V.

WRITING
Task 1. The maps below give information about a plan to redevelop an industrial
site.
Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and
make comparisons where relevant.

Task 2. Some people encourage young children to leave their parents’ house as
soon as they become adults while others say children should stay at their parents’
house as long as possible. Discuss both views and give your opinion.
I. Translate
1. Xu hướng đi du học nước ngoài của giới trẻ đang ngày càng gia tăng.

2. Cần có quyết tâm vững chắc để hoàn thành chương trình giáo dục bậc cao.

3. Bằng cách đọc sách, học sinh tự làm giàu kiến thức mới.

4. Giáo dục chính quy có thể không hấp dẫn đối với những người mới bước vào tuổi
trưởng thành.

5. Những người làm việc ở nước ngoài tiếp thu kiến thức từ nhiều nền văn hóa khác
nhau.

6. Ở Việt Nam, những công việc đòi hỏi thể lực thường được trả lương thấp.

7. Xu hướng nghỉ một năm có thể dẫn đến tình trạng thiếu hụt lực lượng lao động trí
tuệ.

8. Vì sinh viên có thể được cung cấp kinh nghiệm làm việc trong năm nghỉ này, nên họ
có thể chuẩn bị tốt hơn cho công việc tương lai của mình.

9. Học sinh trung học cần quyết định xem họ có muốn theo đuổi giáo dục bậc cao hay
không.

10. Ngành dịch vụ khách sạn Việt Nam đang thiếu hụt những chuyên gia có trình độ.

II: Fill in the blanks with suitable words/phrases

In today’s world, there has been an 1___________of students taking a break from
studying before pursuing 2___________. While this trend is beneficial to some extent,
I am firmly of the opinion that its shortcomings are weightier for the followers of this
trend.
A gap year may enable students to 3___________real-life experiences that are
beneficial to their future. These may include having a paid job, from which those who
have just 4___________may learn many working skills, such as communication,
teamwork and following orders. As a result, the youngsters taking a gap year are
5___________for their future jobs. Some may also travel the world and
6___________of 7___________and from different geographical contexts. In this
globalised world, such knowledge is essential for developing a successful career.
However, I strongly believe the disadvantages of taking a gap year for recent high-
school graduates are serious, far outweighing the advantages.The primary reason is
that the young can be overwhelmed by the unwanted difficulties of life outside of
school campus. For example, a 8___________can be exhausting for most school-
leavers. Another significant reason is that to the youngsters without 9___________,
earning money and living without the discipline of 10___________could be more
11___________than returning to school after the gap year. Consequently, there could
be a 12___________of intellectual workforce in the future as there will be fewer
university students.
All in all, I personally believe that there are some serious drawbacks associated with a
gap year that far outweigh the potential gains.
III. Reading: Terminated Dinosaur Era
1 A. Day after day, we hear about how anthropogenic development is causing
2 global warming. According to an increasingly vocal minority, however, we
3 should be asking ourselves how much of this is media hype, and how much is
4 based on real evidence. It seems – as so often is the ease – that it depends on
5 which expert you listen to, or which statistics you study.
6 B. Yes, it is true that there is a mass of evidence to indicate that the world is
7 getting warmer, with one of the world’s leading weather predictors stating that
8 air temperatures have frown an increase of just under half a degree Celsius since
9 the beginning of the twentieth century. And while this may not sound like
10 anything worth losing sleep over, the international press would have us believe
11 that the consequences could be devastating. Other experts, however, are of the
12 opinion that what we are seeing is just part of a natural upward and downward
13 swing that has always been part of the cycle of global weather. An analysis of
14 the views of major meteorologists in the United States showed that less than
15 20% of them believed that any change in temperature over the last hundred
16 years was our own fault – the rest attributed it to natural cyclical changes.
17 C. There is, of course, no denying that we are still at a very early stage in
18 understanding weather. The effects of such variables as rainfall, cloud
19 formation, the seas and oceans, gases such as methane and ozone, or even solar
20 energy are still not really understood, and therefore the predictions that we make
21 using them cannot always be relied on. Dr James Hansen, in 19BH, was
22 predicting that the likely effects of global warming would be a raising of the
23 world temperature which would have disastrous consequences for mankind: “a
24 strong cause arid effect relationship between the current climate and human
25 alteration of the atmosphere”. He has now gone on record as stating that using
26 artificial models of climate as a way of predicting change is all but impossible.
27 In fact, he now believes that, rather than getting hotter, our planet is getting
28 greener as a result of the carbon dioxide increase, with the prospect of
29 increasing vegetation in areas which in recent history have been frozen
30 wastelands.
31 D. In fact, there is some evidence to suggest that as our computer-based weather
32 models have become more sophisticated, the predicted rises In temperature have
33 been cut back. In addition, if we look at the much-reported rise in global
34 temperature over the last century, a close analysis reveals that the lion’s share of
35 that increase, almost three quarters in total, occurred before man began to
36 “poison” his world with industrial processes and the accompanying greenhouse
37 gas emissions in the second half of the twentieth century.
38 E. So should we pay any attention to those stories that scream out at us from
39 billboards and television news headlines, claiming that man, with his
40 inexhaustible dependence on oil-based machinery and ever more sophisticated
41 forms of transport is creating a nightmare level of greenhouse gas emissions,
42 poisoning his environment and ripping open the ozone layer?
43 Doubters point to scientific evidence, which can prove that, of all the
44 greenhouse gases, only two per cent come from man-made sources, the rest
45 resulting from natural emissions. Who, then, to believe: the environmentalist
46 exhorting us to leave the car at home, to buy re-usable products packaged in
47 recycled paper and to plant trees in our back yard? Or the sceptics, including, of
48 course, a lot of big businesses who have most to lose, when they tell us that we
49 are making a mountain out of a molehill? And my own opinion? The jury’s still
out as for as I am concerned!
Questions 1-5 Choose the appropriate letters A-D
1. The author …
A believes that man is causing global warming
B believes that global warming is a natural process
C is sure what the causes of global warming are
D does not say what he believes the causes of global warming are
2. As to the cause of global warming, the author believes that …
A occasionally the fact depends on who you are talking to
B the facts always depend on who you are talking to
C often the fact depends on which expert you listen to
D you should not speak to experts
3. More than 80% of the top meteorologists in the United States are of the opinion
that…
A global warming should make us lose sleep
B global warming is not the result of oil natural cyclical changes, but man-made
C the consequences of global warming will be deviating
D global warming is not man-made, but the result of natural cyclical changes.
4. Our understanding of the weather…
A leads to reliable predictions
B is variable
C cannot be denied
D is not very developed yet
5. Currently, Dr. James Hansen’s beliefs include the fact that …
A It is nearly impossible to predict weather change using artificial models
B the consequences of global warming would be disastrous in mankind
C there is a significant link between the climate now, mid man’s changing of the
atmosphere
D Earth is getting colder
Questions 6-12 Do the statements below agree with the information in Reading
Passage 1? write: YES – NO - NOT GIVEN
6 At the same time that computer-based weather models have become more
sophisticated, weather forecasters have become more expert.
7 Most of the increase in global temperature happened in the second half of the
twentieth century.
8 The media wants us to blame ourselves for global warming.
9 The media encourages the public to use environment-friendly vehicles, such as
electric cars to combat global warming.
10 Environmentalists are very effective at persuading people to be kind to the
environment.
11 Many big businesses are on the side of the sceptics as regards the cause of global
warming.
12 Computer-based weather models have become more sophisticated.
Questions 13 and 14 Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage
for each blank space.
12. As well as planting trees and not driving, the environmentalist would like us to
choose products that are wrapped 13 _________and can be used more than once.
13. Big businesses would have us believe that we are making too much fuss about
global warming, because they have 14 ____________.
IV. READING: The Cacao: A Sweet history
1 A Most people today think of chocolate as something sweet to eat or drink that
2 can be easily found in stores around the world. It might surprise you that
3 chocolate was once highly treasured. The tasty secret of the cacao (Kah Kow)
4 tree was discovered 2,000 years ago in the tropical rainforests of the Americas.
5 The story of how chocolate grew from a local Mesoamerican beverage into a
6 global sweet encompasses many cultures and continents.
7 B Historians believe the Maya people of Central America first learned to farm
8 cacao plants around two thousand years ago. The Maya took cacao trees from
9 the rainforests and grew them in their gardens. They cooked cacao seeds, the
10 crushed them into a soft paste. They mixed the paste with water and flavorful
11 spices to make an unsweetened chocolate drink. The Maya poured the chocolate
12 drink back and forth between two containers so that the liquid would have a
13 layer of bubbles or foam.
14 Cacao and chocolate were an important part of Maya culture. There are often
15 images of cacao plants on Maya buildings and art objects. Ruling families drank
16 chocolate at special ceremonies. And, even poorer members of society could
17 enjoy the drink once in a while. Historians believe that cacao seeds were also
18 used in marriage ceremonies as a sign of the union between a husband and a
19 wife.
20 The Aztec culture in current-day Mexico also prized chocolate. But, cacao
21 plants could not grow in the area where the Aztecs lived. So, they traded to get
22 cacao. They even used cacao seeds as a form of money to pay taxes. Chocolate
23 also played a special role in both Maya and Aztec royal and religious events.
24 Priests presented cacao seeds and offerings to the gods and served chocolate
25 drinks during sacred ceremonies. Only the very wealthy in Aztec societies could
26 afford to drink chocolate because cacao was so valuable. The Aztec ruler
27 Montezuma was believed to drink fifty cups of chocolate every day. Some
28 experts believe the word for chocolate came from the Aztec word “xocolatl”
29 which in the Nahuatl language means “bitter water.” Others believe the word
30 “chocolate” was created by combining Mayan and Nahuatl words.
31 C The explorer Christopher Columbus brought cacao seeds to Spain after his
32 trip to Central America in 1502. But it was the Spanish explorer Hernando
33 Cortes who understood that chocolate could be a valuable investment. In 1519,
34 Cortes arrived in current-day Mexico. He believed the chocolate drink would
35 become popular with Spaniards. After the Spanish soldiers defeated the Aztec
36 empire, they were able to seize the supplies of cacao and send them home. Spain
37 later began planting cacao in its colonies in the Americans in order to satisfy the
38 large demand for chocolate. The wealthy people of Spain first enjoyed a
39 sweetened version of chocolate drink. Later, the popularity of the drink spread
40 throughout Europe. The English, Dutch and French began to plant cacao trees in
41 their own colonies. Chocolate remained a drink that only wealthy people could
42 afford to drink until the eighteenth century. During the period known as the
43 Industrial Revolution, new technologies helped make chocolate less costly to
44 produce.
45 D Farmers grow cacao trees in many countries in Africa, Central and South
46 America. The trees grow in the shady areas of the rainforests near the Earth’s
47 equator. But these trees can be difficult to grow. They require an exact amount
48 of water, warmth, soil and protection. After about five years, cacao trees start
49 producing large fruits called pods, which grow near the trunk of the tree. The
50 seeds inside the pods are harvested to make chocolate. There are several kinds of
51 cacao trees. Most of the world’s chocolate is made from the seed of the forastero
52 tree. But farmers can also grow criollo or trinitario cacao plants. Cacao trees
53 grown on farms are much more easily threatened by diseases and insects than
54 wild trees. Growing cacao is very hard work for farmers. They sell their harvest
55 on a futures market. This means that economic conditions beyond their control
56 can affect the amount of money they will earn. Today, chocolate industry
57 officials, activists, and scientists are working with farmers. They are trying to
58 make sure that cacao can be grown in a way that is fair to the timers and safe for
59 the environment.
60 E To become chocolate, cacao seeds go through a long production process in a
61 factory. Workers must sort, clean and cook the seeds. Then they break off the
62 covering of the seeds so that only the inside fruit, or nibs, remain. Workers crush
63 the nibs into a soft substance called chocolate liquor. This gets separated into
64 cocoa solids and fat called cocoa butter. Chocolate makers have their own
65 special recipes in which they combine chocolate liquor with exact amounts of
66 sugar, milk and cocoa fat. They finely crush this “crumb” mixture in order to
67 make it smooth. The mixture then goes through two more processes before it is
68 shaped into a mold form.
69 Chocolate making is big business. The market value of the yearly cacao crop
70 around the world is more than five billion dollars. Chocolate is especially
71 popular in Europe and the United States. For example, in 2005, the United States
72 bought 1.4 billion dollars worth of cocoa products. Each year, Americans eat an
73 average of more than five kilograms of chocolate per person. Speciality shops
that sell costly chocolates are also very popular. Many offer chocolate lovers the
chance to taste chocolates grown in different areas of the world.
Questions 1-5 Reading passage 1 has 5 chapters. Which chapter contains the
following information?
1 the part of cacao trees used to produce chocolate
2 average chocolate consumption by people in the US per person per year
3 risks faced by fanners in the cacao business
4 where the first sweetened chocolate drink appeared
5 how ancient American civilizations obtained cacao
Questions 6-10 Do the following statements agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1? YES – NO - NOT GIVEN
6 use cacao and chocolate in ceremonies were restricted Maya royal families
7 The Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes invested in chocolate and chocolate drinks.
8 The forastero tree produces the best chocolate.
9 some parts in cacao seed are get rid of during the chocolate process
10 Chocolate is welcomed more in some countries or continents than other parts
around the world.
Questions 11-14 The flow chart below shows the steps in chocolate making.
Complete the flow chart using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the
passage for each blank
Cacao seeds
↓ sorting, cleaning and cooking ridding seeds of their 11__________ .
Nibs
↓ crushing
12 _________
↓ Add sugar, milk and 13___________ .
Crumb mixture
↓ Crush finely then come into a shape in a 14 ___________.
chocolate
V. READING: The future never dies
1 The word 'guitar' was brought into English as an adaptation of the Spanish word
2 The prospects for humanity and for the world as a whole are somewhere
3 between glorious and dire. It is hard to be much more precise.
4 A By ‘glorious’, I mean that our descendants – all who are born on to this Earth
5 – could live very comfortably and securely, and could continue to do so for as
6 long as the Earth can support life, which should be for a very long time indeed.
7 We should at least be thinking in terms of the next million years. Furthermore,
8 our descendants could continue to enjoy the company of other species –
9 establishing a much better relationship with them than we have now. Other
10 animals need not live in constant fear of us. Many of those fellow species now
11 seem bound to become extinct, but a significant proportion could and should
12 continue to live alongside us. Such a future may seem ideal, and so it is. Yet I do
13 not believe it is fanciful. There is nothing in the physical fabric of the Earth or in
14 our own biology to suggest that this is not possible.
15 B ‘Dire’ means that we human beings could be in deep trouble within the next
16 few centuries, living but also dying in large numbers in political terror and from
17 starvation, while huge numbers of our fellow creatures would simply disappear,
18 leaving only the ones that we find convenient – chickens, cattle – or that we
19 can’t shake off, like flies and mice. I’m taking it to be self-evident that glory is
20 preferable.
21 C Our future is not entirely in our own hands because the Earth has its own
22 rules, is part of the solar system and is neither stable nor innately safe. Other
23 planets in the solar system are quite beyond habitation, because their
24 temperature is far too high or too low to be endured, and ours, too, in principle
25 could tip either way. Even relatively unspectacular changes in the atmosphere
26 could do the trick. The core of the Earth is hot, which in many ways is good for
27 living creatures, but every now and again, the molten rock bursts through
28 volcanoes on the surface. Among the biggest volcanic eruptions in recent
29 memory was Mount St Helens, in the USA, which threw out a cubic kilometre
30 of ash – fortunately, in an area where very few people live. In 1815, Tambora (in
31 present-day Indonesia) expelled so much ash into the upper atmosphere that
32 climatic effects seriously harmed food production around the world for the
33 season after season. Entire civilisations have been destroyed by volcanoes.
34 D Yet nothing we have so far experienced shows what volcanoes can really
35 do. Yellowstone National Park in the USA occupies the caldera (the crater
36 formed when a volcano collapses) of an exceedingly ancient volcano of
37 extraordinary magnitude. Modem surveys show that its centre is now rising.
38 Sometime in the next 200 million years, Yellowstone could erupt again, and
39 when it does, the whole world will be transformed. Yellowstone could erupt
40 tomorrow. But there’s a very good chance that it will give us another million
41 years, and that surely is enough to be going on with. It seems sensible to assume
42 that this will be the case.
43 E The universe at large is dangerous, too: in particular, we share the sky with
44 vast numbers of asteroids, and now and again, the come into our planet’s
45 atmosphere. An asteroid the size of a small island, hitting the Earth at 15,000
46 kilometres an hour (a relatively modest speed by the standards of heavenly
47 bodies), would strike the ocean bed like a rock in a puddle, send a tidal wave
48 around the world as high as a small mountain and as fast as a jumbo jet, and
49 propel us into an ice age that could last for centuries. There are plans to head off
50 such disasters (including rockets to push approaching asteroids into new
51 trajectories), but in truth, it’s down to luck.
52 F On the other hand, the archaeological and the fossil evidence shows that no
53 truly devastating asteroid has struck since the one that seems to have accounted
54 for the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. So again, there seems no
55 immediate reason for despair. The Earth is indeed an uncertain place, in an
56 uncertain universe, but with average luck, it should do us well enough. If the
57 world does become inhospitable in the next few thousand or million years, then
58 it will probably be our own fault. In short, despite the underlying uncertainty,
58 our own future and that of our fellow creatures are very much in our own hands.
60 G Given average luck on the geological and the cosmic scale, the difference
61 between glory and disaster will be made and is being made, by politics. Certain
62 kinds of political systems and strategies would predispose us to long-term
63 survival (and indeed to comfort and security and pleasure of being alive), while
64 others would take us more and more frenetically towards collapse. The broad
65 point is, though, that we need to look at ourselves – humanity – and at the world
66 in general in a quite new light. Our material problems are fundamentally those
67 of biology. We need to think, and we need our politicians to think, biologically.
68 Do that, and take the ideas seriously, and we are in with a chance. Ignore
biology and we and our fellow creatures haven’t a hope.
Questions 1-6 Do the following statements agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1? YES – NO - NOT GIVEN
1 It seems predictable that some species will disappear.
2 The nature of the Earth and human biology make it impossible for human beings to
survive another million years.
3 An eruption by Yellowstone is likely to be more destructive than previous volcanic
eruptions.
4 There is a greater chance of the Earth being hit by small asteroids than large ones.
5 If the world becomes uninhabitable, it is most likely to be as a result of a natural
disaster.
6 Politicians currently in power seem unlikely to change their way of thinking.
Question 7-12 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO
WORDS from the passage for each answer.
The Earth could become uninhabitable, like other planets, through a major change in
the 7 __________. Volcanic eruptions of 8 _________ can lead to shortages of 9
__________ in a wide area. An asteroid hitting the Earth could create a 10 _________
that would result in a new 11__________ . Plans are being made to use 12 _________
to deflect asteroids heading for the Earth.
Question 13 What is the writer’s purpose in Reading Passage 2?
A to propose a new theory about the causes of natural disasters
B to prove that generally held beliefs about the future are all mistaken
C to present a range of opinions currently held by scientists
D to argue the need for a general change in behavior
VI. READING: The history of cakes at weddings
1 In Western cultures, since antiquity. Weddings customarily have been
2 celebrated with a special cake. Ancient Roman wedding ceremonies were
3 finalized by breaking a cake of wheat or barley over the bride’s head as n
4 symbol of good fortune. The newly married couple then ate some of the crumbs
5 together. Afterward, the wedding guests gathered up the remaining crumbs as
6 tokens of good luck. Wedding guests were also supplied with sweetmeats called
7 confetti, a sweet mixture of nuts, dried fruit and honeyed almonds. Handfuls of
8 confetti were showered over the bride and groom; indeed, it seems to have been
9 the custom to throw confetti about enthusiastically. Eventually, confetti in the
10 form of sweets and nuts was replaced with rice, flower petals, or colored paper,
11 and these new types of confetti continue to be thrown over newly married
12 couples in many countries around the world.
13 When the Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD, many of their customs and
14 traditions became part of British life. These customs included their wedding
15 customs, and when the Normans invaded Britain in 1066 they brought many
16 French traditions. Other changes came about due to increased trade and contact
17 with Europe, but present-day British wedding traditions remain firmly rooted in
18 the past. In medieval Britain, small spiced buns, which were common everyday
19 fare, were often eaten at weddings. These were stacked in a towering pile, as
20 high as possible. If the bride and groom were able to kiss over the tall stack, it
21 augured a lifetime of riches. The earliest British recipe exclusively for eating at
22 weddings is Bride Pie, which was recorded in 1685. This was a large round pie
23 with an elaborately decorated pastry crust that concealed a filling of oysters,
24 pine nuts lamb and spices. Each guest had to eat a small piece of the pier not to
25 do so was considered extremely impolite. A ring was traditionally placed in the
26 pie, and the lady who found it would be next to marry.
27 In the 17th century, Bride Pie was changed into Bride Cake, the predecessor of
28 the modern British wedding cake. Cakes containing dried fruit and sugar,
29 symbols of prosperity, gradually became the centerpieces for weddings. Some
30 people made Bride Cake in the cheaper form of two large rounds of pastry
31 sandwiched together with currants and sprinkled with sugar. Very few homes at
32 the time could boast of having ovens, but this type of pastry cake could be
33 cooked on a baking stone on the hearth.
34 Later in the 17th century, there was a new development when wedding cakes
35 began to be made in pairs, one for the bride and another for the groom. Both
36 cakes were dark, heavy fruitcakes; the groom’s cake was smaller than the
37 bride’s cake, and was cut up into little squares that were placed in boxes for the
38 guests to take home as a wedding memento. Groom’s cakes gradually died out
39 and are no longer part of British weddings. However, the tradition has
40 undergone a revival in the United States, where for many years the groom’s
41 cake has served as a wedding gift for guests. Modern groom’s cakes are often
42 formed and decorated to depict the groom’s hobby, for example a golf bag, a
43 camera, a chess board.
44 Groom’s cakes were never covered with icing, but Bride Cake covered with
45 white icing first appeared sometime in the 17 th century. After the cake was
46 baked, it was covered with a pure white, smooth icing made with double refined
47 sugar, egg whites, and orange-flower water. The mixture was beaten for two
48 hours, then spread over the cake and dried in the oven until hard. A pure white
49 color was much sought after for wedding cake icing because white icing meant
50 that only the finest refined sugar had been used. Thus a pure white cake was a
51 status symbol, as it displayed the family’s wealth.
52 The late 1800s in Britain saw the introduction of a new tradition, with the first
53 multi-tiered wedding cakes. These were impressive cakes: they were heavy
54 because they were made with so much dried fruit, and highly decorated with
55 icing and embellished with sugar flowers, doves, horseshoes and bells. The first
56 multi-tiered cakes comprised iced cakes stacked on top of each other rather like
57 a succession of boxes gradually decreasing in size. The cakes from the upper
58 tiers did not sink into the lower tiers because they were a bit put on top of each
58 other until the icing between each cake had had time to harden. It was not until
60 the beginning of the 20th century that the cake tiers were separated and
61 supported by columns.
62 Twenty-first-century weddings are big business for Britain’s wedding industry.
63 Over 300,000 people get married each year and a wedding can cost thousands of
64 pounds. The cost of the all-important wedding cake can be hundreds of pounds,
65 depending on the dimension and design. It will be interesting to see whether
wedding cakes continue to be popular at weddings.
QUESTIONS 1 – 6 Do the following statements agree with the information given
in Reading Passage 1? YES – NO - NOT GIVEN
1 Breaking a cake over the bride’s head was the last part of an ancient Roman wedding
ceremony.
2 Confetti is still made of nuts, dried fruit and honeyed almonds.
3 The groom’s family used to supply the confetti.
4 It was considered lucky for a newly married couple to be able to kiss over a tower of
spiced buns.
5 Only brides were allowed to eat Bride Pie.
6 The wedding cakes eaten in Britain today developed from Bride Cake of the
17th century.
QUESTIONS 7 – 9 Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Wedding cakes

17th century- Britain Bride Cake:

- expensive ingredients were a sign of wealth
- less expensive round cakes were made of 7 ________ with currants in
between and sugar on top
 - they were baked on a hearth stone because not all homes had 8
___________
Now- United States - Groom’s cake:
- guest receive pieces of the groom’s cake
- cakes may represent the 9 _____________ of the groom
QUESTIONS 10 – 13 Label the diagram below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from
the passage for each answer.

10. Examples of wedding cakes with several 10 ____________.

11. In the early 1900s, 11 ___________ were used to keep individual cakes apart.

12. The size of these cakes as well as their 12 __________ affects pricing.

13. Hardened 13____________ between cakes stopped higher cakes sinking into tower
cakes.