Source of Acquisition

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Plasma Physics Applied, Research Signpost 6/1/06

A Survey of Plasmas and Their Applications

QSS Group, Inc., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
and Plasmas International, Silver Spring, Maryland USA

Running Title: Plasma Applications Survey

Plasmas are everywhere and relevant to everyone. We bath in a sea of photons, quanta of
electromagnetic radiation, whose sources (natural and artificial) are dominantly plasma-based (stars,
fluorescent lights, arc lamps.. .). Plasma surface modification and materials processing contribute
increasingly to a wide array of modern artifacts; e.g., tiny plasma discharge elements constitute the
pixel arrays of plasma televisions and plasma processing provides roughly one-third of the steps to
produce semiconductors, essential elements of our networking and computing infkastructure. Finally,
plasmas are central to many cutting edge technologies with high potential (compact high-energy
particle accelerators; plasma-enhanced waste processors; high tolerance surface preparation and multi-
fuel preprocessors for transportation systems; fusion for energy production).

INTRODUCTION

Instead of considering plasmas as simply a fourth (dominant, natw-ally-occurring) state of matter,

Table 1. Plasmas as a dominant, naturally-occurring natural system.

Occurrence percentages (estimated by mass ) for each system type are listed when considering the
cosmos at large, the Earth system [solid earth (with outer core as “liquid”), ocean, atmosphere, and
geospace or nearby space plasmas], and our immediate environment [roughly weighted by human
interaction with the land, waterways, and lower atmosphere}. This table illustrates why plasmas, to
date, have had little impact in human consciousness, the evening news, or even research investment;
they are a small percentage of the immediate human environment. However, we would not even
receive that news without electromagnetic and plasma systems. The impact of electromagnetic systems
generally on human society is clearly evident when we consider how they constitute a high percentage
of our global communications, computational, networking, and lighting infrastructure. This impact
suggests the long-term potential of research and applications of electromagnetic and plasma systems
overall.

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 PLASMAS - MORE THAN IONIZED GAS

Plasmas are often described as simply an ionized c‘gas,’’but this definition is too limited to account for
actual usage in contemporary research such as for quasi-crystal plasmas that go beyond standard
gas/solid distinctions. Historically, the term ccgas”is associated with neutral systems or, more
generally, with Navier-Stokes (fluid) systems. In contrast, plasmas most inclusively are ensembles of
neutrals, ions, electrons, electric and magnetic fields, which can carry a current and exhibit collective
effects [ 11.

A technical definition of a plasma is given in most texts [1,2,3,4] and conveniently summarized in
terms of the plasma parameter A [4, 51. A represents the number of particles in a Debye sphere, which
is the domain over which an ion’s electric field has direct influence on other particles. For plasma
conditions to apply, the mean time between collisions is typically long compared to the plasma
oscillation period. And since the Debye length is proportional to the inverse square root of density,
“the more particles in a Debye sphere the less dense the plasma” [4, p. 111For values of A >> 1, the
plasma is weakly coupled, electrostatic perturbations are intermittent, and the plasma is typically hot
and diffuse. Most fusion, space and laboratory plasmas are weakly coupled plasmas. Strongly coupled
plasmas have A < 1, electrostatic influence is continuous, and the plasma is typically relatively cold
and dense. Examples are laser-cooled ions, laser ablation plasmas, arc discharges, neutron stars
atmospheres, and plasma balls.

The new field of high energy density (HED) physics, including inertial confmement fusion and high-
energy astrophysics, is the study of collective properties of matter under extremes in density and
temperature [6]. HED studies to date are primarily focused on plasmas where the mediating force is the
electrodynamic force. For hypothesized quark-gluon plasmas, the mediating force is instead the strong
nuclear force and such “plasma” would be a phase of quantum chromodynamics.

Plasmas (here mediated by the electrodynamic force) have the following characteristics:

0 collective effects (functioning due to field interactions as an integrated system, and not
just as a sum of neutral and charged particles)
0 multi-scale (examples span almost the full time, space, and energy ranges known to
modem science)
0 filamentation (striations or inhomogeneous alignment naturally emerges in many plasma
systems such as aurorae)
0 directionality {conduction channels are aligned or directional, e.g., lightning)
0 conductive (the ability to carry current partly defines plasmas)
0 interactivity (the multi-scale, multiply interactive features of many space plasma systems
are similar to home wiring; disrupting part of the circuit can impact the whole system)

In contrast to fluids (neutral gas and liquids), which can be represented using the Navier-Stokes fluid
equations [l, p. 561, a full understanding of plasmas require Boltzmann’s dynamical equation for
mixed neutral and ionized media with the addition of electric and magnetic fields, which require
Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations. In a fluid-like approximation, this formalism can be converted
to that of magnetohydrodynamics (MI-ID) [7], which is a very powerful and useful approximation for

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 many plasma conditions provided that kinetic processes can be neglected, and that all relevant spatial
scales are large compared to the ion gyroradius. Extending such approximations to the neglect of both
fields and ionized particles enables a retrieval of the Navier-Stokes equations for neutral fluids. Given
this context, it is incorrect to treat plasmas as merely a type of “gas.” With qualification and for
educational purposes, it is often useful to characterize plasmas as “ionized gas,” but such usage can
easily lead to incorrect results in research applications.

Wave modes represent one example of the contrast between neutral gases and plasmas. For gases,
there is just one type of wave - acoustic waves. In contrast, due to additional parameters from ionized
particles, electric and magnetic fields, plasmas have a large number of wave modes. Although any
given plasma medium sustains not more than about 3-8 wave modes at a time, there are more than 40
types of plasmas waves overall. The complexity of plasmas, both in wave and instability modes,
contributed greatly to the complexity of the fusion energy research program. Early optimistic claims
were based more on experience from research on fluid systems; in contrast, contemporary fusion ‘
studies have fmally succeeded in confronting this complexity although, as always, ongoing reseirch
support is essential for success in fusion.

The following brief survey of plasma applications is divided into two sections focused, respectively, on
naturally-occurring plasmas and artificial plasmas. Each of these, in turn, can be distinguished by the
following contrasts:

o thermal vs. nonthermal (In a thermal plasma, small values of electric field compared to
pressure result in similar ion and electron temperatures; in contrast, the more general
condition of different ion and electron temperatures corresponds to a nonthermal plasma
[8, P. 61.
o equilibrium vs. nonequilibrium (Nonthermal plasmas are generally nonequilibrium
plasmas, and thermal plasmas are in equilibrium - “Thermal plasmas are usually more
powerful, while nonthermal plasmas are more selective.” [8, p- 61
o quasi-neutral vs. non-neutral (On multi-Debye scale, most plasmas are very closely
neutral although not neutral on less than Debye scale - thus quasi-neutral; special
laboratory conditions enable the study of nonneutral plasmas which are nonneutral on
macroscopic scale.)

Once again, let us recall that plasmas are ensembles of neutrals, ions, electrons, electric and magnetic
fields, which can carry a current and exhibit collective effects. Thus, what defines plasmas is a
“potentialify” (to carry current) and some “emergent” process (to exhibit collective effects). Unlike
most examples of solids, liquids and gases, plasmas are more naturally characterized in terms of
functionality and process rather than substance or “thing” language [9].

NATURALLY-OCCURRING PLASMAS

To emphasize how pervasive plasmas are throughout the universe, Dr. Anthony Peratt coined the
metaphor “Plasma Universe’’ and wrote a book by that same title [101. Nobel prize winner Hannes
Alfi6n, who originated MHD theory, adopted this same title for his popular physics today article [111
based in part on personal discussions with Dr. Peratt. Finally, this same theme is featured in a brochure
on “The Pervasive Plasma State” published by the Division of Plasma Physics of the American

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 Physical Society [12]. As an example of how pervasive plasmas are, Figure 1 shows a cluster of stars
and plasma filaments within the Tarantula Nebula, which is dominated by plasma sources.

Figure 1. Hodge 301 Cluster within the Tarantula Nebula (source: NASA)

Modern astronomy or space science is made up of four interdisciplinary fields: space physics,
planetary science, astrophysics and cosmology. In addition to Earth system science, these fields
constitute the full range of understanding about our universe at large. In turn,each of these broad fields
has a special non-universal focus. Space physics (or ‘cheliophysics”)is the study of the origin,
evolution, and interactions of particles and fields throughout the solar system and beyond where direct
in situ observation and remote sensing can be applied, but not including the study of planets, moons
and asteroids and their immediate neutral atmospheres (planetary science) or the Earth system (Earth
system science). Astrophysics is the study of distant astronomical systems, primarily through remote
sensing. Studies of the sun as a star are part of astrophysics; studies of the sun as such or as the
dominant plasma and photon source for the solar system are part of space physics. Space plasma and
space weather research are major parts of contemporary space physics research [see Chapter 41. Within
the past decade there has been a rapid growth in applying space plasma research to astrophysical
problems such as for radio jets, shocks, energetic particle acceleration, reconnection, and accretion

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.
disk models. Several excellent monographs on plasma astrophysics have recently appeared, which is
beginning to offset the long-standing neglect of electromagnetic and plasma processes in astrophysical
systems [7, 13,14,15, 161.

Substantial shielding of the long-range electromagnetic force is important for human survival, but this
shielding is limited in solar-’system space plasmas where interplanetary electric and magnetic fields,
and not the relatively weak gravitational force, dominate charged particle motion throughout most of
the heliosphere. Recent MHD modeling has shown the importance of electromagnetism and plasmas
on scale length up to that of galaxies and galactic clusters. The assumption that effects of the
electromagnetic force are “precisely” zero on scales important for cosmology and most crstrophysical
systems is beginning to appear increasingly artificial to many researchers [171. One commonly held
myth is that plasma processes are only significant for high ionization fiaction; in fact, ionospheric
plasmas at -1 00 km altitude have ionization fiactions less than about 1%and yet plasma processes are
essential in treating ionospheric dynamics. Another commonly held myth is that plasma effects are
100% shielded out for scale lengths large compared to the Debye length; although direct electric field
influences are typically shielded out within a few Debye lengths (an effect offset by overlapping
Debye spheres), it is becoming increasingly recognized that long-range magnetic fields and currents
have no known scale length limit [7, 101.

ARTLFICIAL PLASMAS AND APPLICATIONS

Plasmas have two major limitations for industrial applications. The first is that typically they need to
be contained within a complicated enclosure; most often, some type of ccvacuum”chamber of which .
fluorescent light bulbs with their plasma glow discharge are the most common example. Secondly,
plasmas are intrinsically more complicated than fluids due to the extra variables associated with the
presence of charged particles and electromagnetic fields. Thus, with respect to simple manufacturing
needs, plasmas seem to be real “lemons” and have been studiously avoided by industry for decades.

However, there has been a recent awakening to the great promise of plasmas and methods for how to
make “lemonade” with this “lemon.” This is because, ironically, the great strength of plasmas arises
from its complexity when properly controlled. In particular, the wide parameter range of plasmas (both
thermal and non-thermal) can be used to transform or modify a wide range of surfaces and materials in
ways that cannot be accomplished using neutral fluids. For example, active plasma media can be
controlled using electromagnetic fields and non-equilibrium plasmas make possible selective target
effects at efficiencies far higher than that possible using thermal, neutral fluids. A number of recent
monographs in plasma applications and engineering [8, 18-24] provide details that can only be
suggested by the following brief passages.

Lighting Plasmas - When another civilizations encounters us someday in this obscure corner of our
Milky Way galaxy, they will first observe radio waves (which originate via plasma sources). Upon
closer approach, they w
ill analyze emission %om city lights (see Figure 2) and realize their artificial
origins. More than 75% of such lights are plasma based (fluorescent, high-intensity arc lamps). Light
production in the U.S. accounts for about 20% o f ele cal energy use overall [25],which means that
the greater efficiency of plasma-based lighting contributes significantly to better energy conservation,
and energy efficiency is steadily improving.

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Most electrical lamps transfer power to a filament or electrodes through direct electrical connection
through the lamp envelope. However, research has led to new electrodeless plasma lamps where power
is transferred by electromagnetic fields. Such lamps can have a service life beyond 10 years but require
high-quality, expensive ballasts thus limiting their use to applications with high replacement costs [26].

Plasma Discharge - Plasma or glow discharge tubes were used throughout the 19* cenhuy by Faraday
and others in studies of the new field of electricity. It was not ,until 1927 that Irving Langmuir coined
the term “plasma” based on his research with electrical discharges. He noted the apparent similarity of
how an electrified fluid carries ions and electrons with how blood plasma carries corpuscles [27].
Naturally-occurring plasma discharges include the auroras and lightning, the latter in both its common
low-altitude f o m from cloud-to-cloud or cloud-to-ground [28; see also Chapter 41 and its exotic high-
altitude form of so-called sprites and elves, discovered in 1993, extending upward from high-altitude
clouds to as far as the ionosphere! [29]

Fluorescent lamps are a type of glow discharge tube. The plasma in such lamps “produces non-visible
ultraviolet light, which is converted to visible light by the phosphor coating on the tube’s inside wall.”
[25] High-intensity arc plasma lamps, in contrast, produce visible light directly. Their enhanced
brightness and efficiency make them the lightning option of choice for many industrial settings and
street lights, thus dominating sources observed from space. One researcher observed that “in terms of
total quantities of plasma being continuously generated, lighting plasmas are far and away the
predominant practical application of plasma science. [25]
”

Very small scale plasma discharges constitute the millions of cells that make up modern plasma
televisions. The plasmas for each tiny cell are “c01d’~in that the background gas remains “relatively
cold while the electrons (and ions) in the plasma are heated by the applied voltage” [30]. Plasma
televisions are especially competitive as high fidelity, high intensity large-format displays. Their recent
introduction to the market has been made possible through many years of research and major advances
in manufacturing methods and electronics.

Surface Modification - Plasma surface treatment systems enable the production of far superior
products in terms of hardness, increased corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and changed optical
and electronic properties. Integrated Circuit (IC) fabrication is a major plasma application, which
contributes to about 1/3 of the steps for semiconductor production. Plasmas are created in a processing
chamber to activate a controlled sequence of chemical reactions at a substrate surface. Such thin-film
processing primarily delivers activation energy, instead of heat, ‘to target surfaces providing for critical
etching,.deposition, and implantation hnctions on IC materials [20,22,24, 3 11. Dusty plasma research
is rapidly expanding due to internal contamination phenomena of industrial plasma reactors used for IC
systems, thin-filmprocessing, sputtering and etching. Nanoparticle cluster growth within such systems
can adversely affect discharge behavior for plasma reactors [8, p. 743; see also Chapters 5 and 61.

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) provides for direct control of film forming
species, which constitutes a significant fraction of the plasma. Such PECVD processes provide for thin
film deposition of metals, alloys, polymers and ceramics onto a diverse array of substrates. PECVD
systems are non-equilibrium, low-pressure discharges with hot electrons combined with cold ion and
gas species. The electrons convert cold neutral atoms into highly reactive ionic species, which enable
chemical reactions at far lower temperatures than possible via equilibrium chemistry. In addition to

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 enhanced thin film deposition, these nonequilibrium systems are an effective tool for new compound
synthesis [8, 321.

Ion implantation was developed for the doping of semiconductor components of integrated circuits and
has become a standard for this application. Plasma source ion Implantation (PSII) optimizes the
implanting process and reduces sputtering [33]. Ion implantation and PSII are now used routinely for a
wide variety of applications from preparing artificial knee and hip joints to coatings for high-wear
engine components.

Substantial advances in plasma surface treatment have made possible custom tuning of plasma
treatment parameters to optimize surface cleaning, adhesion enhancement, surface energy control,
biocompatibility, and polymer surface enhancement [34].

One-atmosphere cold plasma techniques for sterilization and decontamination have been developed
that avoid the expense and complication of "vacuumyychambers. These cold plasmas can destroy
biological hazards faster than conventional methods and without toxic residues [35].

Materials Processing - Both equilibrium (thermal) plasma and non-equilibrium (nonthermal) plasma
methods are applied in materials processing and are often described simply as hot and cold plasma
processing, respectively. For example, complementary hot and cold plasma techniques have led to
dramatic progress in waste processing techniques, from room temperature to more than [Link]
hot plasmas can melt down waste and form stable nonleachable products. Complex, toxic molecules
are decomposed into simpler molecules that are benign or easily treated by standard scrubbing
methods. Plasma finmaces and plasma-enhanced melter systems have been deployed successfully for
processing waste streams at hospitals, municipalities, and even mixed-waste sites (including low-level
radioactive waste) [36].

Plasma-enhanced waste processing have several powerful features compared to standard combustion
systems: (1) any waste stream can be managed, (2) toxic emissions are essentially eliminated, (3)
volume reduction can be 1000 or more (nonleachable processor output can be safely used for roadways
and building materials), and (4) synthetic gas output can be recycled to m the generator for the
processor itself (in some cases, the overall system can produce more energy than it consumes!). The
principal impediment to large-scale adoption of plasma waste systems is their relatively high up-front
cost. However, their total cost of ownership may already be lower than conventional combustion
systems, especially where clean air standards are hlly enforced. In the long tern, deployment of
plasma waste processors promises to ultimately eliminate the need for hazardous and unsightly
landfills. For waste processing at atmospheric pressure, arc plasmas can Will demanding high-
throughput applications such as toxic soil decontamination.

Thermal (hot) plasmas are close to equilibrium with similar electron, ion and neutral temperatures. Ion
and neutral temperatures are much higher than in discharge tubes (discussed above) and other low-
pressure plasmas. Welding is the most familiar thermal plasma technology. Other examples are plasma
spraying, thermal physical vapor deposition and plasma chemical deposition (nonthermal PECVD
discussed above), thermal plasma etching, analytical chemistry, sintering, and arc furnaces. Thermal
plasma production is created by direct current @C) or radio frequency (RF) arcs or by inductively-
coupled torches.

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Plasma chemistry is canied out in both non-equilibrium and equilibrium conditions and “can be
effective in nonhomogeneous systems as well” [8, p.3511 However, striations and contraction from
instabilities add a challenge for such applications but, as before, such instabilities may provide new
opportunities for setting up unusual reaction conditions. A major advance in fuel preprocessing
provides for the conversion of any hydrogen-rich fuel (oil, kerosene, ethanol, diesel.. .) into
combustion ready fuel [see Chapter 31. Recent successful tests of a plasmatron system indicate that
significant gains in fuel efficiency and fuel flexibility are possible at costs of only a few hundred
dollars more per vehicle (this cost is small compared to the savings in total cost of ownership) [37].

Nonthermal, nonequilibrium (cold) plasma methods have been applied to the cleaning of air and water.
Hot electrons and activated chemical species created by such electrons can be used to efficiently and
selectively destroy contaminants in air and water such as volatile organic compounds and automobile
exhaust. With plasma sources, intense ultraviolet air and water purification systems are
especially promising for developing countries due to ease of use, low maintenance, and low cost (if
produced in high quantity) [38].

Electron beam arrays have been shown to produce “large-area planar plasmas with high efficiency,
minimal gas heating, low electron temperature, high uniformity, and high microwave
reflectivity.. .high degrees of gas excitation, dissociation, and ionization can thus be produced and
maintained in gases at near room temperature” [39] In this way, materials adjacent to the plasma can
be processed quickly with minimal thermal stress as illustrated above for the IC processing application.
This large-area array method enables new applications such as the creation of fast, low maintenance
radar systems due to the absence of a large metallic radar dish [40]. Another application is large
volume air and water purification.

Nonneutral Plasmas and Accelerators - Unlike all other plasmas discussed in this survey, nonneutral
plasmas d3 not have overall charge neutrality. They have self-generated electric and magnetic fields.
Pure electron and ion plasmas have been studied in laboratory devices and can be confined for many
hours. They have contributed substantially to new results in fundamental plasma physics. Examples of
nonneutral plasma systems include, among others, particle beam fusion, coherent radiation sources
(from intense charge particle beams), trapped ion plasmas for fkndamental physics, antimatter
confiiement, and advanced accelerator concepts [4 11

Very recently, key advances have been made towards compact, high-energy particle accelerators.
“First, high-quality beams of relativistic electrons traveling at near the speed of light have been directly
produced by firing a short-pulse laser into a plasma. Second, researchers have demonstrated that
plasmas can be incorporated effectively into conventional accelerators to significantly boost the energy
of the electron beams”[42]. Mono-energetic electron beams produced from laser-produced plasmas
make possible tabletop particle accelerators in the GeV per cm energy range. These results promise to
dramatically reduce the cost of future high-energy particle accelerators [see Chapter 81.

Fusion - Historically, the primary boost for plasma research came in the 1950s with major advances in
both fusion (fkom declassification) and space plasmas (fkom new space-based discoveries of space
plasmas), the latter discussed above under Naturally-OccurringPlasmas. With the exception of
mechanical or thermal coupling with the Earth (enabling wind, tidal, and geothermal sources), the two

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 tmly long-term energy sources axe both plasma based. We can either produce energy the way the Sun
does, which is fusion, or take advantage of the Sun’s radiative power, which is solar power. All other
options (oil, gas, coal, nuclear) depend on finite resources with depletion time scales of -200 (for oil)
to -2000 years (for coal and fissionable materials). Due to Kabit, convenience, and lack of foresight,
the least viable option (oil) is ironically the very one for which we spend most of our efforts in
expending and protecting!

Within the past two to three decades, there have been major advances towards the very important goal
of achieving practical fusion power [see Chapter 71. In addition to Tokamak magnetic confinement
systems for fusion, the fKst to achieve scientific breakthrough, there are at least 16 alternative fusion
concepts [43]. Budget choices have been very difficult to adequately sustain Tokamak-focused
research and, at the same time, to pursue the most promising of these alternative approaches. Plasma
focus devices, for example, are excellent systems for pursuing high-technology research and teaching
at reduced costs, which is especially important for developing countries [44]. Scaling up some
alternatives, such as the Dense Plasma Focus, might yield more cost effective approaches to practical
fusion power [45].

High Energy Density (HED) physics - There are two principle methods for plasma confinement in
fusion devices: magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. Because fusion requires 10’s of
million degree Centrigrade temperatures, no known materials can provide confmement. Confinement
is instead provided by a torus-shaped magnetic field in Tokamak devices, or other field configurations
in alternative devices. In contrast, inertial confinement devices operate by guiding multiple, high-
energy laser or particle beams to converge on a small fusion fuel pellet or filament. Rapid compression
leads to fusion conditions and ignition followed by an efflux of energy exceeding the input, thus
providing energy gain. Research in inertial confinement fusion has led to the creation of the new
discipline of HED physics, including inertial confinement fusion, pulsed power systems, astrophysics
and nuclear weapons research. HED is the study of collective properties of matter under extremes in
density and temperature [6]. In addition to potential fusion or particle acceleration applications, HED
physics is important for understanding conditions in the center of stars, including compact stellar
objects like neutron stars.

Other Applications - Commensurate with the pervasiveness of plasmas and their multi-scale
character, covering the full span of time, space, and energy ranges known to modem science, plasmas
have an extremely diverse range of topics and applications. For example, about 200 of these are listed
at my plasma website [46] (if fully updated, this list would be at least 30% longer!). Trying to cover all
of these applications even briefly is beyond the scope of this or, perhaps, any review. As a sample, I
recommend that you enter the key word “plasmas” into a Google search. For more organized surveys, I
recommend one or more of the many fine monographs listed in the references below, along with
perusing the many excellent web sites listed at [Link] covering all aspects of plasma science and
applications.

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

Education and outreach efforts have typically focused on interests of each specialized discipline
(fusion, space plasmas, lighting, etc.). Although there are several books for the general public on

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fusion or space plasmas, the first book written for the general public about plasmas of all types is by
Yaffa and Shalom Eliezer [47] and, to the best of my knowledge, it remains the only one!

The long-standing absence of cross-cutting basic plasma science investment in the US. research
portfolio became the focus of a major report by the National Academy of Sciences in 1995 [40].
Seeing a lack of response to recommendations of the NAS report, and recognizing significant growth
in plasma-related research and education needs, about a dozen representatives of research laboratories,
universities, and industry (including myself) began meeting in Washington, D.C. in 1997. From those
meetings arose an independent organization, the Coalition for Plasma Science (CPS) [48], which
promotes and coordinates education and outreach activities in all areas of plasma science and
applications. CPS now has more than 50 member institutions from Australia, Canada, Europe, India
and the USA. As an example of a CPS project, a series of high-quality “two-page’’ writeups are
available fiom the CPS web site on many key topics, including to date space plasmas, fusion, lighting
plasmas, destroying biological hazards, welding, plasma display panels, lightning, and cleaning the
environment. Suggestions for additional topics are welcome.

RESOURCES

Major resources for plasma science and applications until around 1990 were primarily discipline
specific with few books or materials that transcended such disciplinary boundaries (e.g., fusion
plasmas, space plasmas, industrial plasmas, etc.). When creating a web-based resource for all areas of
plasma science in 1994 (later becoming [Link]) and ,in that same year, when creating the
newsgroup [Link], I found very few cross-cutting materials. Fortunately, this lack has been
greatly offset over the past decade with a rapid expansion of excellent texts, books, research papers,
and web sites that emphasize interdisciplinary topics or results.

The Resources page of the [Link] website provides a concise compilation of materials for all
areas of plasma science that includes, among other materials, the following:
plasma formulary, plasma dictionary, conferences, databases, who’s who, properties of atoms,
molecules and plasmas, frequently-asked questions, professional societies, and journals.

REFERENCES

1. Chen, Francis, 1974, 1984. Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, New York
Springer-Verlag.
2, Bellan, Paul, 2006. Fundamentals of Plasma Physics, Cambridge: Carnbridge University Press.
3. Gurnett, Donald A., and A. Bhattacharjee, 2005. Introduction to Plasma Physics with Space
and Laboratory Applications, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4. Hazeltine, Richard, and F. Waelbroeck, 1998. The Framework of Plasma Physics, Reading,
MA: Perseus Books.
5. Fitzpatrick, Richard, 2006. Introduction to Plasma Physics: A Graduate Level Course, self-
published at [Link] com/content/232435.
6. National Academy of Science, 2003. Frontiers in High Energy Densig Physics: The X-Games
of Contemporavy Science, Board on Physics and Astronomy, NAS, Washington, D.C.
7. Goedbloed, J. P. and S. Poedts, 2004. Principles of Magnetohydrodynamics: Fith Applications
to Laboratory and Astrophysical Plasmas, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 8. Fridman, Alexander, and L. Kennedy, 2004. Plasma Physics and Engineering, New York:
Taylor and Francis.
9. Eastman, Timothy, 2004. “Duality without Dualism,” in Physics and Whitehead: Quantum,
Process, and Experience, ed. T. Eastman and H. Keeton, Albany: State University of New
York Press.
10. Peratt, Anthony, 1992. Physics of the Plasma Universe, New York Springer-Verlag.
11. AlfVhn, Hannes, 1990. “Cosmology in the Plasma Universe,” IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. Vol. 18,
pp. 5-10.
12. Division of Plasma Physics of the American Physical Society, 1996. “The Pervasive Plasma
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13. Kulsrud, Russell, 2005. Plasma Physicsfor Astrophysics, Princeton: Princeton University
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14. Benz, Amoldo, 2002. Plasma Astrophysics: Kinetic Processes in Solar and Stellar Coronae,
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
15. Tajima, Toshi and K. Shibata, 1997. Plasma Astrophysics, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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17. Wolfgang Kundt, 2005. Astrophysics: A New Approach, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
18. Brown, Ian, editor, 2004. The Physics and Technology of Ion Sources, New York Wiley.
19. Oks, E., and I. Brown, editors, 2003. Emerging Applications of Vacuum-ARC-Produced
Plasma, Ion, and Electron Beams, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
20. Hitchon, W., 1999. Plasma Processesfor Semiconductor Fabrication, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
21. Zukov, M., and 0. Solonenko, editors, 1999. Thermal Plasmas and New Materials
Technology, vol I &2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22. Sugawara, M., 1998. Plasma Etching: Fundamentals and Applications, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
23. Roth, J. Reece, 1995. Industrial Plasma Engineering, Yol. I - Principles, Bristol: Institute of
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24. Grill, Alfied, 1994. Cold Plasma in Materials Fabrication, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press.
25. Rogoff, G., 2002,2006. ‘‘Lighting Plasmas,” Coalition for Plasma Science, available at
[Link]
26. Wharmby, D., 1993. Electrodeless lamps for lighting: a review, Science, Measurement and
Technology, IEE Proceedings A, 140, pp. 465-473.
27. Mott-Smith, Harold M., 1971. History of ccPlasmas,”Nature, Vol. 233, p. 219.
28. Rakov, V., 2006. ‘Zightning,” Coalition for Plasma Science, available at
http ://[Link].
29. Williams, Earle, 2001. Sprites, elves, and glow discharge tubes, Physics Today, Nov., pp. 1-7.
30. Pitchford, L., 2004. “Plasma Display Panels,” Coalition for Plasma Science, available at
http ://[Link].
3 1. Liebeman, Michael, and A. Lichtenberg, 1994. Principles of Plasma Discharges and
Materials Processing, New York: Wiley & Sons.
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