, earth up the plants.
Harvesting
Harvesting is done from 6th month onwards for marketing the produce as green
ginger. For preparing the dry ginger, the crop can be harvested after 8 - 9 months (between
245 to 260 days) when leaves start yellowing and drying.
Yield
About 15 - 25 t/ha
Plant protection
Pests
Shoot borer
Shoot borer can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit or Phosphamidon 86
WSC 1 ml/lit.
Leaf roller
Leaf roller can be controlled by spraying Carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/ha or Quinalphos 25 EC 2
ml/lit.
Rhizome scale
Rhizome scale can be controlled by applying well rotten sheep manure @ 10 t/ha in two
splits (once basally and other at earthing up) or Poultry manure in 2 splits followed by
drenching Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit or Phosalone 35 EC 2 ml/lit.
Diseases
Soft rot (Pythium sp.)
 Provide adequate drainage facilities
 Select healthy and disease-free seed rhizomes
 Treat the seed rhizomes with Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride 3 g/lit or 200 ppm
Streptocycline for 30 minutes.
 In the field, drench the beds with 2.5 g/lit of Copper oxychloride or 1% Bordeaux
mixture or Metalaxyl - mancozeb 4 g/lit.
Rhizome rot
Rhizome treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 20g/kg rhizome + soil application, @
10kg/ha immediately after planting and 45 days after planting followed by pre monsoon
drenching with Metalaxyl 0.1%.
Leaf spot
Leaf spot can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux mixture or Copper oxychloride 0.25%.
Processing and curing:
I. Dry Ginger: Preparation of commercial dry zinger involves a series of steps. Fully
developed rhizomes are harvested after 8 months of planting for preparation of Dry Ginger.
1. Soaking in water: The rhizomes are soaked overnight in cement tubs for easy removal of
skin.
2. Trampling: The rhizomes are trampled under feet in the tub. Avoid damage to epidermal
cells containing flavouring oil.
3. Peeling: The skin is peeled off, with sharp bamboo knives. Don’t rupture epidermal cells.
This step hastens drying process.
4. Washing and Drying: The peeled rhizomes are washed and sun dried for 3-4 days on
cement floors.
5. Polishing: After drying, the rhizomes are polished by rubbing with a coarse cloth to
remove all bits of skin or dirt. These are called unbleached ginger. To get bleached
Ginger, peeled rhizomes are soaked in 2% lime water for 6 hours, fumigated with sulphur
for 12 hours. Yield of dry Ginger is 16 to 25% of the fresh Ginger.
II. Preserved Ginger: Ginger is harvested at 7 months after planted for preparing the
preserved Ginger. It is preserved in syrup or brine.