Basic concepts

REFERENCES
• Silberberg, Martin S. & Amateis, Patricia. (2021). Chemistry -
The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change 9th Edition -
McGraw-Hill

• Nivaldo J. Tro, (2019). Chemistry - A Molecular Approach

(5th Edition) - Pearson

• André B. de Haan, Johan T. Padding, (2022), Process

Technology_ An Introduction 2nd Ed, De Gruyter

• Nuggenhalli S. Nandagopal, (2023), Chemical Engineering

Principles and Applications, Springer
What is chemical process industry?

The industry that applies the knowledge of chemical behavior is

generally called the chemical process industry. Chemical reactions
and separation of compounds are used to obtain products with
desired properties
In the chemical process industry, raw materials are converted into
products for other industries and consumers. The range of products
is enormous, but the vast majority of these chemicals, about 85%,
are produced from a very limited number of simple chemicals
called base chemicals, which in turn are produced from only about
ten raw materials
What is chemical process industry?
What is chemical process industry?
Example : Production chain for naphtha to polymers
What is chemical process industry?
What is a Chemical Process?

The route along which a raw material is converted to products is

a logical coupling of interconnected operations: the process
(illustrated figures are shown in next slide). At least one of the
process units is the chemical reactor in which chemical
conversion takes place. In principle, every chemical reaction
shows incomplete conversion and often the formation of by-
products. Furthermore, auxiliary materials are often used, which
must be separated in another process step
What is a Chemical Process?

General representation of a process

Example of a Chemical Process: PFD of an ammonia plant

Chemical
Reactors

Heat exchanger
units

Pretreatment Separation units

Process Units & Streams

Process units: physical

components constituting
a process

Process streams:
materials entering &
leaving a process unit
The Units of Measurement
• In engineering design, units—standard quantities
used to specify measurements—are critical.

• The two most common unit systems are as

follows:
– Metric system, used in most of the world
– English system, used in the United States

• Scientists use the International System of Units

(SI), which is based on the metric system.
– The abbreviation SI comes from the French, phrase
Système International d’ Unités.
The Standard Units – SI Base Units
The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth

on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon

The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature

• The kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.

• The temperature is a measure of the average
amount of kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules that compose the matter.
• Temperature also determines the direction of
thermal energy transfer, or what we commonly
call heat.
• Thermal energy transfers from hot to cold
objects.
The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature
• Kelvin scale (absolute
scale) assigns 0 K
(absolute zero) to the
coldest temperature
possible.

• Absolute zero (–273 °C

or –459 °F) is the
temperature at which
molecular motion
virtually stops. Lower
temperatures do
not exist.
Comparison of the three temperature scales

K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C
373 K = 100 0C

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
Prefix Multipliers

• The International System of Units uses the

prefix multipliers (shown in next slide) with the
standard units.

• These multipliers change the value of the unit by

the powers of 10 (just like an exponent does in
scientific notation).

• For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo

meaning 1000 or 10 3.
Prefix Multipliers
Derived Units: Volume and Density

• Derived unit is a combination of other units.

• Volume is a measure of space; it has units of

length cubed (i.e., cm 3) or liters (L).

• Density is the ratio of a substance’s mass to

volume; it has units of mass/volume.

• Density affects if a substance will sink or float in

another. The less dense substance floats.
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m 3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm 3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
 Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m 3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass m
density = d= V
volume

A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5

g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m
d= V

m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g

Densities of Some Common Substances
Intensive and Extensive Properties

• An intensive property is a characteristic that is

independent of the amount of substance.
– Temperature, pressure, density, viscosity are
intensive property

• An extensive property is a characteristic that is

dependent on the amount of substance.
– Weight, force, energy, flow rate are extensive
property
Solution Concentrations

• Solutions have variable composition.

• To describe a solution, you need to describe the
components and their relative amounts.
• The terms dilute and concentrated can be
used as qualitative descriptions of the amount of
solute in solution.
• Concentration = amount of solute in a given
amount of solution.
– Occasionally per amount of solvent
Concentrations
Solution Concentration: Molarity

• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution

• Describes how many molecules of solute in each
liter of solution
• If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M,
– 1 liter of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar.
– 2 liters = 4.0 moles sugar.
– 0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar.
Solution Concentration: Molality, m
• Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
– Defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
• Like the others
• Does not vary with temperature
– Because based on masses, not volumes
Parts Solute in Parts Solution
• Parts can be measured by mass or volume.

• Parts are generally measured in the same units.

– By mass in grams, kilograms, lbs., etc.
– By volume in mL, L, gallons, etc.
– Mass and volume combined in grams and mL
Parts Solute in Parts Solution
• Percentage = parts of solute in every 100 parts
solution
– If a solution is 0.9% by mass, then there are 0.9 grams
of solute in every 100 grams of solution (or 0.9 kg solute
in every 100 kg solution).

• Parts per million = parts of solute in every 1 million

parts solution
– If a solution is 36 ppm by volume, then there are 36 mL
of solute in 1 million mL of solution.
PPM
• Grams of solute per 1,000,000 g of solution
• mg of solute per 1 kg of solution
• 1 liter of water = 1 kg of water
– For aqueous solutions, we often approximate the kg of
the solution as the kg or L of water.
• For dilute solutions, the difference in density between the
solution and pure water is usually negligible.
Parts per Billion Concentration
Solution Concentrations: Mole Fraction, XA
• The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the
components of the solution.
• Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1.
• Unitless
• The mole percentage is the percentage of the
moles of one component in the total moles of all
the components of the solution.
– = mole fraction × 100%
 Example: What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol
(C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?

moles of solute moles of solute

m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
Example: What is the molality of a solution prepared
by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g of water?

PLAN: We have to convert the grams of CaCl 2 to moles and the grams of
water to kg. Then substitute into the equation for molality.

SOLUTION: mole CaCl2

32.0 g CaCl2 x = 0.288 mole CaCl2
110.98 g CaCl2

0.288 mole CaCl2

molality = = 1.06 m CaCl2
kg
271 g H2O x
103 g
Example: Converting Concentration Units

PROBLEM: Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent used in

concentrated solution in rocket fuels and in dilute solution a a
hair bleach. An aqueous solution H2O2 is 30.0% by mass and
has a density of 1.11 g/mL. Calculate its
(a) Molality (b) Mole fraction of H2O2 (c) Molarity
PLAN: (a) To find the mass of solvent we assume the % is per 100 g of
solution. Take the difference in the mass of the solute and solution for
the mass of peroxide.
(b) Convert g of solute and solvent to moles before finding .
(c) Use the density to find the volume of the solution.

SOLUTION: (a) g of H2O = 100. g solution - 30.0 g H2O2 = 70.0 g H2O

30.0 g H2O2 mol H2O2 0.882 mol H2O2
34.02 g H2O2
molality = = 12.6 m H2O2
70.0 g H2O kg H2O
103 g
Example: Converting Concentration Units

continued

(b) mol H2O

70.0 g H2O = 3.88 mol H2O
18.02 g H2O

0.882 mol H2O2

= 0.185  of H2O2
0.882 mol H2O2 + 3.88 mol H2O

(c) mL
100.0 g solution = 90.1 mL solution
1.11 g

0.882 mol H2O2

= 9.79 M H2O2
90.1 mL solution L
103 mL
Dimensional Analysis

• A unit equation is a statement of two equivalent

quantities, such as
2.54 cm = 1 in.

• A conversion factor is a fractional quantity of a

unit equation with the units we are converting
from on the bottom and the units we are
converting to on the top.
Dimensional Analysis

• Most unit conversion problems take the

following form:
Dimensional Analysis

Units Raised to a Power:

• When building conversion factors for units raised
to a power, remember to raise both the number
and the unit to the power. For example, to
convert from in2 to cm2, we construct the
conversion factor as follows:
 Example: Converting Units of Length

PROBLEM: What is the price of a piece of copper wire 325 centimeters (cm)
long that sells for $0.15/ft?

PLAN: Known - length (in cm) of wire and cost per length (in ft)
We have to convert cm to inches and inches to ft followed by
finding the cost for the length in ft.
SOLUTION:
length (cm) of wire
Length (in) = length (cm) x conversion factor
2.54 cm = 1 in
= 325 cm x in = 128 in
length (in) of wire
2.54 cm
12 in = 1 ft Length (ft) = length (in) x conversion factor
length (ft) of wire = 128 in x ft = 10.7 ft
1 ft = $0.15 12 in
Price ($) = length (ft) x conversion factor
Price ($) of wire
= 10.7 ft x $0.15 = $1.60
ft
 Example: Determining the Volume of a Solid by Displacement
of Water

PROBLEM: The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined

from the volume of water it displaces. A graduated cylinder
contains 19.9mL water. When a small piece of galena, an ore
of lead, is submerged in the water, the volume increases to
24.5mL. What is the volume of the piece of galena in cm 3
and in L?
PLAN: The volume of galena is equal to the change in the water
volume before and after submerging the solid.

volume (mL) before and after addition SOLUTION:

subtract (24.5 - 19.9)mL = volume of galena

volume (mL) of galena 3
4.6 mL x 1 cm = 4.6 cm3
1 mL = 1 cm3 1 mL = 10-3 L mL
-3
volume (cm3) of volume (L) of 4.6 mL x 10 L = 4.6x10-3 L
galena galena mL
 Example: Converting Units of Mass

PROBLEM: International computer communications will soon be carried by

optical fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of
optical fiber weighs 1.19 x 10 -3lbs/m, what is the total mass (in kg)
of a cable made of six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to
link New York and Paris (8.84 x 103km)?
PLAN: The sequence of steps may vary but essentially you have to find
the length of the entire cable and convert it to mass.
SOLUTION:
10 3m
length (km) of fiber 8.84 x 103km x = 8.84 x 106m
km
1 km = 103 m
length (m) of fiber 1.19 x 10 -3lbs
8.84 x 106m x = 1.05 x 104lb
m
1 m = 1.19x10-3 lb
6 fibers = 6.30x 104lb
mass (lb) of fiber 1.05 x 104lb x
cable cable
6 fibers = 1 cable
6.30x 104lb 1kg 2.86x104 kg
x =
mass (lb) of cable mass (kg) of cable cable 2.205 lb cable
2.205 lb = 1 kg
Example: Calculating Density from Mass and Length

PROBLEM: Lithium (Li) is a soft, gray solid that has the lowest density
of any metal. If a slab of Li weighs 1.49 x 103mg and has
sides that measure 20.9mm by 11.1mm by 12.0mm, what
is the density of Li in g/cm3 ?
PLAN: Density is expressed in g/cm3 so we have to the mass in grams
and the volume in cm3.
SOLUTION:
lengths (mm) of sides -3
1.49x103mg x 10 g = 1.49g
10 mm = 1 cm mg
cm
mass (mg) of Li lengths (cm) of sides 20.9mm x = 2.09cm
10mm
103mg = 1g multiply lengths
Similarly the other sides will be
mass (g) of Li volume (cm3) 1.11cm and 1.20cm, respectively.
2.09 x 1.11 x 1.20 = 2.76cm3
density (g/cm3) of Li 1.49g
density of Li = = 0.540g/cm3
2.76cm3
Measurement

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity

to be measured with a unit of measurement

A physical A unit of measurement

quantity (mass, length, time, etc. )

Record the measurement:

▪ Measured number
▪ The unit

▪ Ex: 1.5 cm
Measurement
True value
Precision: refers to the closeness of the set of
values obtained from identical measurements of
a quantity. Measurement

Accuracy: refers to the closeness of a single

measurement to its true value

Precision and Accuracy: precision and

accuracy are both achieved when results are
close to each other and to the desired value.
Measurement

Precision: poor Precision: good Precision: good

Accuracy: poor Accuracy: poor Accuracy: good
Counting Significant Figures

• Significant figures deal with writing numbers to

reflect precision.

• The precision of a measurement depends on the

instrument used to make the measurement.

• The preservation of this precision during

calculations can be accomplished by using
significant figures.
Measurement
Steel rod

Recorded values:
5.54 cm
5.55 cm
5.56 cm

The spread of values indicates the precision with

which a measure can be made by this ruler
Counting Significant Figures
To indicate the precision of a measured number (or result of
calculations on measured numbers) ➔ Significant figures:

Are those digits in a measured number (or result of a calculation

with measured numbers) that include
▪ all certain digits plus
▪ a final digit having some uncertainty.

5.54 cm, 5.55 cm, 5.56 cm

➔Report: 5.54 cm
▪ The first two digits (5.5) are certain
▪ The next digit (4) is estimated ➔ has
some uncertainty
▪ 5.541 cm ➔ WRONG

Greater number of significant figures, higher precision

Counting Significant Figures

32.oC
32.3oC
32.33oC
32.333oC
…
32.33333333333333oC

Which one is RIGHT?

• The number of significant figures in

a measurement depends on the
measuring device

• Normally to one tenth of a smallest

unit
Counting Significant Figures

32.33oC 32.3oC
Counting Significant Figures

Number of significant figures refers to the numbers of

digits reported for the value of a measured or calculated
quantity, indicating the precision of the value

e.g., 9.12 cm ➔ three significant figures

9.123 cm ➔ four significant figures
Counting Significant Figures
Decimal notation:
• One common representation of numbers
• Minus point:
- awkward to represent very large and/or very small numbers
- easy to make foolish mistakes when carrying out arithmetical
operations in this form

Scientific Notation:
• minimizes the tendency to make errors in arithmetical operations

An exponent is a number that shows how many times a given number

(called the base) appears as a factor; exponents are written as
superscripts

Ex: 102
• The number 2 is the exponent;
• The number 10 is the base, which is said to be raised to the second
power
Counting Significant Figures
Note: a more rigorous way to determine the
numbers of significant figures (sfs) is to convert
the considered number into the scientific
notation

Ex:
• 4800. → 4.800x103 : 4 sfs
• 4800.0 → 4.8000x103 : 5 sfs
• 0.0004800 → 4.800x10-4 : 4 sfs
Counting Significant Figures

• The greater the number of significant figures, the

greater the certainty of the measurement.

• To determine the number of significant

figures in a number, follow these rules
(examples are on the right).

Significant Figure Rules Examples

1. All nonzero digits are significant. 28.03 0.0540
2. Interior zeroes (zeroes between two 408 7.0301
nonzero digits) are significant.
Counting Significant Figures
Significant Figure Rules Examples
3. Leading zeroes (zeroes to the left of the
first nonzero digit) are not significant.
They only serve to locate the decimal
point.
4. Trailing zeroes (zeroes at the end of a
45.000 3.5600
number) are categorized as follows:
• Trailing zeroes after a decimal point
are always significant.
• Trailing zeroes before a decimal 140.00 2500.55
point (and after a nonzero number)
are always significant.
• Trailing zeroes before an implied 1200 Ambiguous
decimal point are ambiguous and 1.2 × 103 2 significant figures
should be avoided by using scientific 1.20 × 103 3 significant figures
notation. 1.200 × 103 4 significant figures
• Decimal points are placed after one 1200. 4 significant figures
or more trailing zeroes if the zeroes
are to be considered significant.
Counting Significant Figures
Another way to count the significant figures

The significant figures of a number (with a decimal

point) are the digits from the first nonzero digit on the left
to the last digit (zero or nonzero) on the right
Counting Significant Figures

• In calculations using measured quantities, the

results of the calculation must reflect the
precision of the measured quantities.

• We should not lose or gain precision during

mathematical operations.
Counting Significant Figures

Multiplication and Division Rule:

• In multiplication or division, the result carries the

same number of significant figures as the factor
with the fewest significant figures.
Counting Significant Figures

Addition and Subtraction Rule:

• In addition or subtraction the result carries the

same number of decimal places as the quantity
with the fewest decimal places.

It is helpful to draw a line next to the number with the fewest decimal
places. This line determines the number of decimal places in the answer.
Counting Significant Figures

Rules for Rounding:

• When rounding to the correct number of

significant figures,
– round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is
four or less;
– round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is five
or more.
Counting Significant Figures
• Rounding to two significant figures:

5.37 rounds to 5.4

5.34 rounds to 5.3
5.35 rounds to 5.4
5.349 rounds to 5.3

• Notice in the last example that only the last (or

leftmost) digit being dropped determines in
which direction to round—ignore all digits to the
right of it.
Counting Significant Figures

• To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations

round only the final answer.
• Do not round intermediate steps. If you write down
intermediate answers, keep track of significant
figures by underlining the least significant digit.
Exact Numbers

• Exact numbers have an unlimited number of

significant figures.
– Exact counting of discrete objects
– Integral numbers that are part of an equation
– Defined quantities

• Some conversion factors are defined quantities,

while others are not.
67
Counting significant figures: Examples

Example: adding two volumes 83.5 mL

+ 23.28 mL
106.78 mL = 106.8 mL

Example: subtracting two volumes 865.9 mL

- 2.8121 mL
863.0879 mL = 863.1 mL

9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23.4225 cm3 = 23 cm3

68
Counting significant figures: Examples

PROBLEM: For each of the following quantities, underline the zeros that are
significant figures(sf), and determine the number of significant
figures in each quantity. For (d) to (f) express each in
exponential notation first.

(a) 0.0030 L (b) 0.1044 g (c) 53.069 mL

(d) 0.00004715 m (e) 57,600. s (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

PLAN: Determine the number of sf by counting digits and paying attention

to the placement of zeros.
SOLUTION:

(a) 0.0030 L 2sf (b) 0.1044 g 4sf (c) 53.069 mL 5sf

(d) 0.00004715 m (e) 57,600. s (f) 0.0000007160 cm3

(d) 4.715x10-5 m 4sf (e) 5.7600x104 s 5sf (f) 7.160x10-7 cm3 4sf
Counting significant figures: Examples
1) How many significant number are there?

a) 0.004050 (4)
b) 1450 (3)
c) 800 (1)
d) 2050. (4)
e) 3.9X10-2 (2)

a) 3.050 x 1.14/(2.3050X10^-3) ( ????)

b) 2.210 x 4.76090 x 1.000000

3.050 (4)
1.14 (3)
2.3050 x 10^-3 (5)
part (a) result: (3)
Counting significant figures: Examples

2.210 x 4.76090 x 1.000000

(4)
(7)
(6)

Part b result: (4)

71
Excercise

Perform the following calculations and round the answer

to the correct number of significant figures

16.3521 𝑐𝑚2 −1.448 𝑐𝑚2

a) 7.085 𝑐𝑚

1𝑔
(4.80×104 𝑚𝑔)
1000 𝑚𝑔
b) 11.55 𝑐𝑚3
Nature of Energy

• Energy is anything that has the capacity to

do work.
• Work is a force acting over a distance.
– Energy = work = force × distance
• Heat is the flow of energy caused by a difference in
temperature.
• Energy can be exchanged between objects
through contact.
– For example, through collisions
Nature of Energy

• Energy is anything that has the capacity to

do work.
• Work is a force acting over a distance.
– Energy = work = force × distance
• Heat is the flow of energy caused by a difference in
temperature.
• Energy can be exchanged between objects
through contact.
– For example, through collisions
Energy, Heat, and Work

• You can think of energy as a quantity an object

can possess or as a collection of objects.
• You can think of heat and work as the two
different ways that an object can exchange energy
with other objects.
– Either out of it or into it
Classification of Energy

• Kinetic energy is
energy of motion, or
energy that is being
transferred.

• Thermal energy is the

energy associated with
temperature.
– Thermal energy is a form
of kinetic energy.
Manifestations of Energy
Classification of Energy
• Potential energy is energy that is stored in an
object, or energy associated with the composition
and position of the object.
– Energy stored in the structure of a compound is potential
energy.
Some Forms of Energy

• Chemical energy:
Potential energy due to the structure of the atoms,
the attachment between atoms, the atoms’
positions relative to each other in the molecule, or
the molecules’ relative positions in the structure
Units of Energy
• A joule (J) is the amount of energy needed to
move a 1 kg mass a distance of 1 meter.
– 1 J = 1 N ∙ m = 1 kg ∙ m2/s2
• A calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of water 1 °C.
– kcal = energy needed to raise 1000 g of water 1 °C
– food Calories = kcals
System and Surroundings

• We define the system as the material or process

within which we are studying the energy changes
within.

• We define the surroundings as everything else

with which the system can exchange energy.

• What we study is the exchange of energy between

the system and the surroundings.
System and Surroundings
The system is the specific part of the universe that is of
interest in the study. SURROUNDINGS
SYSTEM

open closed isolated

Exchange: mass & energy energy nothing
System and Surroundings

Universe System Surroundings

If there is energy difference, there is energy transfer (high → low)

Energy of system decreases Energy of system increases

Energy transfer outward from the system or inward from

the surroundings can appear in two forms, heat and work
Comparing the Amount of Energy in the
System and Surroundings during Transfer
• Conservation of energy means that the amount of
energy gained or lost by the system has to be
equal to the amount of energy lost or gained by the
surroundings.
Conservation of Energy: Esystem+ Esurroundings = 0

When energy flows out When energy flows into

of a system of a system
Surroundings Surroundings
E + E ─
System System
E ─ E +
The First Law of Thermodynamics:
Law of Conservation of Energy
• Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its
interconversions.

• The first law of thermodynamics is the law of

conservation of energy.
– This means that the total amount of energy in the universe is
constant.

• Therefore, you can never design a system that will

continue to produce energy without some source of
energy.
Conservation of Energy

• The law of conservation of

energy states that energy
cannot be created or
destroyed.

• When energy is transferred

between objects, or converted
from one form to another, the
total amount of energy present
at the beginning must be
present at the end.
Conservation of Mass – Mass Balance

Mass balances are based on the principle that the mass

must be conserved. The mass balance principle can be
applied to each species as well as to the overall system.

The fundamental mass balance equation:

Conservation of Mass – Mass Balance
Conservation of Mass – Mass Balance

The general strategy for solving mass balance problems

is as follows:
1. Draw a well-defined schematic for the problem
including all the known information.
2. Assign algebraic symbols to unknown quantities.
3. Generate algebraic equations using mass balances for
species and overall mass balances.
4. Solve the algebraic equations for the unknowns
Types of Processes

▪ Physical or chemical

▪ Batch, continuous or
semi-batch

▪ Steady-state or
transient
Process Classification

Batch - No material is transferred in or out of the system during

the time period of interest (no input or output)

Continuous - Material is transferred in and out of the system

continuously

Semi-batch - Any process that is neither batch nor continuous

Steady State - All conditions are invariant with time. Usually

refer to continuous processes: ACCUM = 0

Transient - One or more conditions vary with time

(Accumulation ≠ 0 )
Physical Systems
Have well defined physical boundaries between the systems and

the surrounding

• Open system (mass crosses the system boundary during the

period of time covered by the energy balance)

• Closed system

• Isolated system (no mass nor energy cross the system boundary

during the period of time covered by the energy balance)

Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes

The term Accumulation = 0, therefore we have:

If the balance is on a nonreactive species or on total mass,

the generation and consumption terms equal zero and the
equation reduces to input = output
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes

Example 1
A chemical process requires a 40% hydrochloric acid
solution at a rate of 1000 kg/hr. A concentrated solution of
70% hydrochloric acid is available. Determine the
mass flow rates of the concentrated acid and diluting
water required to generate the acid stream required for
the chemical process
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes

Example 1
Step 1: Draw the schematic diagram for the process

Step 2: Assign algebraic symbols to unknown quantities: A

and W
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes

Example 1
Step 1: Draw the schematic diagram for the process

Step 2: Assign algebraic symbols to unknown quantities: A

and W
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes
Example 1
Steps 3 and 4: Generate and solve algebraic equations using
mass balances for species and overall mass balances

Input of HCl = Output of HCl

Overall input = Overall output

Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes

Example 2
In a steam power plant, coal is burned at the rate of 50
lbm/min. The percentage of ash in the coal is 9% by mass.
The combustion of coal takes place in a fluidized bed
reactor and the ash in the effluent stream from the reactor is
removed by scrubbing with water at a feed rate of 2.6 gpm.
Determine the mass percentage of ash in the water stream
leaving the scrubber.
Note: lbm = pound (mass) per minute
gpm = gallon per minute
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes
Example 2
Step 1: Draw the
schematic
diagram for the
process

Step 2: Assign
algebraic symbols to
unknown quantities:
𝑚ሶ 𝑎𝑠ℎ and (xash)water
Mass Balance on Continuous Steady-State Processes
Example 2 (cont.)
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems

For reactive systems, the mass balance equation must

include the generation and consumption terms
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Limiting and Excess Reactants
Consider the reaction of methane with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water vapor. The stoichiometric equation for the
reaction is

On the reactant side, the reactant that is completely

consumed is the limiting reactant whereas the reactant that
is in excess of the stoichiometric requirement is the excess
reactant.
Supposing the reactor feed consists of 10 moles of methane
and 30 moles of oxygen, then if reaction goes to completion,
all moles of methane will be consumed and there are 10
moles of oxygen remaining. Hence methane is the limiting
reactant and oxygen is the excess reactant.
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Limiting and Excess Reactants
The percentage excess of the excess reactant in the feed
can be determined as follows:

In this reaction, one mole of methane requires two moles of

oxygen for completing the reaction. Hence, the
stoichiometric requirement of oxygen for 10 moles of
methane is 20 moles of oxygen (= Nstoichiometric)
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Example 3

Methane reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.

The feed stream to the reactor consists of 20kmol/min of methane
and 50 kmol/min of oxygen. However, only 80% of the limiting
reactant is consumed in the reactor, that is, the reactor achieves
80% conversion of the limiting reactant. Determine the molar flow
rate of each component in the product stream

Conversion (x)
= (reactant consumed in the reactor)/(reactant
fed to the reactor)
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Example 3
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Example 3
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Example 3
Applying the mass balances for steady-state, reactive
systems for each species in the reaction system, we
have:
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Example 3
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Practice Problem

2-Mercaptoethanol (C2H6OS) is produced by reacting ethylene

oxide (C2H4O) with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as per the following
reaction equation.

The reaction takes place in the presence of Thiodiglycol and

Zeolites as catalysts. The molecular weights (g/mol) are,
ethylene oxide = 44, hydrogen sulfide = 34, 2-mercaptoethanol
= 78. To produce 1000 g/hr of 2-mercaptoethanol, determine
the amounts (g/hr) of reactants required if 25% excess
hydrogen sulfide needs to be used.
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Practice Problem - Solution

Finding the molar production rate (mol / hr) of 2-mercaptoethanol:

1000 (g/hr) / 78 (g/mol) = 12.82 (mol / hr)

From the stoichiometric reaction equation:

Molar flow rate ethylene oxide required = molar rate of 2-
mercaptoethanol produced = 12.82 mol/hr.

Multiply the molar flow rate ethylene oxide by its molecular

weight to obtain the mass flow rate required

12.82 (mol / hr) * 44 (g/mol)

= 564.1 (g/hr)
Mass Balances for Steady-State, Reactive Systems
Practice Problem - Solution
Also, from the stoichiometric equation, stoichiometric molar flow
rate of hydrogen sulfide required = molar rate of 2-
mercaptoethanol produced = 12.82 mol/hr.

Multiply the molar flow rate hydrogen sulfide by its molecular

weight to obtain the stoichiometric mass flow rate required:

12.82 (mol / hr) * 34 (g/mol)

= 435.9 (g/hr)

Since 25% excess hydrogen sulfide is to be used, multiply the

preceding result by 1.25 to get the actual mass flow rate of
hydrogen sulfide required.

1.25*435.9 (g/hr)
= 544.9 (g/hr)