ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University

Accredited With A+ Grade by NAAC

AUTONOMOUS

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

COURSE MATERIAL

COURSE NAME : ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE : 24CY401

YEAR / SEM : I / II

REGULATION : 2024

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2024 - 2025

Course objectives:
To impart knowledge on the
 To gain in –depth knowledge on natural processes and resources that sustain life
and govern economy.
 To know the importance of water resources which are important socially,
economically viable and environmentally sustainable.
 To impart the Knowledge of pollution and its control methods.
 To mitigate the environmental and health risks associated with in discriminate
waste and find the suitable methodologies for waste management.
 To balance ecological, economic and social goals, such as reducing carbon
emissions, promoting renewable energy and ensuring equitable resource access.

UNIT I – Ecology and Biodiversity

Definition, scope and importance of environment – need for public awareness – concept
of an ecosystem – Biodiversity and its values - Biodiversity at global, national and local level -
India as a mega – diversity nation – hotspots of biodiversity – threats to biodiversity –
endangered and endemic species of India – conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ
conservation of biodiversity.
UNIT II – Water resources and Environment microbiology
Water resources: Use and over – utilization of surface and ground water - dams benefits
and problems, conflicts over water – Water availability at global level, surface level, ground
level – Sources - Hydro phonics - Classification of microorganism –Role of microorganism in
wastewater treatment – Bacterial nutrition and growth
UNIT III – Air and Noise pollution
Sources and classification of air pollutants and their effect on human health – Ambient
air quality and emission standards – Air pollutants – Particulate matters – Control equipments
– Gravity separator – Centrifugal separator – fabric filter – Electrostatic separator, Catalytic
convertors – Noise pollution - causes – Consequences - Control measures - modern tools used
in pollution mitigation measures - sustainable activity of pollution control - recent case studies
– Environmental Protection Act.
UNIT IV – Solid waste and Hazardous waste management
Soil contaminants –sources and management methods of -Solid Waste Hazardous waste
– Plastic waste – Biomedical waste – Hazardous waste & E-waste management – Case studies
on Occupational Health and Safety Management system (OHASMS).

UNIT V – Environmental management and Sustainable development

Renewable and non-renewable energy Sources – Energy Polices - Development, GDP,
Sustainability - concept, needs and challenges -economic, social and aspects of sustainability –
Zero waste and R concept, Circular economy, ISO14000 Series, Material Life cycle assessment,
Environmental Impact Assessment – Sustainable goals – Sustainable habitat – Green buildings,
Green materials, Energy efficiency, Sustainable transports. Carbon emission - Carbon footprint
– Carbon Sequestration.

Text Books:
1. Benny Joseph, Environmental Science and Engineering‘, TataMcGraw -Hill,
NewDelhi, (2014).
2. Miguel Fischer, “Environmental Management: Ecosystems, Competitiveness and Waste
Management” Nova Science Publishers, (2021)
Reference Books:
1. Dharmendra S.Sengar, ‘Environmental law‘, Prenticehall of India Pvt Ltd,
NewDelhi, (2007).
2. Erach Bharucha, “Text book of Environmental Studies”, Universities Press Pvt, Ltd,
Hydrabad, (2015).
3. G. Tyler Miller, ScottE. Spoolman, “Environmental Science”, Cengag Learning India
Pvt. Ltd, Delhi, (2014).
4. Mahuabasu, Xavier saveri muthu, “Fundamentals of Environmental Studies”,
Cambridge university press, (2017)
5. Anubha Kaushik , C.P. Kaushik, “Perspectives in Environmental Studies”, New Age
International Pvt. Ltd, NewDelhi, (2004). Frank R. Spellman, “Handbook of
Environmental Engineering”, CRC Press, (2015).
 CONTENTS

S.No UNIT Subject Page No.

1 I Ecology and Biodiversity 1

2 II Water resources and 16

Environment microbiology

3 III Air and Noise pollution 30

4 IV Solid waste and Hazardous 45

waste management

5 V Environmental management 56

and Sustainable development

Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

1.1 Introduction
Environment is defined as, “the sum of total of all the living and non – living things
around us influencing one another.
1.1.1Types of Environment
Environment can be divided into two categories
1. Natural environment
2. Manmade environment
1.1.1.1 Natural environment
Natural environment is characterized by natural components. All biotic (living) and
abiotic components (non-living) are created through a natural process. Creation of these
biotic and abiotic components does not require any human support. Example: soil, water,
air, radiations, noise, etc.,
1.1.1.2 Manmade environment
Man is the most powerful environmental agent. He modifies the environment using
modern technologies, according to his needs to a great extent. Thus, the man-made
environment is created by man. Example: House, road, schools, railway lines, parks, etc.,
1.1.2 SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
1. To get an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related
problems
2. To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
3. To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems
4. To know the necessity of conservation of natural resources
5. To evaluate environmental programmers in terms of social, economic, ecological, and
aesthetic factors.
1.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY
Environmental study is based upon a comprehensive view of various environmental
systems. It aims to make the citizens competent to do scientific work to find out practical
solutions to current environmental problems.
1. World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries.
2. The natural resources endowment in the earth are limited
3. The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced
4. The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources to
the future generations.
5. The unplanned exploitation of natural resources leads to pollution of all types and at
all levels

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6. The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things
on earth, including man
7. Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction
8. The urban areas, coupled with industries are the major sources of pollution.
1.1.4 PUBLIC AWARNESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES/STUDIES
1.1.4.1 Need for Public Awareness:
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Reo de
Janeiro in 1992 (popularly known as „Earth Summit‟) and world summit on sustainable
development at Johannesburg in 2002, have highlighted the key issues of global
environmental concern. They have attracted the attention of people. Any government at its
own cannot achieve the goals of clear environment until the public participate in action.
Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the ecological and
environmental issues. Eg. Ban- the littering of polythene Methods to propagate
environmental Awareness:
1. Among students through education introducing environmental studies in the
curriculum.
2. Among public through mass media- environmental programs through TV, radio etc.
3. Among decision makers, planners, leaders etc.
1.1.4.2 Role of NGOs
1. Advise the government in interacting with ground level people
2. Organize public meetings to create environmental awareness (E.g.) Recent report of
centre for science and environment ‟on permissible limits of pesticides in cola drinks.
Public awareness is needed in the area
1. Study of natural resources - conservation and management
2. Ecology and biodiversity conservation
3. Environmental Pollution and prevention
4. Social issues related to development and environment
5. Human population and environment.
1.1.4.3 Types of public participation
Environmental pollution can be reduced by creating the four types of public
participation groups.
i. Pressure group
ii. Watch dog
iii. Advisory council
iv. Enforcing laws

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 Pressure group
It is required to influence the government on one hand and the industries on the
other hand.
 Watch dog
Its main function is to protect the interests of public against environmental
hazardous activities.
 Advisory council
It is constituted to keep the environment suitable for living.
 Enforcing laws
Public can enforce the environmental laws and can conduct Public Interest Litigation
(PIL).
Thus, in the environmental management, the active participation of public is most
important.
1.2 ECO SYSTEM
1.2.1 Definition
A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known
as ecosystem.
1.2.2 Types of ecosystem Eco-system

Natural Artificial/Man-made
(Ex)croplands, dams etc
Terrestrial Marine
Lotic (running water) Lentic (standing water)

(river, stream or spring) lake, pond or swamp

1.2.3 Structure (or) components of an ecosystem
1) A biotic component
Non-living components are in an ecosystem. (Ex) Climate, soil, water
2) Biotic components
Living components are in an ecosystem. (Ex) Plants and Animals
1) Producers (Autotrophs)
Producers can prepare their food themselves through photosynthesis. (Ex) All green
plants, trees
2) Consumers (Heterotrophs)

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Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

Consumers cannot, prepare their food but they directly (or) indirectly depends on
producers.
a) Primary consumer
* It is called herbivores (or) plant eaters.
* Directly depends on plants for their food
* (ex)rat, goat, cow
b) Secondary consumer
* It is called primary carnivores (or) meat eaters
* depends on primary consumer
* (ex)Tigers, lions
c) Tertiary consumer
* It is called Secondary Carnivores (or) meat eaters
* Depends on Secondary consumer
* (ex)Tigers, lions
3) Decomposer:
Decomposers are used to decompose the body of dead organisms, plants, animals into
simple compounds. (Ex) microorganisms like bacteria, fungi
(Ex) Grass (producers) – Rat (primary consumer) – cat (Secondary Consumer) – Tiger
(Tertiary consumer) - Bacteria (Decomposer)
1.2.4 Functions of an ecosystem
Function
i) Primary Function ii) Secondary Function iii) Tertiary Function
1.2.4.1 Energy Flow in the ecosystem
Energy is the essential requirement for all living organisms. Solar energy is
transformed to chemical energy in photosynthesis by the plants. Some amount of
chemical energy issued by the plants for their growth and there maining is transferred
to consumers by the process of eating.
1.2.4.2 Ist law of thermodynamics
It states that,” energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from
one form to another.”
Solar energy is converted into Chemical energy. 6CO2 + 12H2O → CH2O + O2 + H2O
1.2.4.3 IInd law of thermodynamics
It states that,” Whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the
release of heat.
Illustration: This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a

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Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

loss of energy in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic level.
The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting etc,
1.2.5 FOODCHAIN
Definition: The sequence of eating & being eaten in an ecosystem is food chain (or)
Transfer of food energy from the plants through a series of organisms is food chain.
Food Chain in a Grassland:
→ Rat → Snakes → Eagles
Plants (Secondary consumer/ (Tertiary consumer/
(Primary consumer/ primary carnivores) secondary
(Producers)
Herbivores)
1.2.6 FOODWEB
1.2.6.1 Definition: The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem is food
web. Many food chains are interconnected.
Energy Flow in Food web:
Grass → insects → fishes → birds → tigers
Grass → insects → birds → tigers
Grass → deer → tigers
Grass → insects → birds → tigers
Grass → cattle → tigers
Grass → rats → snakes → eagles → tigers
Grass → rats → eagles →tigers
1.2.6.2 Difference between food chain & food web:
In food chain, if one species gets affected, then species in all tropic levels are also
affected. But in food web if one species gets affected, it does not affect other tropic levels.
1.2.7 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphical representation of structure and function of tropic level so fan ecosystem is
ecological pyramid.
1.3 BIODIVERSITY
1.3.1 Def: It is defined as, “the variety and variability of all living organisms and the eco
system in which they occur”
1.3.2 Importance of biodiversity
1. Bio diversity is very important for human life.
2. Human beings depend on plants, animals, medicines, industrial products
3. It protects the fresh air, clean H2O and productive loss
4. It is important for forestry, fisheries and agriculture
5. Loss of biodiversity reduces the economic status.
1.3.3 Consciquences of biodiversity loss

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1) Many plant species become extinct.

Mary Medicinal plant species become extinct due to the collection of drugs for the
pharmaceutical company
Tropical forest may destroy due to agriculture, mining and logging.
1.3.4 Classification of biodiversity
It is classified into three types
1) Genetic diversity
2) Species diversity
3) Ecosystem diversity
1.3.4.1 Genetic Diversity
Def: It is defined as, the variation of genetic characteristics within the species.
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to
other. (Ex) All rice varieties belong to ‘Oryzasativa” family. But there are thousands of
rice varieties which are differ from each other in their size, shape, colour, nutrient
content.
1.3.4.2 Species diversity
It is defined as, the difference between the species level is known as species diversity.
1.3.4.3 Ecosystem diversity
The diversity at the ecological (or)habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity.
Ex) River ecosystem. It consists of fish, aquatic insects, mussale and variety of plants.
1.3.5 Important Values of biodiversity
Bio diversity is need for healthy environment. It is must for the stability and proper
functioning of the biosphere.
1.3.5.1 Biodiversity values are classified into 6 types.
1) Consumptive use value
2) Productive use value
3) Ethical value
4) Aesthetic value
5) Social value
6) Option value
I. Consumptive use value
1. It is a direct use value
2. The Biodiversity products are directly consumed.
3. Food: about 80-90% of our food purpose is satisfied by tropical(forest) wild plants.
4. Drugs: 70 % of modern medicines are derived from plant and plant extracts. 3000

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Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

plant species are used in Unani, Ayurveda & sidha. According to research about 85% of
global community use plants for primary health care. (Ex) Lifesaving drugs like quinine
(Malaria), reserpine (hypertension) penicillin (antibiotic) morphine (painkiller) are
derived from plant origin.
II. Productive use value
(i) Biodiversity products are obtained from plants and animals, which are marketed and
sold. (Ex) Animal products like silk, wool, musk, tusk, leather and food is obtained
from animals and are sold in foreign countries.
(ii) Plant products like wood, cotton, fruits, vegetables and ivory, pearls are obtained
from animals.
(iii) On importing edible oils help to improve our economic status.
III. Social Value
i) It refers to the bio-resources which are used to the society.
ii) These values are related with social life, religion and spiritual activities of the people.
(ex)Tulsi, lotus, Neem plants are considered as Holy plants. Cow, snake, peacock is
considered as Holy animals.
IV. Ethical value (or) Existence value
i) It refers to all life must be preserved.
ii) It means that a species may (or) may not be used but its existence in nature gives us
pleasure.
iii) Ethical value is related with religious and cultural basis.
iv) (Ex)Vembu, Tulsi, Vengai trees are worshippes by Tamilians. We are not getting
directly from, Kangaroo, Zebra, but we feel happiness that are exist in nature.
V. Aesthetic Value
i) Most important a esthetic value of biodiversity is ecotourism
ii) The beautiful nature of plants and animals insist us to protect biodiversity.
iii) (Ex) the beautiful sites, pleasant music of birds, colours of butterfly, flowers, peacock
are important for their aesthetic value.
VI. Option Value
i) It refers that ‘any species may be proved to be an valuable species after someday’
(Ex) the growing biotechnology field is searching a species which is used to cure
cancer and AIDS diseases.
1.5 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL
There are 20 million species are living in the world. But we found and given scientific
names to 1.5million species only. Tropical deforestation reduces 0.5% of biodiversity every

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Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

year.
1.5.1 Terrestrial biodiversity
1)Tropical rain forest
i) It is the store house of biodiversity.
ii) 50-75%g local diversity present in these tropical rain forest.
iii) It consists of millions of animals, birds, amphibians, mammals, insects.
iv) 25% the medicinal drugs are obtained from tropical forest.
v) 1,30,000 plant species are present in tropical rainforest.
(Ex) Silent valley in Kerala is the only one tropical forest in India.
2)Temperate forest
These forests have less biodiversity. It consists of: 1,70,000 flowering plants, 30,000
vertebrates, 2,50,000 other species.
3)Marine diversity
It has high biodiversity than terrestrial. Estuaries, coastal waters, oceans are biologically
diverse.
1.5.2 Biodiversity at national level
i) India is second largest nation containing 5% of world’s biodiversity.
ii) India gets10th rank among plant rich countries
iii) 11th rank among endemic species of higher vertebrates.
iv) 6thrank among the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops.
v) India is mega-diversity nation, because it is rich in both founa and flora.
vi) The Indian species has more value in abroad
Medicinal value
2000 plant species are cultivated for medicinal purpose for curing the diseases. (Ex)
Neem, Tulsi, Turmeric
Commercial value
Indian sandal wood, Tobacco has high commercial value, if it is sold in abroad. Several
species of non-edible mushrooms are cultivated and exported to advanced countries.
More than 100 species of microorganisms were collected from Indian soils are
cultured, developed and formulated in the abroad laboratories.
Biodiversity at Local Level (In Tamil Nadu)
Distribution of plants and animals among different districts of Tamilnadu is uneven.
i) there are some dense forest in Selam District.
ii) Western ghats has 1500 species of plants, 50 species of mammals and 90 reptiles
iii) The elephant sanctuary at Anaimalai

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iv) Tiger sanctuary at Mundanthurai

v) Birds sanctuary at Vedanthangal
1.5.3 Measurement of Biodiversity
Based on their spatial distribution, biodiversity level is split into 4 types.
1) Point richness
It refers to the number of species present at a single point in a given space.
2) Alpha richness
It refers to the number of species present in a small homogeneous area.
3) Beta richness
It refers to the rate of change of species composition across different habitats.
4) Gamma richness
It refers to the rate of change across large landscape.
1.5.4 RED Data Book
Red Book is a catalogue, which give
i) The information about the species in extinction condition.
ii) Provide awareness to the degree of threat to biodiversity.
iii) Help in conservation action
iv) Information about international agreements
According to Red data book, 44 plant species are critically endangered, 54 endangered
and 143 are exposed to damage.
1.6 India as a Mega diversity nation
1) India is one among the12-mega diversity countries in the world.
2) Out of 7.31% of global fauna species, 89, 450 animal species present in India.
3) Out of 10.8% of global floral species, 47,000 plant species present in India.
4) Endemic species: The species which are present at a particular area are called
endemic species. 33% flowering plants, 53% fresh H2O fishes, 50% amphibians, 35%
reptiles, 10% mammals are endemic species in India.
5) Plant diversity: 5000 flowering plants, 166 crop plant species are origin in India.
6) Marine diversity: Several species of mangrove plants, Sea grasses are found in our
country.
7) Agro-biodiversity: India is the Centre of origin of 30000-50000 varieties of rice,
mango, turmeric, ginger and sugarcane.
1.7 HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Hot spots are bio rich areas. The geographical area which is rich in plant and animal
species, of which many are endemic and endangered, is called hotspot.

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Unit I Ecology and Biodiversity

1.7.1 Criteria for the designation of hot spots.

 Plant diversity is the basis for the designation of hotspots.
 The area must support at least 1500 endemic plant species.
 The endemic vertebrate species must be high.
 The region must have lost 70% of its original habitats
 The area must be under threat.
 It should have a wealth of useful plants.
1.7.2 Reason for rich biodiversity in the tropics
1) The tropics have more stable climate
2) Warm temp, high humidity provides favourable conditions.
3) There is an opportunity for many species to coexist.
4) Among plants, rate of out-crossing appears to higher in tropics.
1) Western Ghats
 The western ghats is one of the diversity hot spots in India. The area comprises
Maharastra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala and SriLanka. It covers a total area of
1,70,000 sq.km.
 The Western ghats shows high level of endemics for plants, invertebrates and
vertebrates.
 12 species of mammals
 13 species of birds 89 species of reptiles
 88 species of amphibians
 108 species of fresh water fishes.
 It is a serious threat to the biodiversity of the western Ghats due to land cleaning for
different purposes. So many species face the danger of extinction. Therefore the
Western Ghats is said to be a biodiversity hotspot.
2) Eastern Himalayas
The eastern Himalayas are also rich in wild plants of economic value. The area comprises
Nepal, Bhutan and neighbouring states of northern India. Huge wealth of fungi, insects,
mammals, birds have been found in this region.
60% of Indian birds
63% of mammals are from Eastern Himalayas.
1.8 THREATSTOBIODIVERSITY
 We live in a period in which the world’s biological diversity is being rapidly destroyed.
 The current rate of extinction of species greater than at any time in the past.
 The different types of waste generated by human begin and industries pollute the

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ecosystem.
 Any change in the ecosystem leads to a major imbalance and threatens the
biodiversity.
1.8.1 Loss of biodiversity
The major reasons for loss of biodiversity in India are
i. Habitat loss
ii. Pouching of wildlife
iii. Man– wildlife conflicts
1.8.1.1 Habitat loss
The loss of populations of inter breeding organisms is caused by habitat loss. This
threatened a wide range of animals and plants.
Factors influencing habitat loss
A. Deforestation: The habitat loss is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests
and grasslands have been cleared for agricultural activities or settlement areas or
development projects. Forests and grasslands are the natural homes for thousands of
species, which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.
B. Destructions of wetlands: The wetlands estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due
to draining, filling and pollution which cause huge biodiversity loss.
C. Habitat fragmentation: The habitat is divided into small and scattered patches. This
known as habitat fragmentation. Many wild animals and birds are vanished due to
this.
D. Production of drugs: Many pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for
production of drugs. Hence, several medicinal plants are on the verge of extinction.
E. Illegal trade: Illegal trade on wild life reduces the biodiversity.
F. Natural activities: Flood, cyclone, earthquake, landslides, drought, tsunami etc. are
responsible for loss of habitat.
1.8.1.2 Poaching of wildlife
Poaching is the illegal killing of animals. Poaching and hunting of wild animals are the
main reason of wild life depletion.
1.8.1.3 Causes of poaching
1) Flesh: Flesh of wild animals is the tasty protein food. So, they are hunted. (ex) rabbit,
deer, wild pig.
2) Trade: the animal parts and products are sold in the market at high price.
(Ex)elephant tusks, wild animals skin
3) Drugs: Animals are killed for drugs. (Ex)peacock, varanus

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4) Fishing: Catching fishes during their breeding season is a threat to fish population
5) Population explosion: Increase of human population increases the demand for food.
1.8.1.4 Endangered species of India
A species is said to been dangered, when its number has been reduced to a critical level.
Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
In India 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. About
100mammals,150 birds are estimated to be endangered species.
1.8.1.5 Factors affecting endangered species
Endangering of a species may be caused by
1) Habitat loss
2) Clearing of forest areas
3) Deforestation
4) Pollution
5) Quarrying in forest areas
6) Climate change
7) Poaching and Hunting
8) Export to other countries
9) Over exploitation of natural resources
10) Lake of Awareness.
1.8.1.6 Examples for endangered species
Reptiles - Tortoise, Python Birds - Peacock, Pelican
Mammals - Indian wool, red fox, desert cat
Plants - A large number of medicinal plants, sandalwood trees
1.8.1.7 Remedial measures
1. Several international organizations and conventions help to protect endangered
species in the world.
2. Convention on international trade in endangered species 1975, restricts international
trade of 2900 species, because they are endangered.
1.8.2 Endemic species of India
The species, which are found only in the particular region are known as endemic species.
In India, 47,000species, 7000 plants are endemic. Nearly 62% our endemic species are
found in Himalaya and Western Ghats.
1.8.2.1 Factors affecting endemic species
1) Habitat loss
2) Deforestation

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3) Poaching and hunting

4) Pollution
5) Climate change.
Examples of endemic species Amphibians -(frogs, toads) Reptiles - lizards, crocodiles
62% amphibians, 50% lizards are endemic in westernghats. Birds – Nilgiri wood pigeon,
Nilgiri pipit. Insects - Chloroneura, Esmeetc.
1.9 Conservation of biodiversity
It refers to the maintenance and preservation of biodiversity.
The management of biosphere so that it will yield the greatest sustainable benefit to
present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs of future
generation.
1.9.1 Types
1) In-situ conservation (within habitat)
2) Ex-situ conservation (outside habitat)
1.9.2 In-situ conservation
In-site conservation involves protection of fauna and flora within its natural habitat,
where the species normally occurs is called in-situ conservation.
1.9.2.1 Important in-situ conservation
Biosphere reserve, national parks, wild life sanctuaries, gene sanctuary.
1.9.2.2 Methods of in-situ conservation
1.9.2.3 Biosphere reserves
India has 7 biosphere reserves all over the state. It covers large area, more than 5000
sq.km. It is used to protect species for long time.
(Ex) Gulf of mannar, Nilgiri – Tamilnadu, Sundarbans – West Bengal
1.9.2.4 Role of biosphere reserves
1) It gives long terms survival of evolving ecosystem
2) It protects endangered species.
3) It acts as a site of recreation and tourism
4) It is useful for educational and research purpose.
5) It protects maximum number of species and communities
6) Tourism and explosive activities are not permitted in the biosphere reserves.
1.9.2.5 National Park
India has 80 national parks all over the state. A national park is a protected area to
conserve plants, animals together in a natural habitat.
It is usually a small reserve covering an area of about100-500 sq. kms. Within the

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biosphere reserves, one (or) more national parks are also exists.
(Ex) Gir national park- Gujarat Periyar Park – Kerala, Bandipur Park - Karnataka
1.9.2.6 Role of national Parks
1. It is used for enjoyment through tourism without affecting environment.
2. It is used to protect, develop the wildlife.
3. Grazing of domestic animals inside the national park is prohibited.
4. All private rights, and forestry activities are prohibited within a national park.
1.9.2.7 Wild life sanctuaries
At present, 492 wild life sanctuaries in our country. (Ex) Vedanthangal bird sanctuary -
Tamilnadu Mudumalai Wild life sanctuary - Tamilnadu Nalsarover bird sanctuary -
Gujarat.
1.9.2.8 Role of wild life sanctuaries
1) It protects animals only
2) It allows the operations such as harvesting of timber collection of forest products.
3) Killing, hunting (or) capturing of wild life is prohibited.
1.9.2.9 Gene sanctuary
Gene sanctuary is found in northern India. A gene sanctuary is an area, where the
plants are conserved.
(Ex) gene sanctuary for citrus–Lemon family
Gene sanctuary for pitcher plant–an insect eats plant.
1.9.2.9.1 Advantage of In situ conservation
1) It is very cheap and convenient method.
2) The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires.
1.9.2.9.2 Disadvantage of In situ conservation
1) 1)A large surface area of the earth is required to preserve the biodiversity
2) Maintenance of the habitats is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution.
1.9.3 Ex-situ conservation
It involves the protection of fauna and flora outside the natural habitat.
1.9.3.1 Role
1) It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species
under controlled conditions.
2) It identifies the species, which are in more risk condition of extinction
3) It prefers the species which are more important to man inner future among the
endangered species.
1.9.3.2 Methods:

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It is maintained in the following way.

 Zoos (for animals)
 Botanical gardens (for plants)
 Culture collections (for microorganisms)
 Cryobanks (forgametes, cells and tissues)
 Germplasm banks (for seeds, semen, cells, ovum)
1) National Bureau of plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
It is located in NewDelhi. It used cryopreservation techniques to preserve agricultural
and horticultural crops.
1.9.3.3 Cryopreservation techniques
It involves the preservation of seeds, pollen grains of some important agricultural and
horticultural crops by using lig. Nitrogen attempt as low as 196oC Varieties of rice
pearl millet, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chills, tobacco have been preserved
successfully for several years.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic resources (NBAGR)
It is located at Haryana. It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
National Facility for plan tissue culture Repository (NEPTCR)
It is used for conservation of varieties of crop plants(or)trees by tissue culture.
1.9.3.4 Advantage of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention.
2. Animals are assured for food, water, shelter and also security and hence longer
life span.
1.9.3.5 Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation
1) It is expensive method
2) The freedom of wild life is lost
3) The animals cannot survive in natural environment
4) It can be adopted only for few selected species.

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Unit II Water resources and Environment microbiology

2.1 WATERRESOURCES
1. Definition of Water Resources
 Water resources refer to all sources of water useful for human and environmental

needs.
 Includes surface water (rivers, lakes), ground water, and atmospheric water.

2. Types of Water Resources

 Surface Water: Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and oceans.
 Groundwater: Water stored underground in aquifers.

 Rainwater: Precipitation collected for use.

 Desalinated Water: Freshwater derived from seawater.

3. Importance of Water Resources

 Human Needs: Drinking, agriculture, sanitation, and industry.

 Economic Development: Power generation, manufacturing, and transportation.

 Ecosystem Support: Maintains biodiversity and natural habitats.

 Cultural and Recreational Value: Religious practices, tourism, and leisure.

4. Global Water Distribution

 97% in oceans (saline water).

 3% is freshwater:

 70% in glaciers and ice caps.

 30% in groundwater.

 Less than 1% is accessible surface water.

5. Challenges in Water Resources

 Scarcity: Uneven distribution and increasing demand.

 Pollution: Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and domestic sewage.

 Climate Change: Alters water cycles, causes droughts or floods.

 Overuse: Depletion of groundwater and rivers.

6. Sustainable Water Management

 Conservation: Reducing water waste, rainwater harvesting.

 Reuse and Recycling: Treating wastewater for reuse.

 Efficient Technologies: Drip irrigation, desalination plants.

 Policy and Planning: Enforcing water laws and international agreements.
7. Role of Individuals
 Reduce Waste: Fix leaks, use water-efficient appliances.
 Awareness: Educate communities on water conservation.
 Participate: Support policies and initiatives for sustainable water use.

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2.2 USE AND OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER

1. Uses of Surface and Groundwater
 Domestic Use: Drinking, cooking, cleaning, and sanitation.

 Agriculture: Irrigation for crops; accounts for 70% of water use globally.
 Industry: Used in manufacturing, cooling, and energy production.

 Power Generation: Hydropower (surface water) and geothermal energy (ground

water).
 Recreation and Tourism: Lakes, rivers, and reservoirs for boating, fishing, etc.

 Ecosystem Support: Maintains wetlands, forests, and aquatic habitats.

2. Over-utilization of Surface Water

 Excessive Extraction:
 Diversion for agriculture and industries.

 Construction of dams and reservoirs reducing downstream flow.

 Consequences:

 Drying rivers and lakes.

 Degraded ecosystems and loss of biodiversity.

 Increased risk of conflicts over shared water bodies.

3. Over-utilization of Groundwater
 Reasons for Overuse:
o Increased demand for agriculture due to population growth.
o Insufficient surface water availability in arid regions.
o Dependence on borewells and tube wells.
 Consequences:

o Depletion of Aquifers: Lowering water tables.

o Land Subsidence: Ground sinks due to over-extraction.
o Saltwater Intrusion: Coastal aquifers become saline.
o Reduced Water Quality: Increased contaminants like fluoride and arsenic.
4. Causes of Over-utilization
 Population Growth: More demand for water for food, industry, and homes.

 Inefficient Practices: Traditional irrigation methods waste water.

 Urbanization: Expanding cities increase water extraction.
 Lack of Regulations: Over-pumping of groundwater in many areas.

5. Solutions to Over-utilization
 Adopt Efficient Irrigation: Drip and sprinkler systems to reduce wastage.
 Rainwater Harvesting: Collect and store rainwater for use.
 Reuse and Recycling: Treat wastewater for non-drinking purposes.

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 Improved Policies: Regulate water extraction and enforce water-sharing treaties.

 Community Participation: Educating and involving locals in water conservation.

6. Importance of Sustainable Practices

 Prevents Scarcity: Ensures availability for future generations.
 Supports Ecosystems: Maintains natural habitats and biodiversity.

 Improves Quality: Protects surface and groundwater from pollution.

2.3 DAMS BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

1. Dams
 Dams are structures built across rivers or streams to store, control, or redirect

water.
2. Benefits of Dams
1. Water Storage:
o Stores water for drinking, agriculture, and industrial use.

2. Irrigation:
o Supplies water to farmlands during dry seasons.

3. Hydropower Generation:
o Produces renewable electricity using water flow.

4. Flood Control:
o Regulates river flow and reduces the risk of floods.
5. Recreation and Tourism:
o Reservoirs created by dam’s support boating, fishing, and tourism.

6. Improved Navigation:
o Helps maintain river levels for transportation.

7. Ecosystem Support:
o Provides consistent water supply during dry periods for downstream
ecosystems.
3. Problems with Dams
1. Environmental Issues:
o Disruption of river ecosystems and fish migration.

o Submersion of forests, wetlands, and wildlife habitats.

2. Social Impacts:
o Displacement of local communities.

o Loss of cultural and historical sites.

3. Sedimentation:
o Sediments accumulate in reservoirs, reducing storage capacity over time.
4. Waterlogging and Salinization:

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o Excessive irrigation can harm soil fertility.

5. Seismic Risk:
o Large dams may trigger earthquakes in seismically active areas.

6. Downstream Effects:
o Reduced water flow affects agriculture, fisheries, and ecosystems downstream.

7. High Cost:
o Building and maintaining dams require significant investment.
4. Balancing Benefits and Problems
 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs):

o Conduct studies to minimize harm before dam construction.

 Sustainable Management:
o Ensure fair water sharing and equitable benefits.

 Fish Ladders:

o Allow fish to migrate across dams.

 Catchment Area Treatment:

o Prevent sedimentation by protecting upstream areas.

2.3.1 EFFECTS OF DAM ON TRIBAL PEOPLE

1. Tribal People
 Indigenous communities living in harmony with nature, often dependent on
forests, rivers, and land for their livelihood and culture.
2. Effects of Dams on Tribal People
1. Displacement
 Tribal communities are forced to leave their ancestral lands due to dam

construction and the submergence of villages.

 Leads to loss of homes, livelihoods, and cultural heritage.
2. Loss of Livelihood
 Dams flood forests, farmland, and fishing areas, depriving tribal people of
resources they depend on for survival.
 Difficult to adapt to new environments or jobs after displacement.

3. Cultural Disruption
 Sacred sites, burial grounds, and cultural landmarks are often submerged.
 Breaks the connection between tribal people and their traditional way of life.

4. Inadequate Rehabilitation
 Compensation and resettlement efforts are often insufficient or delayed.
 Tribal people struggle with inadequate housing, poor infrastructure, and lack of
access to schools and healthcare.

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5. Social Marginalization
 Displaced tribal communities face challenges integrating into new areas.

 Loss of identity and discrimination can lead to alienation and poverty.

6. Environmental Changes
 Dams alter local ecosystems, making it harder for tribal people to hunt, gather,

or fish.
 Increased waterlogging and salinization damage nearby land.
3. Examples of Impact
 Narmada Valley Project (India): Thousands of tribal families displaced without

proper resettlement, leading to protests like the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

 Sardar Sarovar Dam: Tribal lands submerged, affecting livelihoods and culture.
4. Solutions to Mitigate Effects
1. Fair Compensation: Provide adequate monetary and land compensation for
displaced families.
2. Proper Rehabilitation: Ensure resettlement areas have good infrastructure, schools,
and healthcare facilities.
3. Participation in Planning: Involve tribal communities in decision-making about
dam projects.
4. Preserving Culture: Protect and respect tribal heritage sites during dam
construction.
5. Alternative Livelihoods: Provide skill training and support for new jobs.
2.4 CONFLICTS OVER WATER
1. Water Conflicts
 Water conflicts occur when different groups or regions compete over access to

water resources.
 Arise due to limited water availability and increasing demand.

2. Causes of Water Conflicts

1. Scarcity:
o Uneven distribution of water resources.

o Overuse, pollution, and climate change reduce water availability.

2. Population Growth:
o Increasing demand for water for drinking, agriculture, and industries.

3. Agriculture and Industry:

o Over-extraction of water for irrigation and factories.
4. Shared Water Bodies:
o Rivers, lakes, and aquifers shared between countries or states lead to disputes.

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Unit II Water resources and Environment microbiology

o Example: Ganges-Brahmaputra (India and Bangladesh).

5. Dams and Diversions:

o Large dams or diversions reduce water flow downstream, affecting others.

6. Pollution:
o Contaminated water reduces usable water, causing conflicts.

3. Examples of Water Conflicts

1. International:
o Nile River: Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt dispute over the Grand Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam.
o Jordan River: Israel, Jordan, and Palestine compete for water.
2. National/State:
o Cauvery Water Dispute (India): Karnataka and Tamil Nadu fight over river
sharing.
o Colorado River (USA): Disputes among states over allocation.
3. Local:
o Conflicts between farmers and urban areas over groundwater extraction.
4. Impacts of Water Conflicts
1. Economic Loss:
o Affects agriculture, industries, and livelihoods.
2. Social Tensions:
o Protests, violence, and strained relations between communities.

3. Environmental Damage:
o Over extraction and mismanagement harm ecosystems.

4. Political Instability:
o Conflicts between countries or regions can escalate.
5. Solutions to Water Conflicts
1. Efficient Water Use:
o Promote conservation, rainwater harvesting, and recycling.

2. Water Treaties:
o Agreements for fair water sharing (e.g., Indus Water Treaty).
3. Integrated Water Management:
o Holistic planning considering all users and ecosystems.

4. Community Participation:
o Involve locals in managing and conserving water.
5. Technology:
o Desalination, efficient irrigation, and wastewater treatment.

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6. Dispute Resolution Mechanisms:

o Establish laws and courts to mediate conflicts peacefully.

2.4.1 WATER AVAILABILITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL, SURFACE LEVEL AND GROUND LEVEL
SOURCES
1. Global Water Availability
 Earth's Water Distribution:

o 97% in oceans (saline, not drinkable).

o 3% is freshwater:
 70% in glaciers and ice caps (not easily accessible).
 30% in groundwater.
 Less than 1% is surface water (rivers, lakes, etc.).
2. Surface Water Sources
 Definition: Water found on the Earth's surface.

 Examples:

o Rivers: Used for drinking, irrigation, and power (e.g., Nile, Amazon).
o Lakes: Natural reservoirs (e.g., Lake Victoria, Great Lakes).
o Reservoirs: Man-made storage behind dams.
o Ponds: Small-scale local water storage.
 Availability:
o Uneven distribution; some regions have abundant rivers, while others are
arid.
o Seasonal variation due to rainfall patterns.
3. Ground water Sources
 Definition: Water stored underground in soil and rock layers.

 Examples:
o Aquifers: Underground layers that store and transmit water.
 Unconfined Aquifers: Close to the surface; recharge easily.
 Confined Aquifers: Deeper and harder to recharge.
o Wells and Boreholes: Extract ground water for use.
 Availability:
o Found globally but more abundant in regions with permeable soil and rocks.
o Over-extraction can lead to depletion and land subsidence.
4. Challenges in Water Availability
 Surface Water:
o Pollution from industries and agriculture.
o Drying rivers due to overuse and climate change.

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 Ground water:

o Over-extraction lowers water tables.

o Contamination from chemicals and saltwater intrusion.
 Global Issues:
o Uneven distribution leads to water scarcity in arid regions.
o Climate change disrupts water cycles, affecting availability.
5. Importance of Sustainable Use
 Conservation: Avoid wastage of surface and groundwater.

 Recharge Efforts: Rainwater harvesting to replenish aquifers.

 Pollution Control: Prevent contamination of water sources.

 Technology: Desalination and efficient irrigation to improve access.

2.5HYDRO PHONICS
1. Define Hydroponics
 Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil.

 Plants are grown in nutrient-rich water or inert mediums like sand, gravel, or clay

pellets.
2. Hydroponics Work
 Nutrients essential for plant growth (like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) are

dissolved in water.
 Plant roots absorb these nutrients directly from the water.

3. Types of Hydroponic Systems

1. Nutrient Film Technique (NFT):
o A thin film of nutrient solution flows over the plant roots.

2. Deep Water Culture (DWC):

o Plant roots are submerged in oxygenated nutrient-rich water.
3. Drip System:
o Nutrients are delivered to plant roots through a drip system.
4. Aeroponics:
o Roots are suspended in air and misted with nutrient solution.

5. Wick System:
o Nutrients are drawn to the plant roots using a wick.
6. Ebb and Flow (Flood and Drain):
o Nutrient solution floods the root zone periodically and then drains.
4. Benefits of Hydroponics
1. Efficient Use of Resources:
o Saves water (up to 90% less than traditional farming).

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2. No Soil Needed:
o Can be used in areas with poor or no soil.

3. Faster Growth:
o Plants grow faster due to direct nutrient absorption.
4. Space-Saving:
o Vertical hydroponic systems maximize limited space.

5. Pest and Disease Control:

o Reduces soil-borne pests and diseases.

6. Year-Round Cultivation:
o Can grow crops indoors with controlled environments.

5. Challenges of Hydroponics
1. High Initial Cost:
o Setting up hydroponic systems can be expensive.

2. Technical Knowledge:
o Requires understanding of nutrient balance, water pH, and system

maintenance.
3. Power Dependency:
o Needs electricity for pumps, lights, and aerators.

4. Risk of System Failure:

o Malfunctioning equipment can harm plants quickly.

6. Popular Crops Grown Using Hydroponics

 Leafy greens (lettuce, spinach, kale).
 Herbs (basil, mint, cilantro).

 Tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, and strawberries.

7. Importance of Hydroponics
 Helps grow food in urban areas and deserts.

 Conserves water and reduces agricultural land usage.

 Contributes to food security and sustainable farming practices.

2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS

1. Define Microorganisms
 Microorganisms are tiny living organisms visible only under a microscope.
 Include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae.

2. Classification of Microorganisms
Microorganisms are classified into five major groups:
1. Bacteria
 Characteristics:

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o Single-celled organisms (prokaryotes).

o No nucleus; DNA floats in the cytoplasm.
o Reproduce rapidly by binary fission.
 Examples:
o E. coli, Streptococcus.
 Types (Based on Shape):

o Cocci (spherical), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spirilla (spiral), Vibrios (comma-

shaped).
2. Viruses
 Characteristics:

o Non-living outside a host; require a host cell to reproduce.

o Made of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat.
 Examples:

o Influenza virus, HIV, Coronavirus.

 Size:

o Smaller than bacteria.

3. Fungi
 Characteristics:

o Eukaryotic organisms (have a nucleus).

o Can be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular (molds, mushrooms).
o Decompose organic matter.
 Examples:
o Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Mold (Aspergillus).
4. Protozoa
 Characteristics:
o Single-celled eukaryotic organisms.
o Move using cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia.
o Often parasitic.
 Examples:

o Amoeba, Plasmodium (causes malaria).

5. Algae
 Characteristics:

o Photosynthetic organisms (produce their own food).

o Can be unicellular (e.g., Chlamydomonas) or multicellular (e.g., seaweed).
o Found in water or moist environments.
 Examples:

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Unit II Water resources and Environment microbiology

o Spirogyra, Chlorella.
3. Importance of Microorganisms
 Beneficial Roles:

o Decompose organic waste.

o Produce antibiotics (e.g., Penicillium).
o Aid in food production (e.g., yogurt, bread).
o Fix nitrogen in soil (Rhizobium).
 Harmful Roles:

o Cause diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, malaria).

o Spoil food and materials.
2.6.1 ROLE OF MICROORGANISM IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1. Wastewater Treatment
 Wastewater treatment is the process of cleaning sewage or industrial waste to

make it safe for reuse or discharge into the environment.

 Microorganisms play a key role in breaking down pollutants.

2. Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment

Microorganisms help remove organic and inorganic waste by digesting it. They are
used in three main stages of treatment:
1. Primary Treatment (Minimal Role of Microorganisms)
 Focus: Removal of large solids and floating debris.

 Microorganisms are not significantly involved at this stage.

2. Secondary Treatment (Key Role of Microorganisms)

 Purpose: Breakdown of organic matter using microorganisms.

 Key Processes:

o Activated Sludge Process:

 Wastewater is aerated to allow bacteria to grow and digest organic
pollutants.
 Common microbes: Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter.
o Trickling Filters:
 Wastewater flows over a bed of stones or plastic with biofilm
(microorganisms).
 Microorganisms digest waste.
o Anaerobic Digesters:
 In oxygen-free conditions, anaerobic bacteria break down organic
material to produce biogas (methane).
 Example microbes: Methanobacterium, Clostridium.

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3. Tertiary Treatment (Specific Role of Microorganisms)

 Purpose: Further purification to remove pathogens and nutrients.

 Key Processes:

o Use of specific microbes to remove nitrates, phosphates, and harmful

chemicals.
o Example microbes: Denitrifying bacteria like Pseudomonas.
4. Types of Microorganisms Used
1. Bacteria:
o Decompose organic pollutants into simpler compounds.
o Examples: Bacillus, Pseudomonas.
2. Fungi:
o Break down complex organic materials like lignin and cellulose.
o Examples: Trichoderma, Aspergillus.
3. Protozoa:
o Consume bacteria and organic debris, helping to clarify water.
o Examples: Paramecium, Amoeba.
4. Algae:
o Produce oxygen during photosynthesis, supporting bacterial growth.
o Examples: Chlorella, Spirogyra.
5. Benefits of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
 Cost-effective and natural method.

 Produces biogas as a renewable energy source.

 Reduces harmful pathogens and pollutants.

 Converts waste into usable by-products like fertilizers.

6. Challenges
 Sensitive to environmental changes (e.g., pH, temperature).

 Toxic chemicals in wastewater can harm microbial communities.

 Requires proper management to maintain microbial balance.

2.6.2 BACTERIAL NUTRITION AND GROWTH

1. Bacterial Nutrition
Bacteria require nutrients for energy, growth, and reproduction. Nutrients are
obtained from their environment and can be classified based on how they obtain energy and
carbon.
1. Types of Bacterial Nutrition:
1. Autotrophic Bacteria:
o Make their own food using inorganic substances.

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o Photoautotrophs: Use sunlight for energy (e.g., Cyanobacteria).

o Chemoautotrophs: Use chemical reactions for energy (e.g., Nitrosomonas).
2. Heterotrophic Bacteria:
o Depend on organic substances for food.
o Saprophytic: Feed on dead organic matter (e.g., Bacillus).
o Parasitic: Feed on a living host, often causing harm (e.g., Salmonella).
o Symbiotic: Live in mutual benefit with other organisms (e.g., Rhizobium in
plants).
3. Mixotrophic Bacteria:
o Combine autotrophic and heterotrophic modes (e.g., Beggiatoa).
4. Nutrient Requirements:
 Macronutrients: Needed in large amounts (e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

nitrogen, phosphorus).
 Micronutrients: Needed in small amounts (e.g., iron, zinc, copper).

2. Bacterial Growth
1. Growth Process:
 Bacterial growth refers to the increase in the number of cells, not the size of
individual cells.
 Bacteria reproduce a sexually by binary fission (one cell divides into two).
2. Phases of Bacterial Growth (in a culture):
1. Lag Phase:
o Bacteria prepare for growth by synthesizing enzymes and absorbing
nutrients.
o No significant increase in number.
2. Log (Exponential) Phase:
o Rapid cell division.
o Population doubles at a constant rate.
3. Stationary Phase:
o Growth slows as resources are depleted.
o Number of new cells equals the number of dying cells.
4. Death (Decline) Phase:
o Cells die due to lack of nutrients and accumulation of waste products.
3. Factors Affecting Bacterial Growth:
 Temperature:
o Optimal ranges:
 Psychrophiles: Cold-loving (0–20°C).

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 Mesophiles: Moderate temperatures (20–45°C).

 Thermophiles: Heat-loving (45–80°C).
 pH: Most bacteria prefer neutral pH (6.5–7.5).

 Oxygen:
o Aerobes: Require oxygen.
o Anaerobes: Grow without oxygen.
o Facultative Anaerobes: Can survive with or without oxygen.
 Nutrients: Availability of essential nutrients.

 Water: Necessary for metabolic processes.

3. Importance of Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

 Used in biotechnology for producing medicines, enzymes, and fermented foods.
 Helps in waste decomposition and nutrient cycling.

 Pathogenic bacteria can cause diseases, so understanding their growth helps in

control.

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Unit III Air and Noise Pollution

3.1 AIR POLLUTION&AIR POLLUTANTS

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere that can
adversely affect human health, the environment, and the climate. These substances may be
solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and they can originate from natural sources (such
as volcanoes and wildfires) or anthropogenic (human-made) sources (such as vehicles,
industrial facilities, and agriculture).
3.1.1 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Natural Sources
1. Volcanic Eruptions
o Release ash, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and other gases into the atmosphere.
2. Wildfires
o Produce smoke containing particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO),
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
3. Dust Storms
o Lift vast amounts of dust and sand, contributing to airborne particulate
matter.
4. Biological Processes
o Emission of pollen, mold spores, and other allergens from plants and animals.
5. Oceanic Sources
o Sea spray and natural marine emissions can release salt particles and sulfur
compounds.
Anthropogenic (Human-Made) Sources
1. Transportation
o Vehicles: Cars, trucks, buses, and airplanes emit nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.
o Ships: Maritime shipping can release sulfur compounds and nitrogen oxides.
2. Industrial Activities
o Factories and power plants emit sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and heavy
metals.
3. Power Generation
o Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) generates emissions such as carbon
dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
4. Agricultural Practices
o Use of fertilizers and pesticides releases ammonia (NH3) and VOCs. Livestock
farming contributes methane (CH4).

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5. Waste Disposal and Landfills

o Decomposition of organic waste produces methane (CH4) and other gases.
Incineration can release dioxins, furans, and particulate matter.
6. Household Activities
o Cooking, heating, and using certain cleaning products can emit VOCs and
particulate matter.
7. Construction and Demolition
o Dust and emissions from machinery contribute to particulate matter and
other pollutants.
3.1.2 AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutants are harmful substances in the air that can affect human health and the
environment. They are classified based on their origin, chemical nature, and impact.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
1. Natural Sources
o Volcanic Eruptions: Emit ash and sulfur dioxide.
o Forest Fires: Release particulate matter and carbon monoxide.
o Dust Storms: Contribute to airborne particulate matter.
o Biological Processes: Emission of pollen, mold spores, and other allergens.
2. Anthropogenic (Human-Made) Sources
o Transportation: Cars, trucks, and airplanes emit nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons.
o Industry: Factories release sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and particulate matter.
o Power Generation: Burning of fossil fuels contributes to sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide (CO2).
o Agricultural Activities: Use of fertilizers and pesticides can release ammonia
(NH3) and VOCs.
o Waste Disposal: Landfills emit methane (CH4) and other gases.
3.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
1. Primary Pollutants: Directly emitted into the atmosphere.
o Examples: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
2. Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions.
o Examples: Ozone (O3), formed from NOx and VOCs in the presence of
sunlight; smog, formed from various pollutants.

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3. Criteria Pollutants: Commonly monitored pollutants due to their health and

environmental effects.
o Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5)
o Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
o Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
o Carbon Monoxide (CO)
o Ozone (O3)
o Lead (Pb)
3.1.4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
1. Respiratory Issues
o Irritation of airways, increased asthma attacks, and chronic bronchitis.
o Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) can penetrate lung tissue and enter the
bloodstream.
2. Cardiovascular Problems
o Air pollution can lead to heart disease, hypertension, and increased risk of
heart attacks.
3. Neurological Effects
o Some studies suggest links between pollution and neurological diseases,
including cognitive decline and conditions like Alzheimer's.
4. Cancer
o Long-term exposure to certain air pollutants (e.g., benzene, formaldehyde) is
associated with increased cancer risk.
5. Developmental Issues
o Exposure during pregnancy can affect fetal development, leading to low birth
weight, preterm births, and developmental disorders.
6. Overall Mortalities
o Studies show that long-term exposure to high levels of air pollution is linked
to premature deaths.
3.1.5 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
Definition: Ambient air quality refers to the condition of the air in the surrounding
environment. It is measured by the concentration of pollutants present in the air.
Major Pollutants:
 Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny particles or droplets in the air (e.g., PM2.5, PM10).
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): A gas produced from vehicle emissions and industrial
processes.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Emitted from burning fossil fuels and industrial activities.

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 Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas from incomplete combustion of

fuels.
 Ozone (O3): A secondary pollutant formed by the reaction of sunlight with
pollutants like NOx and VOCs.
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic chemicals that can evaporate into
the air and contribute to smog.
Importance of ambient air quality: Monitoring ambient air quality is critical for assessing
public health, environmental impacts, and regulatory compliance.
3.1.6 EMISSION STANDARDS
Definition: Emission standards are regulatory limits set to control the amount of pollutants
released into the atmosphere from various sources.
Significance of emission standards
 Purpose: To protect public health and the environment by reducing harmful
emissions from industrial processes, vehicles, and other sources.
 Types of Standards:
o Primary Standards: Protect human health (e.g., limits on CO, NOx, PM).
o Secondary Standards: Protect the environment (e.g., limits on sulfur dioxide
for protecting wildlife)
Common Standard Agencies:
 United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Sets national air quality
standards in the U.S.
 European Environment Agency (EEA): Develops air quality standards in Europe.
 World Health Organization (WHO): Provides guidelines for air quality to protect
global public health.
Major concepts involved
1. Air Quality Index (AQI): A numerical scale that communicates air quality levels to
the public. It reflects the level of major pollutants.
2. Monitoring: Ambient air quality is monitored using networks of air quality stations
that measure pollutant concentrations in real-time.
3. Compliance: Industries must comply with emission standards to avoid penalties
and protect the environment.
4. Mitigation Strategies: Measures taken to reduce emissions include cleaner
technologies, transitioning to renewable energy, and enforcing stricter regulations.
Need for ambient air quality and emission standards
 Ambient air quality is essential for understanding pollution levels in the
environment.

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 Emission standards are crucial for regulating pollutants released by various sources
to protect health and the environment.
 Monitoring air quality and ensuring compliance with standards are fundamental to
improving overall air quality.
3.1.7 PARTICULATE MATTER
Definition of Particulate Matter (PM)
 Particulate Matter (PM) refers to tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air.
 Can consist of a variety of substances, including dust, dirt, soot, and smoke.
Types of Particulate Matter
1. PM10:
o Diameter of 10 micrometers or smaller.
o Can be inhaled into the respiratory system.
o Sources: Dust from roads, pollen, mold spores, and some industrial
processes.
2. PM2.5:
o Diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller.
o More dangerous because it can penetrate deeper into the lungs and even
enter the bloodstream.
o Sources: Combustion processes, vehicle emissions, industrial discharge, and
organic compounds.
Sources of Particulate Matter
1. Natural Sources:
o Wildfires
o Volcanoes
o Dust storms
o Sea spray
2. Anthropogenic (Human-Made) Sources:
o Vehicle emissions
o Industrial activities
o Construction sites
o Agricultural practices (e.g., tilling, burning of fields)
o Residential heating (wood burning)
Health Effects of Particulate Matter
 Respiratory Issues: Can cause asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory diseases.
 Cardiovascular Problems: Linked to heart attacks, strokes, and other heart
diseases.

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 Premature Death: Long-term exposure can increase risks of serious health

conditions.
Environmental Impact
 Affects air quality and visibility.
 Contributes to the formation of smog and acid rain.
 Harms wildlife and ecosystems.
Regulation and Standards
 Air Quality Standards: Governments set limits for acceptable levels of PM in the air
(e.g., EPA and WHO guidelines).
 Monitoring: Air quality monitors are installed in various locations to track PM levels
and inform public health measures.
Ways to Reduce Particulate Matter
1. Reduce Emissions: Encourage the use of cleaner technologies and fuels.
2. Promote Public Transport: Decrease reliance on personal vehicles.
3. Control Dust: Implement dust control measures in construction and mining.
4. Increase Green Spaces: Planting trees and vegetation helps absorb PM.
3.2 AIR POLLUTANTS CONTROLEQUIPMENT’S
(GravitySeparator-Centrifugalseparator-fabricfilter-Electrostaticseparator,
Catalyticconvertors)
1. GRAVITY SEPARATOR
Definition: A gravity separator uses
gravitational forces to remove larger
particulate matter from the air.
 Principle: Heavier particles fall
to the bottom due to gravity,
while cleaner air moves upward.
 Design: Typically consists of a chamber or duct where the
airflow velocity is reduced.
Applications:
 Used in industries to reduce dust emissions from
processes such as wood milling or mining.
2. CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR
Definition: A centrifugal separator removes particulate matter
and aerosols from the air by using centrifugal forces.
 Principle: Air is forced to flow in a circular motion,
causing heavier particles to move outward due to centrifugal force.

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 Design: Usually features an inlet, a spinning chamber, and an outlet.

Applications:
 Commonly used in industries to clean air from dust, fog, and oil mist, especially in
ventilation systems and exhaust applications.
3. FABRIC FILTER (BAGHOUSE)
Definition: A fabric filter collects particulate matter by passing air through fabric bags that
trap dust and other particles.
How It Works:
 Principle: As air enters the filter,
particles are trapped on the surface
of the fabric.
 Maintenance: Periodic cleaning of
the bags (via shaking or pulsing air
jets) is required to remove
accumulated dust.
Applications:
 Widely used in industrial processes,
such as cement production, power
plants, and metal manufacturing, for controlling emissions.
4. ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATOR (ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR)
Definition: An electrostatic separator uses electrical charges to remove particles from the
air.
How It Works:
 Principle: Particles are
charged as they pass
through an electric field
and are collected on
charged plates or
surfaces.
 Process: The air stream is
ionized, causing
negatively charged particles to move towards positively charged plates.
Applications:
 Commonly used in power plants, waste incinerators, and manufacturing facilities to
control fine particulate emissions.
5. CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

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Unit III Air and Noise Pollution

Definition: A catalytic converter is a device

that reduces harmful emissions from
internal combustion engines.
 Components: Contains a catalyst
(usually made of platinum,
palladium, and rhodium) that
facilitates chemical reactions
without being consumed.
 Process: Converts harmful gases
(e.g., carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and unburned hydrocarbons) into less
harmful emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide and nitrogen).
Applications:
 Found in automobiles and some industrial applications to reduce vehicle emissions
and comply with environmental regulations.
3.3 NOISE POLLUTION
Definition of Noise Pollution
 Noise pollution is defined as excessive or harmful levels of noise in the environment,
which can impact human health and well-being.
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Transportation:
o Traffic noise from cars, buses, and trucks.
o Aircraft noise from planes taking off and landing.
o Train noise from railways.
2. Industrial Activities:
o Machinery and equipment used in factories and construction sites.
o Hammering, drilling, and other loud construction activities.
3. Urbanization:
o Increased population density leading to higher noise levels.
o Public events, concerts, and nightlife.
4. Household Sources:
o Appliances and tools, such as lawn mowers, vacuum cleaners, and music
systems.
5. Loudspeakers and Public Announcements:
o Use of loudspeakers in public spaces, festivals, and gatherings.
Consequences of Noise Pollution
1. Health Effects:

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o Hearing Loss: Prolonged exposure to loud noise can damage hearing.

o Stress and Anxiety: Continuous noise can lead to increased stress levels and
anxiety.
o Sleep Disturbances: Noise can interfere with sleep quality and duration.
o Cardiovascular Issues: Linked to heart problems due to stress and lack of
sleep.
2. Cognitive Impairments:
o Can affect concentration, memory, and overall mental performance,
especially in children.
3. Quality of Life:
o Reduces the overall quality of life by affecting relaxation and enjoyment of
living spaces.
4. Environmental Impact:
o Disturbance to wildlife habitats and behaviors, leading to changes in local
ecosystems.
Control Measures for Noise Pollution
1. Urban Planning:
o Zoning laws to separate noisy industries from residential areas.
o Designing cities with quieter areas for leisure and homes.
2. Noise Barriers:
o Constructing walls or barriers to block noise from highways and railways.
3. Regulations:
o Implementing strict noise regulations and penalties for violations.
o Setting maximum allowable noise levels for various activities.
4. Public Awareness:
o Educating the public about the effects of noise pollution and ways to
minimize it.
5. Technology:
o Use of quieter machinery and appliances.
o Promoting electric vehicles to reduce noise from traditional engines.
3.3.1 Modern Tools Used in Pollution Mitigation Measures
1. Noise Monitoring Devices:
o Use of sound level meters to measure noise levels in real-time.
o Continuous monitoring systems that collect data for analysis.
2. Soundproofing Materials:

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o Installing acoustic panels and soundproof windows in buildings to minimize

noise transmission.
3. Smart Technologies:
o Smart city technologies that utilize sensors to monitor and manage noise
pollution.
o Use of mobile apps that allow citizens to report noise issues.
4. Automated Traffic Control Systems:
o Traffic management systems that optimize traffic flow to reduce congestion
and associated noise.
5. Community Engagement Platforms:
o Online platforms that allow residents to voice concerns and participate in
noise reduction efforts.
3.3.2 Sustainable Activity in Pollution Control
Definition
Sustainable pollution control refers to practices, technologies, and policies designed
to reduce pollution in a way that is environmentally friendly, economically viable, and
socially acceptable. The goal is to achieve long-term benefits without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Key Sustainable Activities in Pollution Control
1. Waste Reduction and Management:
o Recycling Programs: Encouraging reprocessing of materials like paper,
plastics, and metals to reduce landfill waste.
o Composting: Turning organic waste into nutrient-rich compost to reduce
waste and enhance soil health.
2. Renewable Energy Adoption:
o Solar and Wind Energy: Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy
sources to decrease greenhouse gas emissions.
o Bioenergy: Utilizing organic materials as a renewable energy source,
reducing waste and emissions.
3. Green Infrastructure:
o Urban Green Spaces: Creating parks and green roofs to improve air quality,
manage storm water, and reduce heat.
o Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS): Implementing systems that mimic
natural water management to reduce runoff and pollution.
4. Pollution Prevention Practices:

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o Clean Production Techniques: Redesigning manufacturing processes to

minimize waste and emissions.
o Eco-labeling: Certification for products that meet environmental standards,
promoting sustainable consumption.
5. Community Engagement and Education:
o Public Awareness Campaigns: Informing the community about pollution
issues and promoting sustainable practices.
o Incentive Programs: Providing financial or other incentives for businesses
and individuals to adopt pollution-reducing practices.
3.4 RECENT CASE STUDIES – WORLD WIDE
1. Case Study: The Circular Economy in Amsterdam, Netherlands
o Overview: Amsterdam has committed to becoming a circular city by 2050,
emphasizing recycling and waste reduction.
o Initiatives: The city promotes the repurposing of materials in construction projects
and has developed an online platform for sharing resources.
o Outcome: Increased recycling rates and reduced waste sent to landfills by 30% since
implementation.
2. Case Study: Solar Energy in Germany
o Overview: Germany has implemented a national solar energy program, leading the
shift to renewable energy.
o Initiatives: Incentives for installing solar panels and feed-in tariffs for solar energy
producers.
o Outcome: As of 2023, Germany generates over 30% of its electricity from solar
energy, significantly reducing carbon emissions.
3. Case Study: Green Roofs in Toronto, Canada
o Overview: Toronto has adopted green roofs as part of its urban planning to manage
stormwater and improve air quality.
o Initiatives: Mandatory green roofs on new commercial buildings and financial
incentives for residential installations.
o Outcome: Improved urban biodiversity, reduced heat island effect, and better
stormwater management.
4. Case Study: Eco-Friendly Initiatives in Bhutan
o Overview: Bhutan's comprehensive environmental policies prioritize sustainability
and preservation of natural resources.
o Initiatives: Promotion of organic farming, banning plastic bags, and investing in
renewable energy sources like hydropower.

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o Outcome: Bhutan has maintained a carbon-negative status due to its extensive

forest cover and sustainable practices.
5. Case Study: Sustainable Transportation in Copenhagen, Denmark
o Overview: Copenhagen aims to become the world's first carbon-neutral capital by
2025 through sustainable transportation.
o Initiatives: Expansion of cycling infrastructure, promotion of public transport, and
electric vehicle charging stations.
o Outcome: The city has seen a significant increase in cycling rates and a substantial
reduction in emissions from transportation.
RECENT CASE STUDIES – IN INDIA
1. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
o Overview: Launched in 2014, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission)
aims to improve sanitation and cleanliness across India.
o Initiatives:
 Construction of toilets in rural and urban areas.
 Waste management initiatives focusing on segregation and recycling.
 Awareness campaigns to promote cleanliness and hygiene.
o Outcome: Significant reduction in open defecation and improved waste
management in numerous cities, contributing to better public health.
2. Delhi's Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
o Overview: In response to severe air pollution levels, Delhi implemented the Graded
Response Action Plan to address pollution based on severity.
o Initiatives:
 Implementing measures like odd-even vehicle rotation scheme, restrictions
on construction activities, and increased monitoring of industrial emissions
during high pollution days.
 Promotion of public transportation and non-motorized transport.
o Outcome: Temporary improvements in air quality during implementation phases,
and increased public awareness about air pollution.
3. Ganga River Rejuvenation
o Overview: The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) was initiated to clean and
restore the Ganga River through sustainable practices.
o Initiatives:
 Construction of sewage treatment plants (STPs) to treat wastewater before
it enters the river.
 Riverfront development and afforestation projects along the riverbanks.

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 Community involvement through awareness programs and clean-up drives.

o Outcome: Improved water quality in certain stretches of the Ganga and increased
public participation in conservation efforts.
4. Air Quality Monitoring in Bengaluru
o Overview: The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board has been actively
monitoring air quality in Bengaluru.
o Initiatives:
 Deployment of real-time air quality monitoring stations to track pollution
levels.
 Public apps and websites providing real-time data to residents to raise
awareness and encourage behavior changes.
 Partnerships with tech companies to analyze data and derive actionable
insights.
o Outcome: Enhanced public knowledge about air quality, leading to better
compliance with pollution control measures.
5. Forest Conservation and Restoration Initiatives
o Overview: Programs focused on reforesting degraded lands and conserving existing
forests to combat urban pollution and enhance biodiversity.
o Initiatives:
 The Green India Mission aims to increase forest cover and restore degraded
ecosystems.
 Community participation in afforestation drives, involving local
communities in protecting and managing forest resources.
o Outcome: Increased carbon sequestration, improved air quality, and enhanced
biodiversity in various regions.
6. Zero Waste Initiatives in Pune
o Overview: Pune has implemented a zero waste management initiative to handle
solid waste sustainably.
o Initiatives:
 Engaging local communities in waste segregation at source and promoting
composting.
 Establishment of material recovery facilities and recycling programs.
o Outcome: A significant increase in waste diversion from landfills, contributing to
cleaner urban environments.
7. Sustainable Urban Transport Initiatives

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o Overview: Cities like Ahmedabad and Delhi are promoting sustainable public
transport solutions.
o Initiatives:
 Development of BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit System) in Ahmedabad and the
Delhi Metro, which provides efficient and eco-friendly public transport
options.
 Introduction of electric buses and auto rickshaws to reduce emissions.
o Outcome: Improved air quality and reduced traffic congestion, encouraging more
residents to use public transport.
3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT
The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of 1986 is a key legislation in India aimed at
protecting and improving the environment and regulating hazardous activities. The act was
enacted in response to the growing concerns over environmental degradation and pollution
caused by industrialization and urbanization.
Key Objectives
1. Protection of the Environment: To safeguard the environment, which includes air,
water, and soil, from pollution and degradation.
2. Improvement of Environmental Quality: To enhance the quality of the environment
for the benefit of present and future generations.
3. Regulation of Hazardous Waste: To regulate hazardous substances and promote safe
handling and disposal methods.
4. Development of Environmental Standards: To establish standards for the quality of
air, water, soil, and noise.
Main Provisions
1. Definition of Key Concepts:
o "Environment": Includes water, air, land, and its interrelationship that exists
among these.
o "Hazardous Waste": Waste that can cause danger or harm to human health or
the environment.
2. Power to Notify:
o The government has the authority to notify areas that require protection,
regulate discharges of pollutants, and control hazardous substances.
3. Environmental Clearance:
o Projects that may have a significant impact on the environment must undergo
a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before approval.
4. Standards for Pollution:

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o The Act empowers the central government to set standards for emissions and
effluents, ensuring compliance to protect environmental quality.
5. Penalties and Offences:
o The Act prescribes penalties for non-compliance and provides for legal
actions against offenders, including fines and imprisonment.
6. Role of Central and State Boards:
o Establishes the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution
Control Boards (SPCBs) to monitor, assess, and report on environmental
quality and pollution control.
7. Environmental Protection Authority:
o The government may appoint an authority to oversee the enforcement of the
Act and implement various environmental policies and regulations.
Important Amendments & Related Acts
 The EPA has undergone several amendments over the years to strengthen
environmental governance.
 Related acts include:
o Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
o Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
o Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
o Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Impact and Achievements
 The EPA has facilitated the establishment of regulatory frameworks for pollution
control, waste management, and environmental assessment.
 It has led to improved air and water quality in many regions and raised public
awareness regarding environmental issues.
Challenges
 Implementation and enforcement of the Act remain challenging due to lack of
resources, corruption, and coordination between various government bodies.
 Industrial growth often leads to conflicts between development and environmental
protection.

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Unit IV Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Management
4.1 Solid Waste
Any material that is thrown away as unwanted is considered as solid waste.
4.1.1 Classification of solid waste
1. Municipal Waste
2. Industrial Waste
3. Agricultural waste
4. Medical waste
5. Mining waste
6. Sewage sludge
4.1.2 Sources of solid waste (causes)
I. Urban wastes
Urban wastes consist of medical waste from hospitals, municipal solid wastes form
homes, offices, markets, horticulture wastes from parks, gardens, orchards etc.
II. Industrial wastes
 It includes materials including factory rubbish, packaging materials, organic
wastes, acids, alkalis and metals etc.
 Nuclear power plants generate radioactive wastes.
 Thermal power plants produce fly ash in large quantities.
 Chemical industries produce large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
Effects of solid wastes
 The domestic wastes from houses produce foul smell and breed various types of
insects.
 Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which
affect the productivity of soils.
 The toxic wastes percolate into the ground and contaminate ground water.
 Burning of wastes containing cans, pesticides batteries etc. produces dioxins,
furans and polychlorinated biphenyls which are cancerous in nature.
4.1.3 Management of solid wastes (Control Measures)
I. Stress is made on ―three R‘s – reduce, reuse and recycle. The process of reducing,
reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw materials, land scope and also reduces
pollution.
(i) Reduction in use of raw materials: (REDUCE)
Reduction in the use of raw materials will decrease the production of waste.
(ii) Reuse of waste material: - (REUSE)
The refillable containers discarded after use can be reused.
Making of rubber rings from discarded cycle tubes.

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Unit IV Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Management
(iii) Recycling of materials: - (RECYCLE)
Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products.
E.g: Glass bottles are melted to recast into new bottles.
Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.
II. Methods for discarding waste
a) Sanitary Landfill
b) Composting
c) Incineration
a) Sanitary Landfill
Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80cm thick
refuse, covered with selected earth fill of 20cm thickness. After two or three years, solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and the land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
Advantages of landfill
1. Simple & Economical
2. Segregation of waste not required.
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes.
Disadvantages
1. Large area is required.
2. Bad odour arises, if landfills are not properly dealt with.
3. It may become a source of mosquitoes and flies if not properly done.
4. It may cause fire hazards due to the formation of methane during wet weather.
b) Composting
In the process, the solid wastes are decomposed by bio chemical bacteriological
process under controlled conditions.
1. Aerobic decomposition – decomposition in the presence of air.
2. Anaerobic decomposition - decomposition in the absence of air.
The end product is known as humus. Humus is a good quality, nutrient rich,
environmentally friendly manure which improves soil conditions and fertility.
Advantages
1. No harm to the environment.
2. Manure obtained can be sold and the cost of disposing is reduced.
Disadvantages
1. The non-degradable wastes have to be disposed separately.
2. Use of compost manure has not yet caught up with farmers and hence no
assured market.
c) Incineration
It involves the burning of solid waste at high temperature between 850°C – 100°C

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o It is a hygienic way of disposing solid wastes.
o The combustible substances are separated from non-combustible substances
Before incineration.
o Only 10-20% of ash is obtained.
o The heat produced during burning is converted to electrical energy.
o The solid wastes should be dried up before burning.
Advantages
1. Requires little space.
2. It is a hygienic and safe method.
3. Power is generated.
4. It occupies less space.
Disadvantages
1. The initial cost is very high.
2. Leads to air pollution due to the emission of smoke, dust and ash.
4.2 Plastic waste
Plastic waste is a global problem that refers to the accumulation of plastic objects and
particles in the environment.
Examples
 Cigarette butts: The most common type of plastic waste, with filters containing

tiny plastic fibres

 Food wrappers: A common type of plastic waste

 Plastic bottles and caps: A common type of plastic waste

 Plastic bags: A common type of plastic waste

 Plastic straws and stirrers: A common type of plastic waste

 Cotton bud sticks: A type of single-use plastic

 Cutlery, plates, and cups: A type of single-use plastic
 Balloons and sticks for balloons: A type of single-use plastic

 Micro-plastics: Small pieces of plastic that come from things like synthetic
clothing and glitter
4.2.1 Causes of plastic pollution
 Single-use products: Items like bottles, bags, cups, and straws are often thrown

away after a single use, contributing to plastic pollution.

 Unsustainable production: The production of plastic without regard to the

environment can lead to a large amount of plastic waste.

 Inadequate waste management: In many areas, there is not enough infra-

structure to manage plastic waste.

 Open burning: Burning plastic releases toxic substances into the air.

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Unit IV Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Management
 Food waste: Consumers throw away a lot of food that could be eaten,

contributing to plastic pollution.

 Micro-plastics: Personal care products and other items can release micro-
plastics into the environment.
 Tyre abrasion: Tyres wearing down can release plastic into the environment.

 Construction: Construction activities can release plastic into the environment.

 Agriculture: The use of fertilizers in crop production can release greenhouse
gases.
4.2.2 Harmful effects of plastics
 Kills Animals.
 Litters the landscape.

 Non-Biodegradable.

 Plastic bags block drains.

 Plastic releases toxic when burned.

 Plastic pollutes soil.

 Plastic pollutes ocean.

 Petroleum is required to produce plastic bags.

4.2.3 Plastic waste management
Plastic waste management is the collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste.
It is a complex issue that involves a variety of stakeholders, including governments,
businesses, and individuals
4.2.4 Steps manage plastic waste
 Reduce your use of plastic. One of the best ways to reduce plastic waste is to

reduce your use of plastic in the first place. This means choosing products that are made
from sustainable materials, such as paper or glass, and avoiding products that are
packaged in plastic.
 Recycle plastic whenever possible. When you do use plastic, make sure to

recycle it whenever possible. Recycling plastic helps to reduce the amount of plastic that
ends up in our landfills and oceans.
 Dispose of plastic properly. When you dispose of plastic, make sure to do it
properly. This means putting it in the recycling bin or taking it to a hazardous waste
disposal facility.
 Support businesses that are working to reduce plastic pollution. There are a

number of businesses that are working to reduce their plastic footprint. By supporting
these businesses, you can help to make a difference.
 Get involved in your community. There are a number of ways to get involved in
your community to help fight plastic pollution. You can volunteer for a beach cleanup,

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start a community compost program, or even start your own business that helps to
reduce plastic pollution.
4.3 Biomedical waste
Biomedical waste is any waste generated from the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization
of humans or animals. It can also include waste from research activities, the production
of biological, or health camps.
Examples of biomedical waste
 Human waste: Urine, feces, blood, and other body fluids

 Animal waste: Carcasses, body parts, and bedding

 Sharps: Needles, syringes, scalpels, and other sharp objects
 Pharmaceutical waste: Expired or unused medications, empty containers, and

packaging
 Microbiological waste: Cultures, stocks, and other materials that have come into
contact with infectious agents
 Pathological waste: Human tissues, organs, and body parts removed during

surgery, biopsy, and other medical procedures

 Chemical waste: Solvents, reagents, disinfectants, and heavy metals
 Cytotoxic waste: Substances with genotoxic properties, such as cytostatic drugs

4.3.1 Causes of biomedical waste

 Infectious waste

Waste contaminated with bodily fluids, such as blood, or waste from patients with
infections. This includes bandages, swabs, and other disposable medical devices.
 Chemical waste

Liquid waste containing chemicals like disinfectants, solvents, reagents, sterilants,

and heavy metals.
 Pathological waste
Infectious materials like dead tissue, blood, bodily fluids, tissues, organs, body
parts, human fetuses, and animal corpses.
 Radioactive waste

Products contaminated by radionuclides, such as radioactive diagnostic or

radiotherapeutic materials.
 Cytotoxic waste

Waste associated with cytotoxic drugs, which contain chemicals that are toxic to
cells.
Improper management and disposal of biomedical waste can lead to the spread of
diseases and injuries to healthcare personnel and waste handlers.

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4.3.2 Harmful effects of biomedical waste
 Infectious diseases: Biomedical waste can contain bacteria, viruses, and
parasites that cause infections like HIV, hepatitis B and C, tuberculosis, cholera,
and pneumonia
 Sharps injuries: Needles, syringes, and other sharp objects in biomedical waste

can cause injuries to medical staff, waste handlers, and the public
 Toxic exposure: Biomedical waste can contain toxic substances like mercury,
dioxins, and pharmaceutical products
 Chemical burns: Disinfection, sterilization, and waste treatment can cause
chemical burns
 Thermal injuries: Open burning and incinerators can cause thermal injuries

 Radiation burns: Biomedical waste can cause radiation burns

4.3.3 Biomedical waste Management

Biomedical waste management is the process of collecting, treating, and
disposing of waste generated from healthcare facilities. This waste can be hazardous
and infectious, so it's important to manage it properly.
4.3.3.1 Steps in biomedical waste management
Collection: Use different containers for different types of waste, and place them
in a way that ensures 100% collection.
Segregation: Separate waste into different categories and store it in identifiable
containers.
Transportation: Use covered wheelbarrows or trolleys to transport the
waste. Avoid manual loading.
Treatment: Use technologies like incineration, autoclaving, or microwave
heating to treat the waste.
Disposal: Dispose of the waste at a Common Biomedical Waste Treatment
Facility (CBMWTF).
4.3.3.2 Biomedical waste management guidelines
 The Biomedical Waste Management & Handling Rules, 1998 came into force in

1998.
 The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified medical waste into eight

categories.
 Sharps must be kept in puncture-proof containers.

 Storage duration should not exceed 8-10 hours in big hospitals and 24 hours in
nursing homes.
 The storage area should be marked with a caution sign.

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Unit IV Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Management
4.4 Hazardous waste
Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or
the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, sludge ‘s, discarded
commercial products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or the by-products of
manufacturing processes.
4.4.1 Characteristics of hazardous waste
1. Ignitability
A waste is considered to be an ignitable hazardous waste if its flash point is less than
60°C. Ex: Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives, and oil-based paints etc.
2. Corrosivity
Any type of liquid waste whose pH is less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal
to 12.5 is considered to be corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide (High pH)
and hydrochloric acid (Low pH) is often used in many industries to clean or
degrease metal parts.
3. Reactivity
A material is considered as reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts
violently with water, and generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive
materials, or explodes when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples of reactive wastes
would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or
sulphides.
4. Toxicity
Toxicity of a hazardous waste can be determined by taking a representative sample
of the material and subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory and toxic
characteristics can be determined.
4.4.2 Categories of hazardous wastes
1. Radioactive substance
Radioactive waste is the type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material.
Radioactive waste is a by-product of various nuclear technology processes, industries
based on nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power, manufacturing,
construction, coal and rare-earth mining and nuclear weapons reprocessing.
2. Chemicals
The hazardous chemical wastes can be categorized into five group ‘s namely synthetic
organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives.
3. Bio-medical wastes
The main sources of hazardous biological wastes are from hospitals and biological
research facilities. The biological waste has the capability of infecting other living
organisms and has the ability to produce toxins.

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4. Flammable wastes
Examples of flammable waste include organic solvents, oils, plasticizers and organic
sludge ‘s.
5. Explosives
Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials. Explosives also
involve high potential for hazard in case of storage, collection and disposal. These
types of wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
4.4.3 Methods of hazardous waste management
Steps involved in hazardous waste disposal.
I. Handling of hazardous wastes
Persons handling hazardous wastes are advised to have protective precautions to
protect themselves from health effects. Exposure of hazardous waste leads to
dermatitis in the skin, asthma on long exposure, eye irritation and also tightening
of the chest.
II. Transport of hazardous waste
Hazardous waste generated often requires transport to a particular site for an
approved treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential
threats to public safety and the environment, transport is given special attention by
governmental agencies to avoid any occasional accidental spill.
III. Disposal Deep well disposal method
Disposal of hazardous waste is the
final stage of a hazardous waste
management system. The different
waste disposal methods includes
secure landfill, deep well and
bedrock disposal.
Secure landfill method.

Bedrock disposal method

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Unit IV Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Management
4.5 E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.5.1 E-waste
E-waste or Electronic waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that ‘s been
discarded. This includes working and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or
donated to a charity reseller, their components, consumables, parts, and spares. E-
waste is particularly dangerous due to toxic chemicals that naturally leach from the
metals inside when buried.
It is divided two broad categories:
1. Information technology and communication equipment. Examples: Cell phones,
Smart phones, Desktop Computers, Computer Monitors, Laptops. Circuit boards,
Hard Drives
2. Consumer electrical and electronics. Examples: microwaves, heaters, remote
controls, television remotes, electrical cords, lamps, smart lights, treadmills, smart
watches, heart monitors, etc.
4.5.2 Harmful effects of e-waste:
1. Effects on Air quality:
Contamination in the air occurs when e-waste is informally disposed of by
dismantling, shredding, or melting the materials, releasing dust particles or toxins, such as
dioxins, into the environment that cause air pollution and damage respiratory health.
Chronic diseases and cancers are at a higher risk to occur when burning e-waste because it
also releases fine particles, which can travel thousands of miles, creating numerous
negative health risks to humans and animals.
2. Effects on Soil
When the improper disposal of e-waste in regular landfills or in places where it is
dumped illegally, both heavy metals and flame retardants can seep directly from the e-
waste into the soil, causing contamination of underlying groundwater or contamination of
crops that may be planted nearby or in the area in the future.
3. Effects on Water
After soil contamination, heavy metals from e-waste, such as mercury, lithium, lead,
and barium, then leak through the earth even further to reach groundwater.
When these heavy metals reach groundwater, they eventually make their way into ponds,
streams, rivers, and lakes.
4. Effects on Humans
Electronic waste contains toxic components that are dangerous to human health, such
as mercury, lead, cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium, and lithium. The
negative health effects of these toxins on humans include brain, heart, liver, kidney, and

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skeletal system damage. It can also considerably affect the nervous and reproductive
systems of the human body, leading to disease and birth defects.
4.5.3 E-waste Management Rules in India
The Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Ministry (MoEF&CC) have announced
the E-Waste Management Rules 2016. These new rules replaced the earlier E-Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules of 2011.
4.5.4 Key Points of E-waste Management Rules 2016:
 Local bodies with a population of one lakh or above were supposed to establish solid
waste processing facilities within two years,
 Census towns below a lakh would be given three years to establish solid waste
processing facilities
 Old and discarded dump sites would have to be shut-down or bio-remedied within
five years.
 The rules on solid waste management have been amended after 16 years.
 Garbage management is the responsibility of municipal bodies, they would have the
rights to charge user fees and levy spot fines for littering and non-segregation.
 A transition period of two to five years would be in place beyond which fines would
be imposed as per the country‘s Environment Minister.
4.5.5 Handling of E-waste
I. To avoid these toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to properly re-cycle, so that items
can be recycled, refurbished, resold, or reused.
II. To separately collect, effectively treat, and dispose of e-waste, as well as divert it from
conventional landfills and open burning, it is essential to integrate the informal sector
with the formal sector.
III. The competent authorities in developing countries need to establish mechanisms for
handling and treatment of e-waste safely and sustainably.
IV. Increasing information campaigns, capacity building, and awareness are critical to
promoting environment-friendly e-waste management programs.
V. More efforts are required on the improvement of the current practices such as
collection schemes and management practices to reduce the illegal trade of e-waste.
VI. Reducing the number of hazardous substances in e-products will also have a positive
effect in dealing with the specific e-waste streams since it will support the prevention
process.
4.6 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
An Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) is a fundamental part
of an organization's risk management strategy to protect its workforce and others under
its control.

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It aims at providing a method to assess and improve performance in the prevention
of workplace incidents and accidents via the effective management of hazards and
risks in the workplace.
According to the National Safety Council, an effective safety management program
should:
 Reduce the risk of workplace incidents, injuries, and fatalities through data-driven
measurements and improvements
 Involve people from different parts of the organization to make safety a shared
responsibility
 Be well organized and structured to ensure consistent growth and performance
 Be proactive, preventive and integrated into the culture of the entire organization
The 8 key components of occupational health and safety (OHS) management systems are.
1. Planning
2. Incident reporting
3. User-friendly interface
4. Training
5. Risk assessments
6. Certification
7. Convenience
8. Performance

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5.1 Renewable energy

The resources which are available in the earth in unlimited supply for instance
sunlight, air, water, land etc are known as renewable resources. These contribute equally
to the benefits of human beings and the environment.
5.1.1 Types of renewable energy
Stars are composed of spherical plasma that is held together tightly by gravitational
force. The Sun is a type of star as well. The Sun is the star that is closest to Earth. During
the night, millions of small stars can be seen with the naked eye.
5.1.1.1 Solar energy
It is derived from the Sun’s energy. Solar energy is captured and used to generate heat
or electricity via panels or mirrors. Photovoltaic (PV) cells It is derived from the Sun’s
energy. Solar energy is captured and used to generate heat or electricity via panels or
mirrors. Solar cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. This heat absorption panel is
used by solar thermal collectors to generate electricity.
5.1.1.2 Wind energy
Wind energy can be used to get mechanical power to electric generators with turbans,
allowing them to function as pumping systems. It is made up of a rotor that is linked to a
generator. Wind energy is used to generate electricity. A windmill is a structure with
blades that convert wind energy into rotational energy. It generates electricity using
renewable resources.
5.1.1.3 Geothermal energy
It is energy derived from thermal energy stored in the earth. Volcanoes and hot
beverages used to capture this energy and then transformed or used by industries for
water heating and other tenacities.
5.1.1.4 Hydropower
Hydropower is the energy produced by the use of water. It is created by utilising tides,
which is recognised as tidal energy. Ocean surface vibrations are also used to generate
electricity, which is known as wave energy.
5.1.1.5 Bio-energy
It is created from biomass, which is animal and plant waste. This biomass contains
chemical energy and, when burned, provides bio-energy. The heat produced is being
used to generate electricity and power generators.
5.2 Non-renewable resources
The formation of all fossil fuels is very similar. Earth’s geography was very different
hundreds of millions of years ago, even before the appearance of the dinosaurs. A large
portion of the planet was covered by broad, shallow seas and swamps.
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These ancient wetlands were home to plants, algae, and plankton. Photo synthetically,
they took in the sun’s rays and converted them into energy. Upon their death, the organisms
sank to the bottom of the ocean or lake. When plants and animals died, their stored energy
was released.
It took a long time for the dead plants to sink to the seafloor. As more rocks and
sediment were deposited on top, the pressure and heat in the earth increased. Fossil fuels
were created from plant and animal remnants in this environment (coal, natural gas, and
petroleum). A large number of non-renewable energy sources can be found in large
subsurface pockets (known as reservoirs).
5.2.1 Types and examples of non-renewable resources
5.2.1.1 Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are achieved by the dead remains of plants and animals. Examples: natural
gas, Coal, Oil, etc.
5.2.1.2 Nuclear fuel
Uranium is a very general example of nuclear fuel. Nuclear power delivers 6 % of total
energy and 13-14 % of world electricity.
5.2.1.3 Advantages of Non-renewable resources
1. Non-renewable resources are affordable, for example, diesel and oil.
2. Easily accessible and compatible.
3. It is easy to store.
5.2.1.4 Disadvantages of non-renewable resources
1. When the energy is all used up it cannot be replaced again.
2. It escalates greenhouse gases.
5.2.1.5 Examples
The non-renewable energy resources are as follows:
 Coal

 Nuclear
 Oil

 Natural gases

5.3 Energy Polices Development

Energy policy development is the process of creating guidelines and regulations to
manage the production, distribution, and consumption of energy. The goal of energy policy
is to ensure that energy is used in a sustainable, affordable, and secure way.

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5.3.1 Energy policy development process

 Identify goals: The policy should address issues like energy security, affordability,

and efficiency. It should also consider the impact on the environment and social
well-being.
 Set objectives: The policy should include targets for energy production,
distribution, and consumption.
 Develop models: Energy models help to understand the policy questions and

scenarios.
 Create legislation: The policy may include laws, regulations, incentives, and
subsidies.
 Consider international treaties: The policy may include agreements with other

countries.
5.3.2 Examples of energy policies
 India's energy policy: Focuses on increasing locally produced energy, reducing

energy poverty, and developing alternative energy sources

 The Sugarcane Ethanol Program: A program to study the conversion of

sugarcane into ethanol

 The USDA grants program: A program to support small bio-based businesses and

encourage bio-economy development

5.3.4 GDP (GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT)
GDP is the total market value of the goods and services, produced within a country,
during the specified period of time (usually 12 months (or) a year)
It is the broadest financial measurement of a nation's total economic activity.
5.3.5 Types of GDP
5.3.5.1 Normal GDP
It is the total value of all goods and services produced at current market prices.
5.3.5.2 Real GDP
It is the sum of all goods and services produced at constant prices.
5.3.5.3 Actual GDP
It is the real-time measurement of all outputs at any interval (or) any given time.
5.3.4.1 Significance (or) importance of GDP
(i) It identifies the present state of economy.
(ii) It is used to compare the economics between countries.
(iii) GDP is objective of policy formulation.
(iv) GDP is the root cause.

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(v) It gives information about the size of economy and how an economy is
performing.
(vi) It is used to determine the development and performance of the economy.
5.3.4.1 Calculation of GDP
There are three different ways of calculating GDP
(i) The value added approach.
(ii) The income approach (how much is earned as income on resource used to make
stuff).
(iii) Expenditure approach (how much is spent on stuff). Of three, the expenditure
approach is followed.
5.3.4.2 Expenditure approach
The expenditure approach calculates de GDP b calculating the sum of all the services
and goods produced an economy. It is calculated with the following formula in
Private consumption (Gross private investment Government investment) +
Government spending (Exports - Imports)
GDP= Y-C+1+G+(X-M)
where, Y Gross Domestic Product.
C Consumption.
I Investment.
G= Government spending.
X = Exports.
M = Imports.
5.3.4.3 Advantages of GDP
(1) GDP is a broad indicator of development.
(2) It is easy to measure growth in percentage.
(3) It is easy to compare to itself and other countries.
(4) It is easy and cheap to collect.
(5) GDP is calculated from a formula which all countries
(6) It is the very good way for government to know use therefore it is reliable
indicator. whether economic policies have been successful
(7) It can be broken up into GDP per capita which accounts for the population of the
country when it is calculated.
5.3.4.4 Disadvantages of GDP
(i) It does not include non-market transactions.
(ii) It is narrow indicator that fails to show quality of life, standard of living,
happiness, health care.
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(iii) It fails to indicate whether the growth of a nation is sustainable.

(iv) GDP does not account inequality.
(v) It doesn't account for environmental impacts of the economic policies.
(vi) It doesn't include the activity of informal sector (black market).
(vii) Overseas income not taken into account.
(viii) High inflation may be behind a high GDP rate.
(ix) Government could adjust the figures to gain power.
(x) Production process could be immoral.
(xi) It measures the growth in the past are not hugely relevant.
Sustainability - concept, needs and challenges - economic, social and aspects of
sustainability
5.4 SUSTAINABILITY
It is defined as "meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs".
5.4.1 Need of sustainability
1. A Sustainability is key to preserving our planet.
2. Sustainability helps reduce pollution and conserve resources.
3. Sustainability creates jobs and stimulates the economy.
4. Sustainability improves public health.
5. It protects biodiversity.
6. It protects the natural environment.
7. It is the choice of non-toxic materials.
8. It reduces and reuses the resources.
9. It minimizes waste.
10. It is used for life-cycle analysis.
5.4.2 Concept (or) Approaches (or) Significance of Sustainability
To build up the sustainability development, the following approaches (or) methods are
proposed.
1. Developing appropriate technology: It is the one, which is locally adaptable, eco-
friendly, resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It uses local labours, less resources,
and produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3-R) approach: It insists optimum use of natural resources,
using it again and again instead of throwing it on the waste land (or) water and
recycling the material into further products. It reduces pressure on our natural
resources and reduces waste generation and pollution.

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3. Providing environmental education and awareness: By providing environmental

education and awareness, the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and
the environment can be changed.
4. Consumption of Renewable Resources: In order to attain sustainability, it is very
important to consume the natural resources in such a way that the consumption
should not exceed regeneration capacity.
5. Conservation of non renewable resources: Non-renewable resources should be
conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. Population Control: By controlling population growth, we can make very good
sustainability development.
5.4.3 Economic and Social Challenges of Sustainability
I. Economic sustainability
It refers to the organisation's ability to manage its resources and responsibly generate
profits in the long term.
Examples
1. A company uniliver
It has followed a strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability and the
company's economic performance. So, it implemented several measures like
increasing package recycling, promoting the use of recycled materials and
responsible consumption campaigns. awareness
2. A company suez
It has reduced its emissions, related to electricity consumption, by 95% by using
renewable energy and conservation of natural habitats.
5.4.4 Economic challenges
(i) High rates of unemployment (or) under employment.
(ii) High rates of poverty and low growth.
(iii) Increasing inequality, with many not being included in the growth process.
(iv) Disruption of major economic activities due to pandemic situation like tourism.
(v) Volatile growth dependent on one source.
(vi) Low productivity due to poor human capital development.
(vii) Skills mismatch between skills you have and the jobs you want to create.
(viii) Lack of quality jobs.
(ix) Macroeconomic instability and recurrent balance of payments shocks,
5.4.5 Social sustainability
It refers to strengthening the cohesion and stability of specific social groups.
Examples
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1. A Company CEMEX
It is working to contribute to the social development of communities. Thus, it
offers decent housing through self-building programmes and loans with
favourable access conditions.
2. A Gigante group
It contributes funds and resources to a range of social causes like school materials
for collaborators and grants to improve visual health.
5.5 Social Challenges
Though social impact, social sustainability challenges, issues are not easily
measurable, they are easier to identify. Social sustainability performance challenges
include
(i) Human rights.
(ii) Fair labour practices.
(iii) Living conditions.
(iv)Health and safety.
(v) Wellness, diversity and equity.
(vi) Work-life balance.
(vii) Empowerment.
(viii) Community engagement.
5.6 Zero waste
5.6.1 Definition: Zero waste is a set of principles, focused on waste prevention, that
encourages redesigning resourous life cycles, so that all products are reused
5.6.2 Goal
1. The material should be reused until the optimum
level of consumption is reached.
2. It provides guidelines for continually working
towards eliminating waste.
3. To avoids ending trash to landfills, incinerators (or) the ocean
5.6.3 Concept
The conservation of all the resources by means of responsible production,
consumption, reuse and recovery of products, packaging and materials without
burning and with no discharges to land, water (or) air that threaten the
environment (or) human health.
5.6.4 Principles of zero waste
Refuse what you don’t need:
1. It prevents unwanted items from coming into your home.
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2. Reduce what do you use It is equal to less

waste at the end.
3. Reuse what everyone can.
4. Recycle what you can't refuse (or) reduce.
5. Regulate of what’s left over Composting foods
craps, paper pieces and wooden (or) bamboo
tooth brushes return nutrients and fiber back to the earth.
Steps to achieve zero waste
1. Identify the high waste area so four life - style.
2. Know where to apply the principle of zero waste, if the waste cannot be
removed (or) reduced.
3. Substitute single use plastic with eco-friendly zero waste options.
4. Buy zero waste (or) eco-friendly products.
5. Support eco-friendly businesses.
6. Put all your kitchen waste to good use (compositing).
7. Reuse, up cyclean dre-purpose.
5.6.5 R Concept (or)3R Concept
Definition: The principle of reducing waste, reusing and recycling resources and
products is often called 3Rs.
Principle
3 R is the order of priority of actions to be taken to reduce the amount of waste
generated and to improve overall waste management processes and programs.
1. Reduce
Reduce means choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste
generated.
If the usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
2. Reuse
Re using involves the repeated use of items (or) parts of items which still have
usable aspects.
• There fill able containers, which are discarded
after use, can be reused.
• Rubber rings can be made from the discarded
cycle tubes, which reduces the waste
generation during manufacturing of rubber
bands.

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3. Recycle
Recycling means the use of waste itself as the resources. It involves
reprocessing of the discarded materials into new useful products.
Examples
(i) Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new can sand
bottles.
(ii) Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper.
(iii) Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.
(iv) Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans. The
above process saves money, energy, raw materials, and reduces pollution.
3RConcept
Importanceof3 Rs
(i) The most effective way to reduce the garbage is reducing the amount of solid
waste produced.
(ii) By reducing waste at the source, the resources like water and energy can be
saved.
(iii) Like reducing, reusing avoids creating waste rather than trying to recycle it
once it's already there.
(iv) Operating a well-run recycling program costs less than waste collection and land
filling.
(v) Recycling helps families save money because they pay for less disposal costs.
(vi) Recycling produces less air and water pollution than manufacturing with new
materials.
(vii) By recycling less material are sent to landfills, which will keep them for future.
(viii) Proper disposal and recycling will prevent water and soil contamination.
5.6.6 Circular economy
Definition
Circular economy is a new production and consumption model that ensures
sustainable growth over time. It reduces the consumption of raw materials and
recover wastes by recycling (or) giving it a second life as
a new product.
Aim(or)Purpose
Aim of the circular economy is to make the most of the
material resources available to us by applying three
basic principles reduce, reuse and recycle.

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In this way the lifecycle of products is extended, waste is used and a more
efficient and sustainable production model is established over time.
Benefits of circular economy
(i) It protects environment.
(ii) Circular economy benefits the local economy.
(iii) It drives employment growth.
(iv) It promotes resource independence.
Necessary steps(7Rs) to achieve a circular economy
1. Re design
Redesigning process consumes few raw materials, extends their life cycle
and generates less waste.
2. Reduce
If we reduce consumption, waste generation and use of raw materials, impact on
the environment gets reduced.
3. Reuse
Reusing the products extends their lifecycle.
4. Repair
Repairing avoids the use of new raw materials, saves energy and does not
generate environmental waste.
5. Renovate
Update old objects, so that they can be reused.
6. Recycle
Waste product can be used as raw material to manufacture new products.
7. Recover
The products that are going to be discarded, can be used for new uses.
Example for circular economy
 Manufacturers design products to be reusable.
 Electrical devices are designed in such a way that they are easier to repair.
 Products and raw materials are also reused as much as possible.
5.6.7 ISO 14000 SERIS ISO
ISO is an International Organization for Standardization. It is composed of
representatives from various national standard organizations. It provides standards
and guidelines for a variety of businesses and purposes and publishes technical
reports.

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ISO14000 series
It is a family of standards related to environmental management that exist to
help organizations.
(a) Minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment.
(b) Comply with applicable laws, regulations and other environmentally oriented
requirements.
(c) Continually improve with above.
Objective of ISO 14000 series
The primary objective of ISO 14000 series of standard is to
promote effective environmental management systems in
organizations.
List of ISO 14000 Series Standards
It includes a catalogue of over 50 Environmental management and performance
related standards. But some important IS0 14000 series standards are listed here.
Standard Title Applications
ISO14001 Environmental management Requirements with guidance for use.
system.
ISO14004 Environmental management General guidelines on implementation.
system.
ISO14005 Environmental management Guidelines for flexible approach to ·
system. Implementation.
ISO14015 Environmental management Environmental assessment of sites.
ISO14020 Environmental management Environmental labels and declarations.
to 14025
ISO14030 Green bonds. Environmental performance of nominated
Projects and assets.
ISO14031 Environmental management Environmental Performance evaluation &
Guidelines.
ISO14040 Environmental management Discusses pre-production planning.
to 14049
ISO14050 Environmental management Vocabulary, terms and definitions.
ISO14062 Environmental management Product design and development.
ISO14063 Environmental management Guidelines and examples.
ISO14064 Environmental management Reducing Green house gas emissions.
ISO14090 Environmental management Adaptation of climate change

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5.7 Material Life cycle assessment

5.7.1 Definition
Life cycle Assessment (LCA) is a process of evaluating the effects of a material
on the environment over the entire period of its life, thereby increasing resource use
efficiency and decreasing liabilities. Generally, LCA is used to study the
environmental impact of a material. LCA is commonly referred to as a cradle-to-
grave analysis.
5.7.1.2 Stages of life cycle assessment
The followings arethe5 stages of a life cycle assessment.
Step1: Raw materials (Resources) extraction and processing.
Step 2: Manufacturing
Step3: Transportation.
Step4: Distribution.
Step5: Usage and retail.
Step6: Waste disposal (end of life).
5.7.1.3 Life Cycle Assessment
In the manufactured product environmental
impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and
processing through the products manufacture,
distribution and use, to the recycling (or) final disposal
of the materials.
5.7.1.4 Benefits (or)Advantages of LCA
1. LCA is widely development used to support sustainable.
2. LCA allows decision makers to compare two products and to select the
product that has lowest impact on the environment.
3. It is a modelling tool to assess environmental impacts of a product during its
entire life span.
4. LCA provides a holistic view on the environmental impacts, to avoid
optimizing one environmental indicator without considering the effects on
the other indicators.
5. LCA identified shots pots in the environmental impact.
6. LCA is purely base done inter nationally accepted standards.
5.7.1.5 Disadvantages (or)Limitations
1. LCA assesses the real world in a simplified model.
2. The assumptions, scenaries and scope may vary from one study to the other
leading to different LCA results.
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3. Variations in LCA approaches and results may be confusing especially for non-
experts.
4. LCA study requires large amount of data.
5.7.2 Environmental Impact Assessment
EIA is defined as a formal process of predicting the environmental
consequences of any development projects. It is used to identify the environmental,
social and economic impacts of the project prior to decision making.
5.7.2.1 Purpose (or) Aim of EIA
The main purpose of EIA is to determine the potential environmental, social and
health effects of proposed developmental projects.
5.7.2.2 Objective of EIA
1. To identify the main issues and problem of the parties.
2. To identify who is the party.
3. To identify what are the problems of the parties.
4. To identify why the problems are arise.
5.7.2.3 Benefits of EIA
1. Cost and time of the project is reduced.
2. Performance of the project is improved.
3. Waste treatment and cleaning expenses are minimised.
4. Usages of resources are decreased.
5. Biodiversity is maintained.
6. Human heal this improved.
7. It helps in preventing natural calamities like earthquake, cyclone, etc.,
5.7.2.4 Process of EIA (or) Key elements of EIA
The key elements used in the process of EIA are
1. Scoping
2. Screening
3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives
4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty
5. Issuing environmental statements
1. Scoping
It is used to identify the key issues of the concern in the planning process at
an early stage. It is also used to aid site selection and identify any possible
alternatives.

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2. Screening
It is used to decide whether an EIA is not based on the information collected.
3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives
It involves knowing alternatives it’s an alternate techniques and their impacts.
4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty:
It reviews the action taken to prevent (or) mimmize the adverse effects of a
project.
5. Environmental statements
This is the final stage of the EIA process. It reports the findings of the EIA.
5.7.2.5 Sustainable goals
Thereareatotalof17 goals
1. End poverty everywhere, in all its forms.
2. End hunger,achieve food security and improved nutrition.
3. Ensuring good health and promote the well-being of all age groups.
4. Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education.
5. Achieving gender quality and empowering all women and children.
6. Ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all.
7. Ensuring access to affordable, reliable, clean and modem energy for all.
8. Promoting sustain able economic growth.
9. Building resilient infrastructure and promoting sustainable industrialisation.
10. Reducing inequality within and among countries.
11. Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns.
12. Taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
13. Conserving and sustainable using the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development.
14. Protecting, restoring and promoting the sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems.
15. Promoting peaceful societies for sustainable development.
Strengthening the means of implementation and revitalizing the global partnership
for sustainable development.
5.7.3 Sustainable habitat
5.7.3.1 Definition
A sustainable habitat is an ecosystem that produces food and shelter for people
and other organisms without resource depletion i.e., no external waste is
produced.
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5.7.3.2 Objectives of national mission on sustainable habitat

1. To reduce energy demand by promoting alternative technologies and energy
conservation practices in both residential and commercial areas.
2. Better urban planning like
(i) using better disaster management
(ii) lesser use of private transport
(iii) more usage of public transport
3. Encourage community involvement and participation of stakeholders.
4. Conservation of natural resources such as clean air, water, flora and fauna.
5. Facilitate the growth of small and medium cities.
6. To create sustainable habitats, engineers and architects should not consider
any element as a waste product.
How to maintain sustainable habitat
For maintaining our sustainable habitat, we should
(i) Promote energy efficiency.
(ii) Promote the use of eco-friendly fuels.
(iii) Better manage municipal solid waste.
(iv) Promote to public transport.
5.8 Green buildings
5.8.1.1 Definition
Green building is an efficient method of construction that produces healthier
buildings, which have less impact on the environment and climate. It requires less
cost to maintain. Green buildings preserve previous natural resources and improve
our quality of life.
5.8.1.2 Features of Green building
(i) Efficient use of energy, water and other resources.
(ii) Use of renewable energy such as solar energy.
(iii) Pollution and waste reduction measures ie., reuse and recycling.
(iv) Good indoor environmental air quality.
(v) Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable.
(vi) A design that enables adaptation to environment.
(vii) Consideration of the quality of life of occupant in design, construction and
operation.
(viii) Construction of the environment in construction and operation.

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5.8.1.3 Principles of Green building

The five principles of green building are
(i) Liveable communities.
(ii) Energy efficiency.
(iii) Indoor air quality.
(iv) Resource conservation.
(v) Water conservation.
5.8.1.4 Components of green building
Seven important components of green buildings are
1. Aluminium weather resistant insulated access panel. It helps regulate in
door temperature and prevent moisture and pest from entering.
2. Energy efficient windows.
3. Green roof.
4. Solar power.
5. Water conservation.
6. Recycling.
7. Landscaping.
5.8.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Green building
Advantages of Green building
1. Green buildings are energy efficient.
2. Higher fraction of eco-friendly materials.
3. Water-efficient devices.
4. Reduction in waste.
5. Less air pollution.
6. Reduction in green house gas emissions.
7. Protection of our natural resources.
8. Indoor air quality is improved.
9. Use of recycled metal and other construction materials.
10. Emphasis on renewable energies.
11. Day lighting is utilized asbest as possible.
12. Use of renewable plant materials.
13. Higher market value.
14. Rainwater collection and use of compost bins.
15. Overall health improvements.

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5.8.1.6 Disadvantages of Green building

1. High initial costs.
2. Energy supply may depend on weather condition.
3. Technology problems are more.
4. Maintenance may be difficult.
5. Indoor air temperature may greatly vary overtime.
6. Experienced green construction workers may be rare.
7. Green construction is not suitable for all locations.
8. Availability of green construction materials.
9. Funding problems for green buildings.
5.8.2 Green materials
5.8.2.1 Definition
Green materials also called eco-friendly materials, building construction
materials that have low impact on the environment. Due to the properties of non-
toxic, organic and recycling, green materials are widely used in various industrial
applications.
Examples: Naturally occurring materials likewood, ceramics, glass, clay, sand, stone.
5.8.2.2 Characteristics of green materials
Common characteristics of green material are
1. Green materials are energy efficient products, it uses less energy to do the same
task.
2. It lowers energy cost and less in pollution.
3. Green materials are mostly renewable, can be regenerated again and again.
Example: Bamboo grows quickly while pine grows more slowly, but both are
renewable.
4. Green materials are recyclable(or) made recycled material. So,they save
energy and reduce waste.
5. Green materials are non-toxic, they do not emit odors, irritants (or) hazardous
compounds that affect human health.
6. They are durable and no need to upgrade (or) repair. They preserve resources and
energy.
7. They are cost-effective.
8. They can be locally sourced, so transport cost can be reduced.
5.8.2.3 Important green building material
Green building is construction that primarily uses natural materials and renewable

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resources. These structure look really cool.

1. Stone: It is low maintenance and durable.
2. Cob: (mud mixture of natural ingredients like soil. sand, straw and lime).It is
cheap and energy efficient.
3. Bamboo: It is durable and lightweight.
4. Cork:(Cork canes from oak trees)
It is a very good thermal insulator and mold resistant
5. Adobe brick: (brick made of glay and straw)
Natural noise protection and posses unique design (can be easilycut and
transformed).
6. Strambale
Easily renewable and cheap.
7. Cordwood
Affordable (cheap and easy construction) thermal efficiency.
8. Earth bags (or) sandbags
Locally sourced and provide natural insulation.
Mycelium (or) mushroom roots Strong and light weight.
5.8.3 Energy efficiency
5.8.3.1 Definition
Energy efficiency is the use of less energy to perform the same task (or) produce
the same result. Energy efficient homes and buildings use less energy to heat, cool
and run appliances and electronics.
5.8.3.2 Energy efficiency logo Methods of achieving
Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency can be achieved by the following methods.
(i) Alternative waste treatment.
(ii) Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from land
fill for process engineered fuel manufacture.
(iii) Avoided emissions from diverting legacy waste from land
fill through a composting alternative waste technology.
(iv) Capture and combustion of land fill gas.
5.8.3.4 Advantages (or) benefits of energy efficiency
1. Using energy more efficiently is one of the fastest, most cost-
effective ways to save money.
2. Increased energy efficiency can lower green house gas

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emissions and other pollutants.

3. Energy efficiency also decreases water use.
4. It can lower individual utility bills, create jobs and help stabilize electricity prices.
5. It provides long-term benefits by lowering overall electricity demand, thus
reducing the need to invest in new electricity generation and transmission
infrastructure.
6. Energy efficient construction is environmentally-friendly as it does not emit
harmful carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Example: Energy-efficient LED light bulbs are able to produce the same amount of
light as in can descent light bulbs by using 75 to 80% less electricity.
5.8.3.5 Disadvantages (or) limitations of energy efficiency
1. Energy efficient construction is the high cost of enforcing ie., addition cost is
required to build and plan such buildings.
2. Building materials are not always available.
3. Although energy efficient construction is environmentally friendly, it produces
less carbon emissions and has slight unfavourable effects on the human health.
Indoor air is 3to7times more polluted than outdoor air.
5.8.4 Sustainable transports.
5.8.4.1 Definition
Sustainable transport refers to any means of transportation that is "green" and has
low impact on the environment.
Examples
1. walking
2. cycling
3. transit
4. car pooling
5. car sharing
6. green vehicles
Sustainable transport can carry people for more
efficiently than cars. Electric cars pollute less and reduce
individual carbon foot prints.
5.8.5 Sustainable Transport
5.8.5.1 Importance of Sustainable Transport
(i) Sustainable transport contributes to reduction in
CO2 emission and therefore to a reduction in atmospheric pollution and

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improved air quality in cities.

(ii) The aim of this type of transport is to reduce the negative impacts on the
environment.
5.8.5.2 How to promote sustainable transport
Followings are steps for promoting sustainable transport.
1. Enhancing public transportation
It is not only fewer polluting means of transportation, but also promoting HSE
(Health, safety and environment) policy.
2. Encouraging carpooling: It reduces thevolumeofCO2, emittedper inhabitant.
3. Encouraging bicycle use: It is reliable and non-polluting means of transportation.
Tele working: It reduces employee travel and therefore their carbon food print.
5.9. Carbon emission
5.9.1 Definition
Carbon emission is the release of green house gases and their precursors into the
atmosphere over a specified area and period of time.
5.9.1.1 Types of carbon omissions
Carbon (Green house gas) emissions are classified into two scopes.
1. Direct emissions
Direct emissions come from company.
2. Indirect emissions
Indirect emissions from the generation of purchased energy (purchased
electricity steam, heat and cooling) from a utility provider (end user).
5.9.1.2 Sources (or) Causes of carbon emission
1. Natural sources of CO2 emission
It includes
(a) Decomposition of matter.
(b) Ocean release.
(c) Respiration.
(d) Most animals, which exhale CO2 as a waste product.
(e) Carbon ate rocks.
2. Human sources of CO2emission
It includes
(i) Burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil.
(ii) Deforestation.
(iii) Industrial activities like cement manufacture oil refineries and leather

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industries. '
(iv) Transportation sector generates largest amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
5.9.1.3 Harmful effects of carbon emissions
 Carbon emission, nothing but emission of green house gas, affects the planet
significantly.
 It causes global warming and affects climate change.
5.9.1.4 Reduction of carbon emission
There are many ways to reduce green house gas emissions like
1. energy efficiency.
2. fuel switching.
3. combined heat and power.
4. use of renewable energy.
5. more efficient use.
6. recycling of materials.
7. plant more trees.
8. reduce air travel.
9. driving more efficient.
5.9.2 Carbon foot print
5.9.2.1 Definition
It is the total amount of green house gases (including CO2 and CH4) that are
generated (emitted) by our direct and indirect activities.
5.9.2.2 Individual Carbon Footprint
 It is the sum total of their direct and indirect carbon emissions over the course
of a year. i.e., Smaller your carbon footprint : better for the future footprint
 Bigger your carbon: Have bigger negative impact in environment
 The average carbon footprint for a person in united state is 16 tons. Globally,
the average is close to 4 tones.
 To avoid 20C rise in global temperatures, the average global carbon footprint
per year needs to drop under 2 tons by 2050.

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5.9.2.3 Sources of Carbon Footprint

1. Climate change.
2. Natural process like volcano’s.
3. Green house gases emitted from human activities.
4. Pollution released by human beings doing human things.
5. Transportation accounted for about 28% of total country.
6. Electricity generation accounted forabout28%.
7. Industrial activities22%.
8. Heating and cooling in homes and businesses contribute 11%.
The major contributors to carbon footprints are
(i) food: (especially meat (beef))
(ii) consumption
(iii) transportation
(iv) house hold energy.
5.9.2.4 How to lower (control) carbon footprint (or)15 ways to reduce your carbon
footprint
 Lowering individual carbon footprint from16 tons to 2 tons does not happen
overnight.
 But, by making small changes in our action we can reduce carbon footprint.
 Once you understand where your emission comes from, you can take steps to
reduce your impact.
1. Calculate your carbon footprint.
2. Drive less.
3. Switch to an electric (or) hybridcar.
4. Travel smart.
5. Switch to renewable energy.
6. Consider solar panels.
7. Make your home more efficient.
8. Turn your there most at just 2 degrees cooler in winter and 2 degrees warmer in
summer.
9. Get energy efficient appliances.
10. Unplug electrical devices when not in use.
11. Buy locally-sourced food.
12. Start a home garden.
13. Eat less meat.

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14. Don't waste water.

15. Reduce, reuse and recycle.
5.9.3 Carbon Sequestration
It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is one
method of reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Goal of carbon sequestration
is to reduce global climate change. 25% of our carbon emissions have been captured by
earth's forests, farms and grassland. Scientists and land managers are working to keep
landscapes vegetated and soil hydrated for plants to grow and sequester carbon. 30%
of the carbon dioxide, we emit from burning fossil fuels, is absorbed by the upper layer
of the ocean. 45% of carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere the rest in sequestered
naturally by the environment.
5.9.3.1 Concept (or) Aim of carbon sequestrarion
The concept of carbon sequestration is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved
forms so that it doesn't cause the atmosphere to warm. The process shows tremendous
promise for reducing the human "carbon foot print".
Methods (or) Type of carbon sequestrarion
There are three main types of carbon sequestration.
1. Biological carbon sequestration.
It is the storage of CO2 in vegetation like grassland, forests, soils and oceans.
2. Geological carbon sequestration
It is the process of storing CO2 in underground geologic formations (or) rocks.
Typically,CO2 is captured from an industrial sources like steel (or) cement
production,
power plant and injected into the porous rocks for long-term storage.
3. Technological carbon sequestration
Scientists are using innovative technologies to remove and store carbon from
the atmosphere using innovative technologies.
Example: Graphene production
The use of CO2 as a raw material to produce graphene (a technological
material). Graphene is used to create screens for smart phones and other technical
devices. Graphene production is an example of how CO2 can be used as a resource and
a solution in reducing emissions from atmosphere.
5.9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of carbon sequestration
5.9.4.1 Advantages (Merits)
1. Carbon sequestration prevents the occurrence of climate change.
2. Deep injection of CO2 improves the extraction of fuels like oil and methane
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from their reserves in addition to removing excess pollutants from the air.
3. Since the gas can be easily liquefied it can be easily transmitted through pipelines.
4. No CO2 leaking out from the injection site. It lowers carbon emission by 80% to
85% while using fossil fuels.
5.9.4.2 Disadvantages (or) Limitations
1. Due to carbon sequestration, in power plants, 40% additional coal is
consumed and hence cost of energy gets increased by 1 to 5% per kilowatt
hour.
2. CO2 from power plant emissions must be captured and liquefied, which uses
a lot of electrical power.
3. It can be disastrous if the injected gas leaks due to structural flaws in the
geological formation.
4. The ocean can be come acidic due to the large amounts of carbon dioxide
being injected into it, endangering aquatic life.
5. Planting trees, with the intention of storing and absorbing carbon, requires
more time for the trees to mature.
6. There is no enough available geological resources to sequester carbon.
The concentration of CO2, from power plant exhausts too low for being effectively
liquefied.

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