Topics for the oral exam

1. Major intellectual contributions to cultural studies: Raymond Williams, Richard Hoggart, E.

P. Thompson (Matthew Arnold, F.R. Leavis, Antonio Gramsci)

- Raymond Williams
A key figure in cultural studies, Raymond Williams reconceptualized culture as more
than just "high art." He emphasized the concept of culture as a "way of life,"
encompassing everyday practices, shared meanings, and social dynamics. His works,
such as Culture and Society (1958) and The Long Revolution (1961), bridged literature,
sociology, and cultural analysis. Williams introduced "cultural materialism," arguing
that culture is inseparable from its socio-economic context. His concept of the "structure
of feeling" explored the interplay of cultural forms and lived experience, influencing
subsequent studies in literature, media, and urban culture.

- Richard Hoggart
Richard Hoggart, another foundational figure, brought attention to working-class
culture in Britain. His seminal work, The Uses of Literacy (1957), explored the
transformation of working-class traditions under the pressures of mass media and
consumerism. Hoggart highlighted the importance of analyzing popular culture and its
resistance to dominant ideologies. His establishment of the Centre for Contemporary
Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birmingham in 1964 institutionalized
cultural studies as an academic field, fostering interdisciplinary research.

- E. P. Thompson
Historian E. P. Thompson contributed significantly to cultural studies through his work
on class and history. In The Making of the English Working Class (1963), Thompson argued
that class is not a static category but a dynamic process formed through shared
experiences and cultural practices. His focus on the lived experiences of ordinary people
challenged deterministic views of history, emphasizing the role of agency and culture in
shaping social change. Thompson’s Marxist approach, combined with his interest in
culture, laid the groundwork for studying class as a cultural construct.

- Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony profoundly influenced cultural studies.
Gramsci argued that dominant groups maintain power not solely through coercion but
through cultural consent and ideological leadership. His writings on intellectuals,
education, and cultural production emphasized the contested nature of cultural
hegemony and the potential for resistance within subaltern groups. Gramsci's ideas
helped scholars analyze the interplay between culture, power, and resistance, making
his work essential to cultural studies.

- Matthew Arnold and F.R. Leavis

Earlier thinkers like Matthew Arnold and F.R. Leavis, though more traditional, laid
important groundwork. Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy (1869) framed culture as a means
of moral and social uplift, often emphasizing "high culture" as the epitome of human
achievement. Leavis expanded on Arnold’s ideas but also critiqued mass culture in
works like Mass Civilization and Minority Culture (1930), viewing it as a threat to societal
 standards. While their elitist perspectives were later challenged by cultural studies, their
focus on the relationship between culture and society informed early debates in the
field.

2. Notions of culture: popular and mass culture, high and middle-brow culture, midcult,
subcultures (examples, contradictions, and debates)

In cultural studies, the concept of culture is multifaceted, encompassing diverse forms and practices
that reflect social, political, and economic contexts. These notions include distinctions between
popular, mass, high, and middle-brow culture, as well as subcultures, each carrying unique
implications and contradictions.

- Popular and Mass Culture

Popular culture refers to the practices, artifacts, and entertainment forms widely
consumed by the masses. It includes everything from pop music and films to fashion
and memes, and is often celebrated for its accessibility and connection to everyday life.
Critics, however, argue that its commercial basis can limit creativity, reducing it to a tool
for reinforcing dominant ideologies. Mass culture, closely related, implies culture
produced on a large scale by industries like Hollywood or mass media, which some
theorists, such as Dwight Macdonald, criticize for homogenization and cultural
standardization. This tension highlights a key debate in cultural studies: is popular
culture a site of authentic expression or merely a product of capitalist manipulation?

- High and Middle-Brow Culture

High culture traditionally refers to forms of art and intellectual activity considered elite
or sophisticated, such as opera, classical music, and fine art. These forms are often
associated with "cultured" individuals and institutions, creating boundaries between
those with cultural capital and those without. Middle-brow culture, or midcult, as
coined by Dwight Macdonald, represents works that blend accessibility with aspirations
of refinement. Examples include book-club fiction or accessible art exhibitions. While
midcult is often celebrated for bridging gaps between high culture and the masses, it is
critiqued for diluting intellectual rigor, leaving it neither truly innovative nor purely
entertaining.

- Subcultures
Subcultures represent groups that deviate from mainstream norms, creating their own
distinct practices, styles, and ideologies. Examples include punk rock, hip-hop, goth, or
skateboard communities, which express resistance to dominant cultural values. These
groups often challenge hegemonic power structures through style and behavior, such as
the DIY ethos of punk or the racial pride embedded in early hip-hop. However,
contradictions arise when subcultures are commodified, with elements like punk
fashion being appropriated by mainstream brands, diluting their oppositional power.
This tension between subcultural authenticity and commodification is a recurring theme
in cultural studies.

- Contradictions and Debates

The distinctions between these cultural categories are often blurred and contested. High
culture is not inherently superior, and popular culture is not always a tool of
oppression; both can act as sites of resistance and empowerment. For instance,
subcultures rooted in popular culture, such as hip-hop, have fostered powerful
 movements for racial and social justice. Similarly, midcult, despite criticisms, provides a
platform for cultural exchange and dialogue.
Ultimately, the study of culture in cultural studies interrogates these categories and
their intersections, revealing how power, identity, and social structures shape cultural
production and consumption. These debates underscore culture's complexity and its
role as both a tool of conformity and a medium for resistance.

3. Cultural studies in the interdisciplinary landscape: history, sociology, linguistics,

communication & media studies, anthropology (three examples for ideas and concepts
travelling between disciplines)

- Hegemony (Sociology to Cultural Studies)

Originating from Antonio Gramsci's Marxist sociology, the concept of hegemony examines
how dominant groups maintain power through cultural consent rather than force. This idea
traveled into cultural studies, where it became foundational for analyzing popular culture,
media, and ideology. For instance, Stuart Hall used hegemony to explore how mass media
perpetuates dominant ideologies while also offering sites for resistance, blending
sociological theory with media analysis.
- The Gaze (Film Theory and Anthropology to Cultural Studies)
Derived from psychoanalytic film theory (e.g., Laura Mulvey’s “male gaze”) and
anthropological insights into visual culture, the concept of the gaze examines how power
and identity are constructed through viewing. Cultural studies expanded this idea to
analyze various cultural texts, such as advertising, photography, and tourism. Michel
Foucault’s notion of surveillance as a form of the gaze further enriched interdisciplinary
debates about visibility, power, and social control.
- The Structure of Feeling (Literary Studies to Sociology and Cultural Studies)
Coined by Raymond Williams in literary studies, the structure of feeling refers to the shared
yet often unarticulated values and experiences of a particular era. This concept migrated
into sociology and anthropology to explore collective identities and cultural shifts. For
example, it has been applied to studies of youth subcultures, tracing how cultural practices
embody emergent ways of thinking that challenge dominant social norms.

4. Linguistic ideas in cultural studies: representation, myth (Roland Barthes), televisual

discourse (Stuart Hall)
Linguistic ideas are central to cultural studies, providing tools to analyze how meaning is
constructed and communicated within culture. The concepts of representation, myth, and
televisual discourse—drawing from linguistics and semiotics—are pivotal in
understanding the relationship between language, power, and ideology.
Representation
Representation, a fundamental concept in cultural studies, examines how language and
symbols create meaning. It emphasizes that language is not a neutral medium but actively
constructs social realities. Stuart Hall expanded on Ferdinand de Saussure's structural
linguistics, proposing that meaning is generated through systems of representation, such as
language, images, and media. Hall argued that representation is inherently political,
shaping how identities, norms, and ideologies are constructed and contested.
Myth (Roland Barthes)
Roland Barthes' semiotic analysis in Mythologies (1957) introduced the concept of myth as a
second-order system of signification. Myths transform cultural practices or objects into
 naturalized, universal truths. For example, a wine advertisement may signify not just the
drink but also sophistication and national pride, masking the cultural and economic forces
behind it. Barthes revealed how myths perpetuate dominant ideologies by making socially
constructed meanings appear natural and inevitable. His work profoundly influenced
cultural studies, providing tools to decode the ideological underpinnings of cultural texts.
Televisual Discourse (Stuart Hall)
Stuart Hall applied linguistic and semiotic principles to television, exploring how it
mediates ideology. In his Encoding/Decoding model, Hall argued that television is a site
where meanings are encoded by producers and decoded by audiences. This process is
influenced by cultural codes, power dynamics, and individual positionality. Hall identified
three audience readings—dominant, negotiated, and oppositional—highlighting how
media texts can both reinforce and challenge hegemonic ideologies. This concept bridged
linguistics, media studies, and cultural studies, emphasizing the active role of audiences in
interpreting cultural texts.

5. Culture, power & inequality: types and markers of inequality; the role of the state, the
market, the individual; ideas for leveling inequality

The relationship between culture, power, and inequality is central to cultural studies, which
interrogates how social hierarchies are constructed, maintained, and resisted. Inequality
manifests in various types and markers, shaped by the state, market, and individual, while
cultural studies also explores strategies for leveling these disparities.
Types and Markers of Inequality
Inequality can take multiple forms—economic, social, cultural, and political—each marked
by distinct yet interconnected factors:
• Class: Economic disparities often dictate access to education, healthcare, and cultural
capital, reinforcing cycles of privilege and deprivation.
• Race and Ethnicity: Systemic racism and ethnic discrimination create unequal
opportunities, often intersecting with other forms of inequality.
• Gender: Gender roles and stereotypes perpetuate inequalities in pay, representation, and
societal expectations.
• Age and Ability: Discrimination based on age and physical or cognitive ability further
entrenches inequality in social and professional contexts.
Role of the State, Market, and Individual
1. The State:
The state plays a dual role in perpetuating and addressing inequality. Policies, laws, and
public services can mitigate disparities, but historical biases and systemic issues often
reinforce them. For instance, welfare programs aim to reduce poverty, yet unequal access to
resources like quality education can perpetuate class divisions.
2. The Market:
Market mechanisms often deepen inequality through wage gaps, labor exploitation, and
commodification of cultural goods. Neoliberal ideologies emphasize individual
responsibility while reducing state intervention, leading to a widening wealth gap and
privatization of essential services.
3. The Individual:
Cultural studies highlights the role of agency in navigating and resisting structures of
inequality. Through subcultures, activism, or individual choices, people can challenge
dominant norms. However, individual efforts alone are insufficient to dismantle systemic
inequalities without broader structural change.
 Ideas for Leveling Inequality
Cultural studies suggests several strategies for addressing inequality:
• Redistribution: Economic policies like progressive taxation and universal basic income aim
to reduce wealth disparities.
• Representation: Promoting diversity in media, education, and leadership challenges
stereotypes and broadens cultural narratives.
• Recognition: Acknowledging and valuing marginalized cultures fosters social inclusion
and counters cultural hegemony.
• Education: Equitable access to education can break cycles of poverty and empower
individuals to challenge systemic inequities.
• Activism and Solidarity: Grassroots movements and transnational collaborations amplify
marginalized voices and advocate for systemic change.

6. Notions of power: 3-dimentional (Lukes), capillary system (Foucault); ideology (Marx),

hegemony (Gramsci), ISA (Althusser), field, habitus, and capital (Bourdieu), ideology as
incorporation (Frankfurt School) (three out of five)

Notions of power in cultural studies are complex and multifaceted, drawing from diverse
theoretical frameworks to understand its dynamics in society. Three influential approaches
include Steven Lukes’ three-dimensional model of power, Michel Foucault’s concept of
power as a capillary system, and Pierre Bourdieu’s notions of field, habitus, and capital.
1. Three-Dimensional Power (Steven Lukes)
Steven Lukes’ three-dimensional view of power outlines how it operates on different levels:
• First Dimension: Power as decision-making, where visible conflicts are resolved through
overt control.
• Second Dimension: Power as agenda-setting, where dominant groups suppress dissent by
shaping what issues are even considered.
• Third Dimension: Power as preference-shaping, where ideology influences people to align
their interests with those of dominant groups, often unconsciously.
Lukes’ model emphasizes the subtle and pervasive ways power influences beliefs,
attitudes, and societal norms, extending beyond visible conflict.
2. Capillary System of Power (Michel Foucault)
Foucault redefined power as not merely hierarchical but as a network of relationships
permeating society. His concept of the capillary system likens power to blood flowing
through veins, reaching every aspect of life. Foucault argued that power is productive,
creating knowledge, identities, and norms through mechanisms like surveillance and
discourse. For example, in Discipline and Punish, he analyzed how institutions such as
prisons and schools regulate behavior through disciplinary techniques, illustrating how
power shapes individuals and society from the ground up.
3. Field, Habitus, and Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)
Bourdieu’s framework explores how power operates through social structures and
individual dispositions:
• Field: Social arenas, like education or art, where individuals and groups compete for
resources and influence.
• Habitus: Internalized social norms and dispositions shaped by one’s background, which
guide behavior and perception.
• Capital: Resources such as economic wealth, cultural knowledge, social networks, and
symbolic prestige that determine one’s position and power within a field.
Bourdieu’s approach reveals how power is reproduced through cultural practices and
social structures, often perpetuating inequality.

7. Postmodern, postmodernity, postmodernism; consumer culture: conceptualizing

consumption and its consequences (three examples out of seven featured in slides)

Postmodernism, Consumer Culture, and the Dynamics of Consumption

Postmodernism, postmodernity, and postmodernism are interconnected concepts central to
understanding contemporary cultural and societal dynamics. Postmodernity refers to the
historical condition following modernity, characterized by a fragmented, globalized, and
media-saturated world. Postmodernism, in contrast, is the intellectual and cultural
movement responding to these conditions, challenging traditional narratives, hierarchies,
and meanings. This shift embraces pluralism, irony, and a rejection of universal truths,
favoring fluidity and multiplicity.
Within this framework, consumer culture emerges as a defining feature of postmodern
societies. Consumption transcends mere necessity, becoming a symbolic act that shapes
identity, social belonging, and status. Theorists argue that in postmodern consumer culture,
individuals are increasingly defined by what they consume rather than traditional markers
such as class or occupation. Advertising, branding, and media play pivotal roles in crafting
desires and aspirations, embedding consumption within personal and collective identity.
The consequences of this cultural emphasis on consumption are profound. On one hand,
consumer culture offers individuals agency and self-expression through choices in fashion,
technology, and lifestyle. On the other, it fosters materialism and commodification,
reducing relationships, values, and even identities to market transactions. Furthermore, the
relentless focus on novelty and obsolescence perpetuates environmental degradation and
social inequalities.
In essence, postmodernism and consumer culture illuminate the complexities of
contemporary life, reflecting its opportunities and contradictions. By critically engaging
with these concepts, cultural studies reveal the interplay between individual agency,
societal structures, and the pervasive influence of globalized consumption.

Class and Consumption: Levelling Tendencies (Peter Saunders)

Peter Saunders examines the transformative role of consumption in modern societies,
arguing that it fosters a levelling tendency by reducing the visible distinctions between
social classes. As consumer culture enables broader access to goods and services, traditional
markers of class, such as occupation or wealth, become less pronounced. Through
purchasing power, individuals can adopt lifestyles and symbols previously exclusive to
higher social strata, challenging rigid social hierarchies. While this narrative emphasizes the
democratizing potential of consumption, critics contend that access to goods alone does not
dismantle structural inequalities, leaving deeper questions about social mobility
unresolved.

Class and Consumption: Class Differences as Expressed in Taste (Bourdieu’s

Distinction)
 Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, as articulated in Distinction, highlights how
taste serves as a marker of class differences. Bourdieu argues that preferences for cultural
goods—whether in art, food, or fashion—are shaped by one’s social upbringing and
education, reinforcing class-based distinctions. For example, individuals from upper-class
backgrounds may display a preference for high art or fine dining, which signify refinement
and privilege, while those with less cultural capital may engage with popular or mass
culture. These taste distinctions are not merely personal choices but operate as symbolic
boundaries that sustain social hierarchies and inequalities, perpetuating the cultural
dominance of elite groups.

“Guerilla Warfare” of Everyday Life: Resistance to Consumerism (de Certeau)

Michel de Certeau’s concept of “guerilla warfare” of everyday life explores how
individuals resist the dominance of consumerism through everyday practices. Unlike
passive consumption, de Certeau highlights the creative ways people reinterpret and
subvert mass-produced goods to assert their agency. For example, customizing clothing,
repurposing objects, or engaging in do-it-yourself (DIY) practices demonstrate how
consumers challenge market-driven cultural norms. This resistance undermines the
homogenizing tendencies of consumer culture, showing that individuals can actively
negotiate and transform their environments. De Certeau’s work emphasizes the power of
creativity and subtle defiance in reshaping cultural narratives.

8. ICTs and their basic features: digitalization, media convergence, interactivity, virtual
reality, globalization, networks; cooperation, surveillance capitalism, and cyberterrorism
(the internet of things)

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Their Features

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are central to contemporary
cultural and societal dynamics, transforming how individuals and institutions interact,
communicate, and create meaning. The key features of ICTs include:

1. Digitalization
Digitalization refers to the conversion of information into a digital format, enabling storage,
manipulation, and transmission via electronic devices. This process has revolutionized
traditional media, making it more accessible, adaptable, and shareable across global
networks. It underpins innovations such as streaming platforms and e-commerce,
reshaping industries and consumer experiences.

2. Media Convergence
Media convergence describes the blending of various forms of media—print, audio, video,
and digital—into unified platforms. For example, smartphones combine communication,
entertainment, and productivity tools in a single device. This convergence enables seamless
cross-platform content delivery, creating integrated and interactive experiences for users.

3. Interactivity
ICTs enable interactivity, allowing users to actively engage with content and participate in
the communication process. Social media platforms, gaming environments, and digital
 marketing strategies exemplify this shift, where users are no longer passive consumers but
active participants in shaping digital narratives.

4. Virtual Reality (VR)

Virtual reality creates immersive, computer-generated environments, offering new
dimensions of interaction and experience. Applications of VR extend beyond entertainment
into fields such as education, healthcare, and training, demonstrating the potential of ICTs
to transform various domains of life.

5. Globalization and Networks

ICTs facilitate globalization by connecting individuals and institutions across geographical
boundaries. Networks, such as the Internet and the Internet of Things (IoT), enable instant
communication and data exchange, fostering global cooperation in commerce, education,
and innovation. However, this interconnectedness also introduces challenges such as
digital divides and cultural homogenization.

6. Cooperation and Collaboration

Digital platforms support unprecedented levels of cooperation and collaboration. Open-
source projects, crowd-sourced knowledge bases like Wikipedia, and global teamwork
tools such as Slack or Microsoft Teams exemplify how ICTs enable collective action and
knowledge-sharing in real-time.

7. Surveillance Capitalism
ICTs have also enabled surveillance capitalism, a term describing the commodification of
personal data. Companies collect and analyze user behavior to target advertisements and
influence consumer decisions. This practice raises ethical concerns about privacy, consent,
and the concentration of power in the hands of a few dominant tech corporations.

8. Cyberterrorism and the Internet of Things (IoT)

The proliferation of ICTs introduces security risks, including cyberterrorism, where
malicious actors exploit digital vulnerabilities to disrupt systems or spread fear. The IoT,
which connects everyday objects to the internet, further complicates this landscape by
creating additional entry points for cyberattacks, emphasizing the need for robust
cybersecurity measures.

These features illustrate the transformative power of ICTs in reshaping cultural, economic,
and social interactions. While they offer vast opportunities for innovation and connectivity,
they also demand critical reflection on their implications for privacy, equity, and security.

9. The cultural body: distinctive traits of the human body; conceptualizing the nature-divide;
the body in (personal and historical) time, the social construction of the body: hybrid
notions of the body

The Cultural Body: Concepts and Dynamics

The human body has long been a focal point in cultural studies, embodying the
intersections of biology, society, and identity. The study of the "cultural body" explores its
distinctive traits, historical and personal dimensions, and its social constructions.
1. Distinctive Traits of the Human Body
The human body is marked by biological features that distinguish it from other species,
such as bipedal locomotion, complex brain functions, and the ability to use tools and
language. However, cultural studies emphasize that these biological characteristics are not
isolated from social meanings. The human body is a medium through which culture is
expressed, shaped by norms, symbols, and practices.

2. Conceptualizing the Nature-Culture Divide

The body is often discussed in terms of the nature-culture divide, a theoretical framework
that contrasts the biological aspects of the body (nature) with its socially constructed
meanings (culture). This divide highlights how human bodies are not merely natural
entities but are interpreted, disciplined, and transformed by cultural practices. For example,
ideas about beauty, health, and fitness are culturally contingent and vary across societies
and historical periods.

3. The Body in Personal and Historical Time

The human body exists within personal and historical timelines, embodying both
individual experiences and collective histories. Personal time reflects changes in the body
over a lifetime—aging, illness, and physical transformation. Historical time considers how
societal understandings of the body evolve. For instance, ideals of body shape and gender
roles in the Renaissance differ vastly from contemporary perspectives, illustrating how
history shapes bodily norms.

4. The Social Construction of the Body

Cultural studies view the body as a social construct, shaped by societal expectations and
power dynamics. This perspective challenges the notion of the body as a fixed, natural
entity. Michel Foucault, for instance, explores how disciplinary practices (e.g., education,
medicine) regulate bodies, producing "docile" bodies that conform to societal norms.
Representations in media, fashion, and public health campaigns further demonstrate how
bodies are socially defined and regulated.

5. Hybrid Notions of the Body

In contemporary contexts, hybrid notions of the body emerge, blending biological and
technological elements. Advances in biotechnology, prosthetics, and digital augmentation
blur the boundaries between natural and artificial. Cyborgs and biohacked bodies
exemplify this hybridity, reshaping our understanding of human identity and capability.
These hybrid bodies challenge traditional definitions of the body, inviting debates on
ethics, autonomy, and the future of human evolution.

In summary, the human body is a dynamic site where nature and culture converge. It
reflects personal histories, societal norms, and technological transformations, embodying
both continuity and change. The study of the cultural body invites critical reflection on how
we define and interact with the most immediate and universal aspect of human existence:
ourselves.
10. The body politic: body techniques and regulations; the representation of embodiment,
expression and transgression (examples for each from fashion, sports or dietary regimes);
gender (Butler) and the history of sexuality (Foucault)

The Body Politic: Techniques, Representation, and Gendered Discourses

The concept of the body politic refers to the ways in which societies regulate, represent,
and understand the human body, treating it as a site of control, identity, and cultural
expression. Through practices, representations, and theoretical insights, the body is both
governed and used as a medium of resistance.

1. Body Techniques and Regulations

Body techniques are the learned, habitual ways people use and present their bodies, shaped
by cultural and social norms. Sociologist Marcel Mauss emphasizes that these techniques—
such as walking, eating, or exercising—are neither purely natural nor universal but are
socially regulated. For example:
• Fashion: Regulates how bodies should appear, with trends dictating acceptable forms of
self-presentation, such as slim silhouettes in Western fashion.
• Sports: Enforces body discipline through rigorous training, exemplified by athletes
adhering to strict regimens to meet performance standards.
• Dietary Regimes: Shape bodies through societal expectations of health and beauty, such as
the rise of veganism or intermittent fasting as moral and aesthetic choices.
These regulations reflect cultural values and power dynamics, normalizing certain body
practices while marginalizing others.

2. Representation of Embodiment: Expression and Transgression

Representations of embodiment showcase the body as a canvas for cultural norms or as a
site for challenging them.
• Fashion: Expresses identity and status while also allowing transgression. For example,
punk fashion in the 1970s defied mainstream norms through ripped clothing, spiked hair,
and body piercings, symbolizing rebellion.
• Sports: While traditionally a realm of discipline, sports like breakdancing or skateboarding
challenge conventions by blending artistry and athleticism.
• Dietary Regimes: Veganism, beyond being a health choice, transgresses traditional norms
of meat consumption and challenges ethical paradigms about food production.
These expressions highlight the duality of the body as both conforming to and resisting
cultural expectations.

3. Gender and the History of Sexuality

Judith Butler on Gender
Judith Butler argues in Gender Trouble that gender is not an innate quality but a
performative construct. Gender is enacted through repeated behaviors and practices that
conform to societal expectations, creating the illusion of a stable identity. For example,
wearing makeup or adopting specific body postures reinforces gender norms. However,
individuals can subvert these norms through performative acts, such as drag, which
exposes the constructed nature of gender roles.
Michel Foucault on the History of Sexuality
Foucault’s History of Sexuality examines how societies regulate sexuality to maintain power.
He challenges the "repressive hypothesis," suggesting that modern societies do not
 suppress sexuality but instead manage it through discourse, categorization, and
surveillance. For example, Victorian-era norms defined acceptable sexual behavior, creating
identities such as "the homosexual," which became targets of both regulation and liberation
movements. Foucault’s work emphasizes that sexuality is not merely natural but a product
of historical and cultural constructions.

In sum, the body politic operates at the intersection of regulation, representation, and
resistance. Through fashion, sports, and dietary practices, cultural norms are both enforced
and challenged. Theoretical contributions from Butler and Foucault further reveal how
gender and sexuality are intricately tied to societal power structures, shaping and
transforming our understanding of the human body.

11. The history of reading: the rise of the novel; redefining poetry in Romanticism; changes in
setting, character and plot in drama; the shift from intensive to extensive forms of reading

The Rise of the Novel

The novel's ascendancy in the 18th century was closely tied to broader socio-economic and
cultural changes, including the expansion of the middle class, the rise of capitalism, and the
growth of literacy. Unlike earlier literary forms, novels catered to individual readers, often
in private settings, reflecting their personal lives, aspirations, and moral concerns. This
form emphasized realism, exploring detailed character development and social
environments. Authors such as Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry Fielding
pioneered works that delved into psychological depth and everyday life, resonating with
an audience eager for narratives that mirrored their world. The novel also became a tool for
exploring themes of identity, morality, and the rapidly changing social order, making it a
cornerstone of modern literary culture.

Redefining Poetry in Romanticism

During the Romantic period, poetry underwent a significant redefinition. Romantic poets
like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, and Keats emphasized imagination, emotion, and the
sublime, moving away from the rigid neoclassical traditions that prioritized order and
reason. Literature became a vehicle for exploring inner consciousness and subjective
experience. Wordsworth, for instance, celebrated the ordinary and the rural, finding
profound beauty in nature and human emotion. The Romantics argued for poetry as a
reflection of universal truths and individual creativity, marking a shift toward a more
introspective and expressive literary style that challenged utilitarian and industrial
ideologies of the time.

Changes in Setting, Character, and Plot in Drama

Drama also evolved in response to changing societal contexts and artistic priorities. In
earlier forms, such as Elizabethan drama, settings were often grand and characters larger
than life, reflecting universal archetypes. By the 19th century, under influences like realism
and later naturalism, drama began to focus on ordinary people and everyday scenarios,
often in domestic or socially relevant contexts. This shift brought characters closer to real
human experiences, making them complex and psychologically nuanced. Plots moved
away from grandiose conflicts or moral allegories to explore interpersonal relationships
and societal issues, reflecting the pressures and intricacies of modern life.
 The Shift from Intensive to Extensive Forms of Reading
The history of reading itself reveals a cultural transformation. In pre-modern times, reading
was often intensive, with a small number of texts—such as religious scriptures—read
repeatedly and deeply. This practice emphasized memorization and contemplation. With
the advent of print culture and widespread literacy, reading transitioned to an extensive
form. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the proliferation of books, newspapers, and
periodicals, enabling people to consume a greater variety of texts. Reading became a more
individualistic and recreational activity, driven by curiosity and the availability of
affordable printed material, reshaping the reader’s engagement with text and fostering a
diverse literary culture.

These developments collectively highlight the dynamic interplay between literature and
society. The rise of new literary forms, evolving definitions of art, and changes in reading
practices reflect the shifting cultural, economic, and intellectual landscapes of their times.
Eagleton’s analysis underscores how literature has continually adapted to and influenced
human experience, leaving a profound legacy on cultural consciousness.

12. The emergence of English literature as an academic subject: objectives for teaching Englit;
histories of Englit in the UK and the US; early curricula

The emergence of English literature as an academic subject was deeply intertwined with
broader cultural, political, and ideological goals. Terry Eagleton’s Literary Theory: An
Introduction provides insight into how English literature was institutionalized, particularly
in the United Kingdom and the United States, revealing the motivations and frameworks
that shaped its early development. Let us explore the objectives of teaching English
literature, its histories in the UK and the US, and its early curricula.

Objectives for Teaching English Literature

The institutionalization of English literature as an academic discipline in the 19th century
arose out of the need to address moral, social, and cultural concerns, particularly in a
rapidly industrializing and socially stratified society. One central objective was to cultivate
moral character and cultural refinement, especially among the middle and working classes.
Literature was seen as a vehicle for instilling national pride, fostering shared cultural
values, and promoting a sense of unity in a society increasingly divided by class tensions.
Matthew Arnold, one of the leading proponents of English literature’s educational value,
argued that literature could provide spiritual and ethical guidance in an age where
religion's influence was waning. The study of literature aimed to create well-rounded
individuals by encouraging empathy, critical thinking, and an appreciation for the aesthetic
and moral dimensions of life. English literature, as Eagleton notes, was often positioned as
an antidote to political extremism, encouraging harmony and moderation through its
"universal" values.

Histories of English Literature in the UK and the US

In the UK, English literature emerged as a formal subject during the late 19th century,
primarily as a response to the decline of religious authority and the need for a new form of
ideological cohesion. Universities such as Oxford and Cambridge initially resisted
 incorporating English into their curricula, as classical studies (Latin and Greek) dominated
the intellectual landscape. However, as literature gained recognition, it was used to
promote the cultural and moral superiority of the British Empire. English literature served
as a tool to educate the elite, while also being used in colonial education systems to impose
British values on colonized societies.
In the US, English literature developed as an academic discipline slightly later, gaining
prominence in the early 20th century. American universities incorporated English studies
as part of a broader liberal arts education aimed at fostering civic responsibility and
democratic ideals. Unlike the UK, where English literature was tied closely to national
identity and imperialism, in the US, it played a role in shaping a distinctly American
cultural identity. The teaching of literature in the US often emphasized practical and
democratic values, aligning with the country’s egalitarian ethos.

Early Curricula
The early curricula of English literature in both the UK and the US reflected the ideological
underpinnings of the discipline. In the UK, the focus was on canonical texts that
exemplified moral and aesthetic ideals. Works by Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and
other major figures were emphasized, often at the expense of more diverse or
contemporary voices. The study of English literature was rooted in the "Great Books"
tradition, which sought to elevate timeless works as embodiments of universal human
experience.
In the US, early curricula were similarly centered on canonical works, but they also
incorporated American writers such as Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman to build a distinct
national literary tradition. There was also a focus on rhetoric and composition, reflecting
the practical needs of students in a society where communication skills were increasingly
valued.
Both traditions initially excluded women, non-European writers, and marginalized
perspectives, though these have gradually been integrated into more inclusive curricula.
This shift reflects changing social values and the recognition of literature’s role in
representing diverse voices and experiences.

Conclusion
The emergence of English literature as an academic subject was deeply shaped by the
cultural and political contexts of the UK and the US. Its objectives—to cultivate morality,
foster cultural identity, and promote social harmony—were reflected in the curricula,
which prioritized canonical texts and aesthetic ideals. As the discipline evolved, so did its
scope, encompassing a broader range of voices and critical perspectives. This development
underscores the dynamic nature of English studies and its capacity to adapt to the needs
and values of society.

13. Literary form: theoretical foundations of formalisms (structuralist linguistics, model of

linguistic communication, fallacies of interpretation); speech act theory

The study of literary form has undergone significant theoretical development, shaped by
the emergence of formalism, structuralist linguistics, and related methodologies. These
approaches offer valuable insights into the ways literary texts communicate meaning and
challenge interpretative practices. Let us explore the theoretical foundations of formalism,
 the linguistic models it employs, the fallacies it critiques, and the role of speech act theory
in understanding literary communication.

Theoretical Foundations of Formalism

Formalism emerged in the early 20th century, particularly through the work of Russian
Formalists like Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson. Its central concern was to analyze
the form of literary texts—their structures, devices, and techniques—independently of
historical, biographical, or sociological considerations. Literature, for Formalists, was
defined by its "literariness" (the specific use of language that distinguishes it from other
forms of discourse).
Formalism drew heavily on structuralist linguistics, particularly the ideas of Ferdinand de
Saussure. Saussure's distinction between langue (the structured system of language) and
parole (individual speech acts) provided a model for analyzing literature as a self-contained
system. This systematic approach aimed to uncover the rules governing literary
production, focusing on patterns of sound, syntax, narrative, and metaphor.
The emphasis on form challenged traditional interpretations that sought meaning through
the author’s intention or a text’s moral message. Instead, Formalists argued for the
autonomy of the literary text, prioritizing its internal structures and devices.

Structuralist Linguistics and the Model of Linguistic Communication

Structuralism extended Formalist principles by applying Saussurean linguistics to broader
cultural phenomena, including literature. Structuralists like Claude Lévi-Strauss and
Roland Barthes viewed texts as part of a larger system of signs. They explored how
meaning arises not from isolated elements but from their relationships within the system.
In the model of linguistic communication, Roman Jakobson expanded Saussure’s insights
to identify six components: the sender, message, receiver, code, context, and contact. This
model highlighted the complexity of communication, situating the literary text as a message
that relies on a shared code (language) and context (cultural or situational factors) to convey
meaning. Literature was analyzed as a special use of the linguistic system, marked by its
heightened focus on the message itself (the poetic function).

Fallacies of Interpretation
Formalism and structuralism critique several interpretative fallacies that distort the
understanding of literary form and meaning:
1. Intentional Fallacy: This fallacy, articulated by W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley,
challenges the reliance on the author’s intention as a guide to interpretation. For Formalists,
the text’s meaning lies in its structure, not in the subjective intentions of its creator.
2. Affective Fallacy: This critique warns against equating a text’s meaning with the emotional
response it elicits from readers. Literary analysis, Formalists argue, should focus on the text
itself, not its effects on the audience.
3. Biographical Fallacy: This error involves interpreting a text through the life or personality
of its author, a method rejected by Formalists who prioritized the autonomy of the text.
By rejecting these fallacies, Formalism and structuralism emphasize the importance of
analyzing the objective properties of the text rather than external factors.

Speech Act Theory

Speech act theory, developed by philosophers J.L. Austin and John Searle, provides an
alternative framework for understanding how language functions in literature. Austin’s
 distinction between locutionary (literal meaning), illocutionary (intended function), and
perlocutionary (effect on the audience) acts reveals the layered complexity of
communication. Literature often engages in indirect or non-literal speech acts, requiring
readers to interpret beyond surface meanings.
For example, a poem might perform an illocutionary act of expressing love or lamenting
loss, but it also challenges readers to navigate the interplay of form, metaphor, and rhythm
to uncover deeper meanings. Speech act theory thus bridges the gap between Formalist
attention to language and structuralist emphasis on systems, adding a pragmatic dimension
to the study of literary form.

Conclusion
The study of literary form, as developed through formalism, structuralist linguistics, and
speech act theory, offers a rich theoretical framework for analyzing texts. By focusing on
language, structure, and communicative function, these approaches challenge reductive
interpretations and illuminate the complex mechanisms through which literature conveys
meaning. Together, they provide tools for appreciating the unique nature of literary
discourse and its capacity to engage readers in dynamic acts of interpretation.

14. Literary form: Jakobson’s poetic function; Genette’s narrative grammar; the idea of close
reading and organic unity

The concept of literary form has been enriched by various theoretical contributions,
including Roman Jakobson's poetic function, Gérard Genette's narrative grammar, and the
practice of close reading with its emphasis on organic unity. These approaches highlight
different dimensions of how literature is structured, interpreted, and appreciated.

Jakobson’s Poetic Function

Roman Jakobson’s model of linguistic communication identifies six functions of language,
among which the poetic function is central to literature. The poetic function emphasizes the
message itself, focusing on the ways language draws attention to its own form and
structure. In literary texts, this self-referential use of language creates aesthetic effects and
intensifies meaning.
For example, poetic devices like rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, and metaphor foreground the
materiality of language. A line of poetry might compel the reader to notice its sound
patterns or syntactic arrangement, thereby enhancing its emotional or intellectual impact.
Jakobson argued that the poetic function operates in a mode distinct from the referential
function of everyday communication, where the primary goal is to convey information.
By centering the poetic function, Jakobson aligned with Formalist ideas, asserting that
literariness lies in the manipulation of language to achieve effects beyond ordinary usage.
This perspective underscores literature’s creative and transformative potential.

Genette’s Narrative Grammar

Gérard Genette, a structuralist theorist, introduced a detailed framework for analyzing
narrative structure in his work on narrative grammar. Genette’s model distinguishes
between story (the chronological sequence of events), narrative (the representation of those
events), and narration (the act of telling the story). His framework examines how narratives
are organized and presented through various techniques:
1. Order: Refers to the sequencing of events. Genette explores how narratives manipulate
chronology through flashbacks (analepsis) and foreshadowing (prolepsis).
2. Duration: Focuses on the relationship between the time of the story and the time of its
narration, analyzing techniques like summary, ellipsis, and descriptive pauses.
3. Frequency: Considers how often an event is narrated. For example, an event may be
recounted multiple times or only once, with varying effects on the reader.
4. Focalization: Examines the perspective through which the story is told, distinguishing
between who perceives the events (focalizer) and who narrates them.
5. Voice: Investigates the narratorial presence, including whether the narrator is external to
the story or a participant within it.
Genette’s narrative grammar provides a toolkit for dissecting the mechanics of storytelling,
revealing how literary texts construct meaning through their form and structure. This
approach emphasizes the role of narrative techniques in shaping readers’ engagement with
and interpretation of a story.

Close Reading and Organic Unity

Close reading is a critical practice associated with the New Criticism, which emphasizes
detailed textual analysis to uncover the meaning and coherence of a literary work. It
involves examining elements like imagery, symbolism, tone, structure, and word choice to
demonstrate how these aspects contribute to the work’s overall effect.
The concept of organic unity—central to New Criticism—suggests that a successful literary
work functions as a cohesive whole, where all parts are interdependent and contribute to
the work’s meaning. This idea draws on a metaphor from nature: just as a living organism
achieves harmony through the integration of its parts, so too does a well-crafted text.
For instance, in analyzing a poem, close reading might reveal how its metaphors align with
its themes, how its rhythm complements its mood, or how its structure reflects its central
argument. By focusing solely on the text, New Critics sought to avoid the "fallacies" of
interpretation, such as relying on authorial intent or reader response.
Despite criticisms that close reading can ignore broader social or historical contexts, its
legacy endures in literary studies, where textual analysis remains a fundamental skill.

Conclusion
Jakobson’s poetic function, Genette’s narrative grammar, and the practice of close reading
with its emphasis on organic unity each offer unique perspectives on literary form.
Jakobson foregrounds the artistry of language, Genette dissects the architecture of
storytelling, and close reading emphasizes textual coherence and interconnectedness.
Together, these approaches illuminate the intricate ways in which literary works create
meaning and engage their audiences.

15. Critical approaches to (literary) form(alism): feminist narratology, Culler structuralist

description of reading; de Man’s difference between grammar and rhetoric

Critical approaches to literary form have evolved significantly, challenging and expanding
traditional formalist perspectives. Feminist narratology, Jonathan Culler’s structuralist
account of reading, and Paul de Man’s distinction between grammar and rhetoric each
provide nuanced ways of engaging with and critiquing formalism’s assumptions. These
 approaches illuminate how form interacts with broader interpretive frameworks, including
gender, reading practices, and the instability of language.

Feminist Narratology
Feminist narratology combines insights from structuralist narratology with feminist theory
to analyze how gender shapes narrative forms and reading practices. Early narratology, as
developed by figures like Gérard Genette, focused on universal principles governing
narrative structure, often neglecting the influence of social and cultural contexts. Feminist
narratology critiques this neutrality, arguing that narrative form is not purely abstract but
embedded in gendered ideologies.
Susan Lanser, a key figure in feminist narratology, highlights how narrative voice,
focalization, and plot structures can reflect and reinforce gender hierarchies. For instance, a
first-person female narrator might be positioned as less authoritative or reliable than her
male counterpart, reflecting societal biases about gender and credibility. Feminist
narratologists examine how these narrative techniques encode power dynamics and
interrogate the ways stories by and about women disrupt conventional forms.
By integrating gender as a critical lens, feminist narratology reveals the ideological
underpinnings of narrative forms and challenges the supposed universality of traditional
formalist approaches.

Culler’s Structuralist Description of Reading

Jonathan Culler’s structuralist theory of reading shifts attention from texts as static objects
to the dynamic processes through which meaning is constructed by readers. In Structuralist
Poetics, Culler argues that reading involves an interplay of linguistic and cultural codes that
shape interpretation. He emphasizes that meaning is not inherent in the text but arises from
readers’ engagement with it, guided by conventions and interpretive strategies.
Culler identifies several key concepts:
1. Literary Competence: Readers bring an implicit knowledge of literary conventions to the
act of reading, which allows them to interpret plot structures, character motivations, and
thematic patterns.
2. Naturalization: The process by which readers make sense of texts by assimilating
unfamiliar or complex elements into familiar frameworks. For example, readers might
interpret surreal imagery by mapping it onto psychological or symbolic meanings.
3. Reading as a Structured Activity: Culler views reading as a system of signification, akin to
Saussure’s model of language. Readers decode signs within a network of cultural and
linguistic conventions, highlighting the relational nature of meaning.
Culler’s approach critiques formalist assumptions of a single, determinate meaning
embedded in the text, instead emphasizing the collaborative role of readers in constructing
meaning.

De Man’s Difference Between Grammar and Rhetoric

Paul de Man, a key figure in deconstruction, critiques formalist approaches by exposing the
tensions and contradictions within literary texts. His distinction between grammar and
rhetoric is central to his analysis of form.
1. Grammar: Refers to the literal, syntactic structure of a text. It involves the rules and
patterns of language that produce clear, stable meanings.
2. Rhetoric: Involves the figurative and persuasive dimensions of language, which often
destabilize meaning through ambiguity, irony, or contradiction.
 De Man demonstrates that rhetoric can undermine the grammatical clarity of a text,
creating interpretive aporias—moments where meaning becomes undecidable. For
example, a metaphor might suggest multiple, conflicting interpretations, resisting the
formalist goal of uncovering a singular meaning.
This tension between grammar and rhetoric challenges the Formalist ideal of a text as a
coherent, self-contained system. De Man argues that the very tools of literary analysis—
language itself—are inherently unstable, complicating attempts to pin down meaning.

Conclusion
Feminist narratology, Culler’s structuralist description of reading, and de Man’s
deconstructive analysis each offer critical perspectives that challenge and extend traditional
formalist approaches. Feminist narratology interrogates the gendered assumptions
underlying narrative structures, while Culler highlights the active role of readers in
constructing meaning through cultural codes. De Man’s exploration of grammar and
rhetoric exposes the inherent instability of language, revealing the limits of formalist
coherence. Together, these approaches underscore the complexity and richness of literary
form, demonstrating its inextricable ties to cultural, ideological, and linguistic contexts.

16. Questions of literary context: biographical, historical, social, political; questions of

production, circulation, and production; questions of media specificity and awareness

The context of literature plays a vital role in shaping its meaning, interpretation, and
impact. Literary works are not isolated artifacts but emerge from and engage with their
historical, social, political, and cultural environments. Exploring questions of context
reveals the interplay between a work's production, its circulation, the medium through
which it is expressed, and the broader systems of power and meaning in which it
participates.

Biographical, Historical, Social, and Political Contexts

Literary context often begins with biographical and historical analysis, examining how a
writer’s life, time, and circumstances influence their work. For example:
1. Biographical Context: Understanding the life experiences of an author can illuminate
themes or perspectives in their work. For instance, Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s personal
struggles with mental health profoundly inform the psychological intensity of The Yellow
Wallpaper. However, relying solely on biographical interpretation risks reducing a work to a
reflection of the author's life, an approach critiqued by Formalists.
2. Historical Context: Literature is deeply embedded in its historical moment, shaped by and
responding to the cultural and political events of its time. Dickens's novels, for instance,
reflect and critique the socio-economic realities of 19th-century industrial England, while
Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart explores the colonial history of Nigeria and its
consequences for indigenous culture.
3. Social and Political Contexts: Works are shaped by social structures and ideologies, often
interrogating or reinforcing power dynamics. Feminist readings of Jane Austen’s novels, for
example, highlight how they engage with issues of gender roles, class, and economic
dependence, while postcolonial readings of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness critique its
complicity in colonialist ideologies.
 Questions of Production, Circulation, and Reception
The material and cultural conditions of a work’s production and circulation influence its
meaning and reach:
1. Production: This includes the conditions under which a work is created, such as the
technologies of printing or the constraints of patronage. For instance, Shakespeare’s plays
were shaped by the expectations of Elizabethan theater audiences and the practical
limitations of stage production.
2. Circulation: How a text moves through society, including its modes of distribution and the
audiences it reaches, affects its reception and interpretation. The serialization of novels like
Dickens’s Great Expectations created a communal, anticipatory reading experience, shaping
how readers engaged with the story.
3. Reception: Reader response evolves over time, influenced by changing cultural values and
interpretive frameworks. A work like The Great Gatsby gained greater cultural prominence
in the decades following its publication, as its themes of the American Dream resonated
with later generations.

Media Specificity and Awareness

The medium through which literature is created and experienced plays a critical role in
shaping its form and meaning:
1. Print vs. Oral Traditions: The transition from oral to print cultures profoundly altered how
literature was created and consumed. Oral epics like Homer’s Iliad relied on mnemonic
devices and communal performance, whereas the novel, as a product of print culture,
emphasizes interiority and individual engagement.
2. Adaptations and New Media: The rise of film, television, and digital media has
transformed how literary texts are adapted and consumed. For example, cinematic
adaptations of Austen’s Pride and Prejudice bring new visual and cultural dimensions to the
novel, influencing how audiences understand its characters and themes.
3. Digital Literature: The advent of e-books, hypertext fiction, and interactive storytelling has
expanded the possibilities of literary production and interpretation. Works like Mark Z.
Danielewski’s House of Leaves play with the affordances of print and digital media,
highlighting how form and medium influence literary experience.

Conclusion
Questions of literary context—biographical, historical, social, and political—enrich our
understanding of how works engage with their environments. Examining production,
circulation, and reception reveals the dynamic processes that bring literature into cultural
life. Finally, media specificity highlights the transformative effects of technology on literary
forms and practices. Together, these considerations emphasize that literature is not a static
artifact but a living, evolving interaction between text, creator, and audience within specific
cultural and material contexts.

17. Questions of (literary) history: (literary) history as a narrative; notions of time; race, class,
and gender as shaping texts and histories of them

The study of literary history involves analyzing the interplay between texts, their temporal
contexts, and the broader narratives that scholars construct to frame their significance.
Literary history is far from a neutral recounting of the past; it is shaped by underlying
 ideologies, including those related to race, class, and gender. These factors not only
influence the production of texts but also shape how literary histories are written, revised,
and contested. Below, we examine these dimensions in detail.

Literary History as a Narrative

Literary history is often framed as a narrative, structured around specific periods,
movements, or genres. These narratives create coherence and meaning by emphasizing
particular texts, authors, or events while excluding others. For example:
1. The Canon and Its Implications: Traditional literary histories have focused on a narrowly
defined canon of "great" works, predominantly authored by white, male, Western writers.
This approach elevates certain texts as emblematic of their times while marginalizing
others, reinforcing power structures within literary and cultural studies.
2. Contestation of Dominant Narratives: New Historicist and postcolonial approaches
challenge the linear, progress-driven narratives of traditional literary history. By
foregrounding previously overlooked voices and texts, these perspectives emphasize that
literary history is not an objective record but a contested space shaped by cultural and
ideological priorities.
3. Narrative Tropes: Literary history often employs tropes such as "golden ages" or "declines,"
which frame certain periods as either flourishing creatively or degenerating. Such tropes
can obscure the complexity of literary production across diverse contexts.

Notions of Time in Literary History

The concept of time plays a pivotal role in how literary histories are constructed and
understood. Different theoretical approaches offer varied perspectives on time’s influence:
1. Chronological Progression: Traditional literary histories often adopt a linear, chronological
structure, emphasizing development over time—from, for example, medieval allegory to
Renaissance humanism, and from Romanticism to Modernism. This approach can obscure
overlaps, continuities, and the coexistence of diverse forms of literary expression.
2. Temporal Relativity: Poststructuralist and deconstructive theories question linear time,
emphasizing how literature disrupts conventional temporal frameworks. For instance,
Modernist works like James Joyce's Ulysses experiment with non-linear narrative structures,
reflecting fragmented or subjective experiences of time.
3. Intersections of Past and Present: In postcolonial and feminist literary histories, time is
seen as cyclical or multilayered. Such approaches explore how past injustices related to
race, class, or gender persist into the present and inform ongoing struggles, as seen in
works like Toni Morrison’s Beloved, which interrogates the enduring legacy of slavery.

Race, Class, and Gender in Shaping Texts and Their Histories

The production and reception of literary texts—and the histories written about them—are
profoundly shaped by systems of race, class, and gender. These factors determine whose
voices are amplified, whose stories are told, and how those stories are interpreted over
time.
1. Race: Traditional literary histories have often marginalized writers of color, situating their
works as peripheral or representative of niche categories (e.g., African American literature,
postcolonial literature). Critics like Edward Said in Orientalism have highlighted how racial
hierarchies are embedded in Western literary traditions, shaping both texts and their
critical reception. The inclusion of voices such as James Baldwin, Chinua Achebe, and
Jhumpa Lahiri challenges these hierarchies and reshapes literary history.
2. Class: Class influences both the content of literary texts and their historical reception. For
example, works like Charles Dickens’s Hard Times critique the conditions of the working
class in industrial England, but their prominence in literary history reflects the middle-class
readership for which they were written. Marxist literary criticism underscores how class
struggles shape not only texts but also the production and consumption of literature.
3. Gender: The historical exclusion of women writers from literary canons reflects broader
systems of patriarchy. Feminist scholarship has recovered the works of authors like Mary
Wollstonecraft, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Virginia Woolf, arguing for their centrality
in literary history. Additionally, gender studies have highlighted how texts written by men
often perpetuate gendered norms, while women’s writing frequently challenges or subverts
these constructions.

Conclusion
Literary history is not a neutral recounting of texts and their contexts; it is shaped by
narratives, notions of time, and the intersecting forces of race, class, and gender. By
interrogating these factors, scholars uncover the power dynamics that govern whose voices
are remembered, whose stories are told, and how they are interpreted. This critical
engagement not only reshapes our understanding of the past but also informs the ongoing
project of creating a more inclusive and equitable literary history.

18. The analysis of a canonical piece of English/American literature (novel, poem, drama) of
your choice

For this analysis, I’ve chosen F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925), one of the most
iconic works of American literature. This novel is a powerful exploration of the American
Dream, social stratification, and moral decay during the Jazz Age. Its rich symbolism,
complex characters, and stylistic elegance make it an enduring subject of literary analysis.
Below, I’ll analyze the novel through key themes, characters, and literary techniques.

Themes: The American Dream and Its Corruption

At its heart, The Great Gatsby critiques the American Dream—the idea that anyone, through
hard work and ambition, can achieve success and self-fulfillment. Gatsby’s relentless
pursuit of wealth and status symbolizes the dream’s allure. His lavish parties, extravagant
mansion, and obsession with Daisy Buchanan reflect his belief that material success will
bring him love and happiness.
However, Fitzgerald exposes the hollowness of this dream. Gatsby’s wealth is rooted in
illegal activities, and Daisy, the object of his desire, embodies the moral emptiness of the
elite class. The novel’s tragic conclusion underscores the futility of Gatsby’s pursuit and
highlights how the American Dream has been corrupted by greed and superficial values.

Characters: Layers of Complexity

1. Jay Gatsby: Gatsby is both a self-made man and a tragic idealist. Born James Gatz, he
reinvents himself as a wealthy socialite, constructing an identity that embodies the
American Dream. Yet his idealism, particularly his belief in reclaiming the past with Daisy,
leads to his downfall. Gatsby’s character oscillates between grand romanticism and
profound loneliness, making him one of American literature’s most enigmatic figures.
2. Daisy Buchanan: Daisy represents the unattainable dream. While Gatsby idealizes her as
the perfect embodiment of love and wealth, she is revealed as shallow and self-centered.
Her voice, described as "full of money," symbolizes her allure and the privilege that isolates
her from accountability.
3. Nick Carraway: As the narrator, Nick occupies a complex position. While he initially
admires Gatsby, he grows disillusioned with the materialism and moral vacuity of the East
Egg elite. Nick’s reflective, almost voyeuristic stance invites readers to question his
reliability and biases as a storyteller.
4. Tom Buchanan: Tom represents the brutality of inherited wealth. His aggressive behavior,
racism, and infidelity expose the darker aspects of privilege. Unlike Gatsby, Tom’s wealth
shields him from consequences, highlighting the inequities of the social hierarchy.

Literary Techniques: Crafting Meaning

1. Symbolism:
o The Green Light: Located at the end of Daisy’s dock, the green light represents
Gatsby’s hopes and dreams. It symbolizes the future he yearns for but can never
fully attain, reflecting the broader elusiveness of the American Dream.
o The Eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg: These faded billboard eyes loom over the
desolate Valley of Ashes, serving as a haunting metaphor for judgment and the
spiritual emptiness of the characters’ lives.
o The Valley of Ashes: This bleak, industrial wasteland contrasts sharply with the
opulence of Gatsby’s world, symbolizing the social and economic decay beneath the
surface of American prosperity.
2. Narrative Perspective:
o Fitzgerald employs Nick Carraway as a first-person narrator, providing a filtered
lens through which the story unfolds. Nick’s observations are tinged with both
admiration and disillusionment, creating a tension between the romanticism of
Gatsby’s vision and the harsh realities of the world around him.
3. Imagery and Style:
o Fitzgerald’s lyrical prose captures the decadence of the Jazz Age. His use of rich,
sensory imagery conveys both the allure and the grotesqueness of the characters’
lives. For instance, his descriptions of Gatsby’s parties evoke a vibrant chaos that
mirrors the hedonism of the 1920s.

Historical and Social Context

Set during the Roaring Twenties, The Great Gatsby reflects the era’s cultural and economic
shifts. The post-World War I boom brought unprecedented wealth, but also widespread
inequality and disillusionment. Fitzgerald captures the spirit of this age, critiquing its
materialism and loss of moral compass. The novel’s depiction of class divides—between
East Egg’s old money, West Egg’s nouveau riche, and the impoverished Valley of Ashes—
underscores the rigid social hierarchies that the American Dream purportedly sought to
overcome.

Conclusion
The Great Gatsby endures as a masterpiece of American literature because it probes timeless
questions about ambition, identity, and morality. Through its richly drawn characters,
evocative symbolism, and critique of the American Dream, the novel invites readers to
reflect on their own desires and the values of the society in which they live. Its layered
complexity ensures its continued relevance, making it a touchstone for discussions of
literature, history, and culture.