Module 4 Notes (I want to kill myself)

Establishment of EEIC and Consolidation of Power:

⁃ The English East India Company (EIC), a joint-stock company, was established in 1600 with
the primary agenda of conducting trade with the Eastern world. It began as an enterprise
driven by profit-oriented motives, formed by a group of capitalists under the condition that a
share of profits would go to the British Crown. However, the Crown largely refrained from
interfering in its operations, allowing the Company to function independently while remaining
loyal to the monarchy.
⁃ At its inception, the English East India Company entered a competitive global trade market
that had already been dominated by the Portuguese and other European powers.
⁃ In 1600, England itself was plagued by socio-economic challenges, including slums and
widespread poverty. Meanwhile, India was flourishing with thriving trade, monumental
architecture, and advanced craftsmanship. The Portuguese focused on resource mobilisation
without territorial conquest, but the British aimed to monopolise trade and establish control
over strategic ports such as Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
⁃ Initially, the British were more interested in textiles, particularly the highly sought-after calico,
rather than spices. Between 1600 and 1680, there was a tenfold increase in the demand for
Indian textiles in Britain, often referred to as the "calico craze." This trade dynamic not only
boosted the British economy but also stimulated shipbuilding in Europe, aiding the British in
monopolising global trade. Recognising the strategic importance of Madras for South Indian
trade, the Company purchased the region in 1640, marking the beginning of its territorial
acquisitions in India.

The EIC’s operations in India were facilitated through agreements with local rulers, often secured
through diplomacy or force:
⁃ In 1613, Emperor Jahangir granted the Company permission to establish its first factory in
Surat. The British subsequently expanded their influence by acquiring Bombay as part of a
royal dowry in 1668 and fortifying their positions in key trade centres like Madras and
Masulipatnam. However, tensions arose as the Company engaged in private trade and
manipulated its privileges, such as the duty-free trade granted by Emperor Aurangzeb in
exchange for an annual fee.
⁃ Bengal, known for its high-quality textiles, became a focal point for the Company’s
operations, leading to further exploitation and conflicts with local rulers. By the 18th century,
Bengal had emerged as a critical region for British trade. The Company established Fort
William in Calcutta and gained control over key villages, leveraging its resources to strengthen
its hold on Indian trade. However, its increasing interference in local governance and misuse
of privileges, such as the dastak system, created friction with the Nawabs of Bengal.
This tension culminated in a series of confrontations, most notably the Battle of Plassey in
1757. Robert Clive, representing the EIC, secured a decisive victory over Nawab Siraj-ud-
Daulah with the help of Mir Jafar, a traitorous commander bribed by the British. This marked
the beginning of British supremacy in Bengal and the onset of what historians call the "Plassey
Plunder," where the Company systematically drained Bengal’s wealth.
⁃ Consequences of British Victory at the Battle of Plassey: The victory at Plassey had significant
implications for both the British East India Company and the broader Indian subcontinent:
• Consolidation of British Power: The battle helped establish the British East India Company
as the dominant power in Bengal and laid the groundwork for British control over much of
India. By placing Mir Jafar on the throne as a puppet ruler, the British East India Company
 essentially controlled the Nawab’s administration and could exercise significant influence
over the region’s resources.
• Economic Control: Bengal was one of the richest provinces in India at the time, and its
wealth played a crucial role in funding the British colonial ventures in India. The British
gained control of the province's revenues, including the lucrative tax collection system,
which allowed them to amass significant wealth. This economic dominance was essential in
sustaining the British East India Company's operations and furthering their ambitions in
India.
• End of French Influence in India: The victory at Plassey also marked the decline of French
influence in India. The French had supported Siraj-ud-Daula in the conflict, but their defeat
at Plassey, combined with the defeat of their forces in other parts of India, effectively ended
their attempts to challenge British dominance in the region.
• Shift from Trade to Political Control: The Battle of Plassey marked a critical shift in
British involvement in India, from being primarily a trading entity to becoming a political
and military power. After the battle, the British East India Company began to play a direct
role in the administration of Bengal, and this involvement expanded to other parts of India in
the years to come.

⁃ Mir Jafar’s rule as a puppet Nawab further entrenched British dominance, but his replacement,
Mir Qasim, attempted to resist the Company’s exploitative practices. His reforms, aimed at
creating a level playing field for Indian traders, were met with hostility by the British, who
reinstated Mir Jafar after defeating an alliance of Indian rulers in the Battle of Buxar (1764).
The victory at Buxar solidified the EIC’s control over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, formalised
through the Treaty of Allahabad. The British adopted a dual governance system, with the
Company collecting revenue (Diwani rights) while the Mughal emperor retained nominal
authority over law and order (Nizamat rights). This arrangement laid the foundation for the
Company’s transformation from a trading entity into a political power.

⁃ Economic Impact:
1. The economic impact of British policies was devastating for India. The introduction of
revenue systems such as the Zamindari and Ryotwari systems prioritized British profits over
the welfare of Indian peasants, leading to widespread poverty and frequent famines. Bengal, in
particular, suffered under exploitative policies, including forced cultivation of cash crops like
indigo, opium, and jute, which replaced essential food crops. Famines, such as the Great
Bengal Famine of 1769, were exacerbated by the British emphasis on commercial agriculture
and resource extraction.
[Link]: Deindustrialisation was another consequence of
British rule. Indian handicrafts and cottage industries, once globally renowned, were
systematically destroyed to promote British industrial goods. Heavy duties on Indian exports
and the influx of machine-made British products led to the decline of traditional industries,
forcing many artisans into agricultural labor. This economic transformation aligned with Karl
Marx’s analysis of British colonialism in India, where he identified both destructive and
regenerative roles. While the British dismantled India’s traditional economic structures, they
also introduced modern infrastructure, including railways and communication systems,
primarily to serve their own commercial interests.
⁃ Cultural and social impact: The cultural and social impact of British policies further
consolidated their control over India. Early colonial administrators, like those in the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, studied Indian languages and cultures to better manipulate and govern the
population. However, the later British approach shifted towards Anglicisation, fuelled by
ideologies like Evangelism and Utilitarianism.
1. The British intervention in social reform was, however, highly selective and motivated by
their imperial goals. While they did take some steps to outlaw practices like Sati and female
infanticide, their focus was largely on the moral reform of Indian society to align it with
British ideals. Charles Grant’s criticisms of Indian culture, which he described as "barbaric,"
and his belief that Evangelism was the key to transforming Indian society, reflect the colonial
mindset of the time. The British were not genuinely interested in improving the lives of the
Indian masses but rather sought to use religion and education as tools for social control.
2. At the same time, Utilitarians like Bentham and Mills promoted a more pragmatic
approach, arguing for legislation that would benefit the British while transforming Indian
society into a model that mirrored Britain’s political and economic structure. They believed
that British laws and governance would bring about the material prosperity of India, which
would, in turn, benefit the British Empire.
3. The British also used census data and surveys to justify their racial superiority over the
colonized people. European administrators and scholars saw themselves as part of a "superior"
race and used the census to reinforce the social distinctions between Europeans and Indians.
The caste system, for example, was often used as a means of dividing Indian society and
controlling it more effectively. As a result, the British systematically feminized colonized
Indians and viewed them as weaker or less civilized than themselves. The Imperial Durbar
(1911) was one such display of British power, where the British demonstrated their dominance
in India through public spectacles.

⁃ Administrative changes:The British also introduced significant judicial and administrative

changes. Under Governor-General Warren Hastings, the EIC established civil and criminal
courts, which were later restructured by Lord Cornwallis to separate revenue collection from
judicial functions. These changes aimed to create a system that facilitated British control while
marginalising traditional Indian authorities.
The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed by the British Parliament in response to growing
concerns about the mismanagement and corruption within the East India Company. The Act
marked a shift from the Company's semi-autonomous status towards more direct control by
the British government. Some of the key provisions of the Act were:
- Scrutiny of Civil, Military, and Revenue Affairs: The Act subjected the Company’s affairs,
especially related to civil, military, and revenue matters in India, to scrutiny by the British
Parliament. This ensured that the Company’s actions were more closely monitored from
Britain, aiming to curb mismanagement and corruption.
- Sovereignty of the Territories: The sovereignty over the territories in the East, particularly
Bengal, was transferred to the British Crown, marking the beginning of British imperial rule in
India. However, the East India Company was allowed to act as a sovereign power, retaining
control over administrative and military matters, thus preserving the Company’s influential
role in governance.
- Creation of the Supreme Court in Calcutta: The Regulating Act provided for the
establishment of a Supreme Court in Calcutta (now Kolkata) to handle legal matters in the
region. The Court’s primary focus was to administer justice for British subjects in India,
leading to concerns over the discrimination against Indian citizens, as the Court was largely
 designed to serve the interests of the British

In 1772, Warren Hastings was appointed as the Governor-General of Bengal, where he was
tasked with bringing about a more systematic and organised administration. Warren Hastings
recognized the need to strengthen the British hold on India and embarked on a series of
reforms aimed at improving revenue collection and establishing judicial mechanisms that
would centralise power under British control. His administrative reforms had long-lasting
implications for the Indian judicial system:
- Contract with Farmers: Hastings signed a five-year contract with the farming community
to improve agricultural productivity and revenue generation. However, this move was
exploitative in nature, as it aimed at increasing tax revenue under the guise of welfare reforms.
- Creation of District Courts: One of Hastings’ significant reforms was the creation of two
types of courts at the district level to address civil and criminal matters:
1. Diwani Adalat: This court, presided over by the District Collector, dealt with civil matters
such as property disputes, marriage, and inheritance. Initially, the courts were expected not to
interfere with religious practices.
2. Faujdari Adalat: This was the criminal court, presided over by Indian authorities,
including Kazis and Mojtahids (Muslim legal experts). The District Collector had some
oversight, but the Indian officers ran the court.

In the 1790s, Lord Cornwallis, the then Governor-General of India, introduced further reforms
aimed at improving the judicial system, particularly in terms of separation of powers, the
independence of the judiciary, and the organisation of courts.
1. Separation of Judicial and Revenue Functions: Cornwallis took a significant step by
separating judicial and revenue functions. The District Collector, previously responsible for
both revenue collection and judicial matters, was stripped of his judicial powers and relegated
to solely focusing on revenue matters. This was done to ensure impartial justice and prevent
any conflicts of interest that might arise from combining these two roles.
2. Creation of the District Judge System: Cornwallis introduced the position of District Judge,
who was responsible for handling civil cases at the district level. This new system of judicial
officers helped create a more structured and organised court system. At the lowest level, the
Munsiff Court was created for handling minor civil cases, and above it was the Court of
Registrars, which had European judges. The District Courts became the main court at the
district level.
3. Circuit Courts: Cornwallis established four Circuit Courts in Bengal and Bihar to deal with
criminal cases and appeals from the district courts. These courts, staffed with British judges,
were integral to maintaining British control over the judicial process, especially in the realm of
criminal law. The Faujdari Adalat, which was run by Indian officers, was abolished and
replaced with these English-controlled circuit courts.
4. Sardar-Diwani Adalat: The highest judicial body at the time was the Sardar-Diwani Adalat,
which was presided over by the Governor-General and his council. This court had the authority
to hear appeals from the lower courts and to pass judgments on serious criminal cases,
including the death sentence.
5. Court Cornwallis: Cornwallis also created a new court called Court Cornwallis in 1793,
which was part of his idea of the separation of powers between revenue administration and
judicial administration. This reform aimed to prevent any undue influence of revenue officers
over judicial decisions.
 The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Course, and Consequences
The Revolt of 1857, often referred to as India’s First War of Independence, marked a signi cant
milestone in the struggle against British rule. Although it did not succeed in overthrowing the
colonial government, it left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent, shaping the course of
Indian nationalism.

Causes of the Revolt

The revolt was the culmination of widespread discontent among various sections of Indian society,
fueled by political, economic, social, and military grievances.

1. Economic Exploitation: The British East India Company (BEIC) implemented policies that
drained India’s wealth, a phenomenon later articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji in his "Drain of
Wealth" theory. The exploitative revenue system and the destruction of traditional industries
impoverished peasants and artisans alike.

2. Political Resentment: The Doctrine of Lapse and the annexation of princely states alienated
Indian rulers and created widespread dissatisfaction.

3. Social and Religious Causes: Policies perceived as undermining traditional Indian culture
and religious practices, such as the introduction of Western education and laws like the
Widow Remarriage Act, antagonized orthodox sections of society.

4. Military Grievances: Indian soldiers in the British army faced severe discrimination. While
the lowest-ranking British soldier earned more than the highest-ranking Indian, they also felt
that their religious sentiments were disregarded, as seen in the greased cartridge controversy.

5. Immediate Trigger: The use of cartridges allegedly greased with cow and pig fat deeply
offended both Hindu and Muslim soldiers, igniting the mutiny in Meerut on May 10, 1857,
which rapidly spread across northern India.

Course of the Revolt

The revolt began with sepoys rebelling in Meerut and capturing Delhi, where they declared Bahadur
Shah Zafar as their leader. The rebellion spread across regions like Awadh, Kanpur, Jhansi, and
Bareilly, with prominent leaders such as Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, and Nana Sahib emerging
as gureheads. However, the lack of coordination, resources, and support from southern and eastern
India hindered the revolt’s success. By 1858, British forces had suppressed the uprising using
superior military strength and brutal repression.

Consequences of the Revolt

1. Political Changes:

◦ The British Crown took direct control of India through the Government of India Act,
1858, ending the rule of the BEIC.
◦ The Queen’s Proclamation promised non-interference in Indian religious and social
practices.
2. Repression and Reforms:
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 ◦ Acts like the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) sought to curb
dissent.
◦ Measures were introduced to recruit Indian soldiers more cautiously, often along
caste and regional lines to prevent unity.
3. Socio-Political Impact:

◦ The revolt permanently antagonized the British in the eyes of Indians and sowed the
seeds of nationalism, as it transcended regional and religious boundaries.
◦ Political consciousness grew, leading to the establishment of organizations like the
Indian Association (1876) and eventually the Indian National Congress (INC) in
1885.
4. Rise of Nationalism:

◦ Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and others spearheaded the
Moderate phase of the nationalist movement, advocating for reforms such as the
expansion of legislative councils, civil rights protection, and the Indianization of the
civil services.
◦ However, the lack of substantial progress led to the emergence of Extremists like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal.
5. Partition of Bengal (1905): The nationalist fervor fostered by the revolt contributed to later
events, such as the controversial partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon, ostensibly for
administrative ef ciency but widely seen as a move to weaken nationalist movements
dominated by Bengali leaders.
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Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was a landmark event in Indian history, highlighting the widespread discontent
with British rule and igniting the flame of nationalism. Although it failed to achieve its immediate
goals, its legacy endured, inspiring subsequent generations to fight for India’s freedom through
more organised and widespread movements. The unity it fostered across different communities laid
the foundation for India’s eventual independence.

The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Course, and Consequences

The Revolt of 1857, often termed as India’s First War of Independence, was a significant uprising
against the oppressive British colonial rule. It was marked by widespread participation,
encompassing soldiers, peasants, artisans, and rulers, and represented the deep-seated resentment
among Indians toward British policies. While the revolt was eventually suppressed, its causes,
course, and consequences had profound effects on India's history.
Causes of the Revolt
The causes of the revolt were multi-faceted, stemming from economic exploitation, political
annexations, social alienation, and military grievances.
1. Economic Exploitation:The British East India Company’s (BEIC) policies impoverished
India. The exploitative revenue system, such as the Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari
system, burdened peasants, leading to widespread indebtedness. Traditional industries and
crafts were destroyed due to British policies favoring imported goods, resulting in
unemployment among artisans and the collapse of local economies. The concept of “drain of
wealth,” articulated later by Dadabhai Naoroji, highlighted how British policies extracted
resources and wealth from India for the benefit of Britain.
2. Political Annexations: The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie, deprived
Indian rulers of their territories if they lacked a direct male heir. This led to the annexation of
prominent states like Jhansi, Satara, and Nagpur. The ousting of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of
Awadh and the pension withdrawal of exiled Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar alienated
both princely states and the aristocracy.
3. Social and Religious Causes: Indians viewed British reforms as an attack on their traditional
culture and religion. Laws like the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and the introduction of
Western education were perceived as attempts to Westernize Indian society. The general
belief that the British sought to convert Indians to Christianity created widespread
apprehension.
4. Military Grievances: Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army faced discrimination in pay
and promotions. While the lowest-ranking British soldier earned more than the highest-
ranking Indian, Indian soldiers were denied opportunities to advance. The British
disregarded Indian soldiers' religious sentiments, as seen in the introduction of the Enfield
rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindus and Muslims.
5. Immediate Trigger: The greased cartridge issue became the immediate cause of the revolt.
Sepoys in Meerut who refused to use these cartridges were punished severely, sparking a
mutiny on May 10, 1857.

Course of the Revolt

The revolt began in Meerut and spread rapidly across northern and central India.
1. Key Events:
 ◦ Delhi: Sepoys marched to Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader,
attempting to revive Mughal authority.
◦ Awadh: Under Begum Hazrat Mahal, the region became a stronghold of resistance.
◦ Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai led a fierce defence against British forces, becoming a
symbol of resistance.
◦ Kanpur: Nana Sahib led the revolt in Kanpur but was eventually defeated.
2. Characteristics:
◦ The revolt lacked centralised leadership and coordination. Different regions revolted
independently, with limited communication between leaders.
◦ It remained confined largely to northern and central India, with southern and eastern
regions showing limited participation.
3. Suppression:
◦ The British used superior military technology and brutal repression to suppress the
revolt by mid-1858. Key leaders like Rani Lakshmibai and Tantia Tope were killed,
and Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon.

Consequences of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 had far-reaching consequences that reshaped British policies and sowed the
seeds of Indian nationalism.
1. Political Changes: The British Crown assumed direct control of India through the
Government of India Act, 1858, ending the rule of the BEIC. The Queen’s Proclamation
promised non-interference in Indian religious and social practices and pledged equal
treatment of Indians under British law.
2. Reforms and Repression: Acts like the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act
(1878) were introduced to curb dissent and monitor Indian voices. The British restructured
the Indian army to prevent unity among soldiers, recruiting sepoys based on caste and
regional lines to avoid future uprisings.
3. Social Impact: The revolt marked the beginning of widespread Indian discontent with British
rule. While it failed to achieve immediate goals, it created a sense of shared struggle across
religious and regional lines.
4. Rise of Nationalism: The revolt inspired a growing nationalist consciousness. Organizations
like the Indian Association (1876), founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan
Bose, began addressing Indian grievances. The formation of the Indian National Congress
(1885) provided a platform for Indians to raise demands peacefully through petitions and
protests. The initial demands of the INC, led by moderate leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji,
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee, included:
▪ Holding the civil services examination in India.
▪ Expanding legislative councils.
▪ Protecting civil rights and freedom of the press.
5. Partition of Bengal (1905):
◦ Events following the revolt, such as the controversial partition of Bengal by Lord
Curzon, showed the British intent to divide and weaken the growing nationalist
movement. The partition further galvanised Indian unity and resistance.

The revolt exposed the oppressive nature of British rule and awakened Indians to the need for unity
in their fight for freedom. Its legacy persisted, inspiring future generations to challenge British
authority, eventually leading to India’s independence in 1947.