THE BREAKTHROUGHS THAT COULD REVERSE BALDNESS

How new tech could The plan to prevent Inside the race to
END LONELINESS EARTH’S ASTEROID DOOMSDAY SAVE OUR SHARKS

HOW SCIENTISTS ARE REWRITING THE

ORIGIN STORY OF EARTH AND LIFE ITSELF

PLUS
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BRIAN
COX
REVEALS THE
SECRETS OF HIS EPIC
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CONTRIBUTORS

Since the first confirmed detection of exoplanets in 1992,

DR EMMA BECKETT
astronomers around the world have identified thousands of
Olive oil is celebrated for its
other solar systems scattered throughout space. health-giving properties. But
The thing is, very few of them look like the Solar System could the water leftover from
we call home. Some have two stars instead of one at their its production be just as good
centres, while others have planets orbiting their stars so for us? Food scientist Emma
closely that any ‘rain’ falls in the form of liquid metal. gives us the lowdown. –›p32
A terrifying thought.
Our Solar System is classed as an ‘ordered’ system, meaning that,
generally, the planets increase in mass the further out from the Sun they PROF BILL MCGUIRE
are. Very few other systems follow this model. In fact, fewer than two per The planet is worryingly close
cent of the systems that we know about do. That alone is enough to make to breaching several climate
ours special, before we even get on to the subject of life. tipping points, but one of
them worries climate
So, how did this all happen? The origin story of our Solar System – and,
scientists like Bill a lot more
by extension, us – are questions that have occupied the minds of scientists than others. –›p76
and philosophers for generations. But with every new mission, we’re getting
closer to answering them. That quest for answers is the theme of Prof Brian
Cox’s new BBC Two series, Solar System. Across the five episodes, he looks
at where we are in the story of our origin, as well as the spacecraft, due to DR SIMON CORK
launch soon, which will hopefully give us insights into the next chapters. Demand for the weight-loss
Maybe, in those chapters, we’ll get closer to finding out if Earth really is drug Ozempic is soaring, but
COVER: ANDY POTTS THIS PAGE: ZACH LEVI-RODGERS/BBC, GETTY IMAGES X2, KYLE SMART

unique, or if it’s just one of many planets that provides a home to intelligent people need a prescription to
life. Read more about the making of Prof Cox’s new series, and the origin get it. Could making it
story of the Solar System, starting on p66. available over the counter be
the solution? Physiologist
Simon investigates. –›p35

Daniel Bennett, Editor JOE PHELAN

Far from being the vicious
predators portrayed in
WANT MORE? FOLLOW SCIENCEFOCUS ON FACEBOOK X (FORMERLY TWITTER) PINTEREST INSTAGRAM movies, sharks are a vital part
of ocean ecosystems. But
they’re under threat. Science
ON THE BBC THIS MONTH... writer Joe examines efforts to
protect them. –›p46
Curious Cases: Bubbles

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CONTENTS 15
DISCOVERIES
32
REALITY CHECK

REGULARS

06 EYE OPENER 30 VICTORIA GILL

Incredible science images Why lab-grown meat may
from around the world. be no better for the
environment than
13 FEEDBACK livestock farming.
Your thoughts on the
articles in BBC Science Focus. 32 REALITY CHECK
The science behind the
15 DISCOVERIES headlines: Could Satellite collisions could cause a
planet-wide disaster. An expert
Olive oil is good for your health.
But the wastewater left over from
All the month’s biggest wastewater from olive oil
production have health explains how bad it could be. making it might be even better.
news, including: Satellite
collisions are a bigger threat benefits? Will we ever get
than we realised; New an over-the-counter

80
Ozempic-like pill reduces Ozempic-type drug?
weight by 13 per cent; Being
mentally resilient could cut 38 INNOVATIONS
your risk of death; Ice Age
hunters tricked mammoths
A roundup of the hottest
trends in technology.
Q&A
into impaling themselves;
Crossbreed dogs may not be 76 THE BIG QUESTION
as healthy as we first When it comes to climate
thought; And more… change, which tipping
point has scientists
26 DR DEAN BURNETT most worried?
Why the best course of
action is sometimes just 80 Q&A
to listen to your partner. Our experts answer your
questions. This month:
28 SOFIA QUAGLIA Can science explain
How insects are the unsung haunted houses? What
heroes when it comes to happened to Einstein’s
seed dispersal. brain? Could I land a plane
in an emergency? Why
does time move so slowly

44
when I’m at the gym? What
happens to time at the
event horizon of a black
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[Link]

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70 THE ORIGIN OF THE INSTANT

SOLAR SYSTEM GENIUS
Our understanding of our Our bite-sized masterclass in
place in the cosmos is
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rewrite the story of how
66 podcast form. Find it wherever
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we found ourselves here? PROF BRIAN COX

38 28
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 EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER
A new level
of power tool
ROME, ITALY

This is no ordinary drill. It’s a

robotic device that has been
built to search for water on the
Moon. It’s one part of the
Package for Resource
Observation and in-Situ
Prospecting for Exploration,
Commercial exploitation and
Transportation suite of
instruments (PROSPECT to its
friends), which the European
Space Agency hopes to send to
the Moon in 2028.
The drill (called ProSEED
– PROSPECT Sample
Excavation and Extraction
Drill) features a multispectral
imager and other sensors to
detect and analyse the
mineralogy of the regolith at its
intended landing site of the
lunar South Pole. Once the
sensors pick up the right signs,
the drill will bore more than a
metre (3ft) into the surface to
hunt for frozen water and
other volatiles (easily
vapourised chemicals).
Samples obtained by the
drill will then be passed to a
mini laboratory that also forms
part of the PROSPECT suite.
Here, the samples will be
heated to analyse their
constituent chemicals from the
gases they release. PROSPECT
will also test specific processes
that could be applied for
mining substances like
Helium-3 in the future.
LEONARDO SPACE

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6
 EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER
Deeply
strange
NAZCA RIDGE, CHILE

First discovered in 2016,

4,290m (approx 14,000ft)
below the surface of the
Pacific Ocean near Hawaii, the
Casper octopus is a
remarkable species. Ghostly in
appearance due to a lack of
pigment, it takes its name
from the famously friendly
cartoon spectre.
Eight years after the
discovery of the species, this
example was observed by
researchers from the Schmidt
Ocean Institute during an
expedition to the Nazca Ridge
off the coast of Chile.
The Casper octopus is
remarkable for another reason
besides its appearance and
preference for deep waters: its
parenting. After attaching a
clutch of about 30 eggs to a
dead sea sponge, the octopus
will wrap itself around them
until they hatch, which takes
years. During that time, the
octopus doesn’t eat and
gradually wastes away.
There’s much we still don’t
know about this strange
creature, including why it has
such short arms. “It’s possible
they don’t stretch out and grab
prey, as other octopuses do,
but rather they position their
bodies directly over prey
hiding in the soft seabed,” says
Dr Helen Scales, a marine
biologist.
ROV SUBASTIAN/SCHMIDT
OCEAN INSTITUTE

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9
 EYE OPENER

EYE OPENER
A star
is born
This isn’t one image, but a
mosaic of many, combined to
form a massive view of NGC
1333, a star-forming cluster
around 960 light-years from
Earth. Sitting deep within the
Perseus molecular cloud, the
cluster had been hidden from
view until it was captured by
the James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST) in August.
Hubble captured an image
of the Perseus cloud back in
2023, which, while impressive,
didn’t show anything like the
detail visible in this one
– much of the star-forming
activity seen here was
obscured by the cloud’s dust.
“JWST behaves like the
thermal-imaging cameras
used by search-and-rescue
teams to see through smoke
or dust. Its sensitivity to
longer wavelengths of light,
together with its superb
resolution, allows us to peer
into the dusty, star-forming
regions so that we can get a
better look at individual stars
in the process of forming,”
says Dr Claire Davies, a physics
and astronomy lecturer at the
University of Exeter.
The glowing patches of
orange gas swirling around
the centre are a telltale sign of
intense star-forming activity.
The swirls form when the
material ejected from young
stars collides with the
surrounding cloud.
NASA/ESA/CSA

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around the world. The most famous one in make it difficult for baleen whales to hear each Compliance manager Cameron McEwan
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(albeit based on air pressure, rather than a their songs. Could this be a reason why orcas EDITORIAL COMPLAINTS
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That’s where the action is Audit Bureau of
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MAGAZINE… LISTEN TO IT TOO
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 DISCOVERIES

A NEW RIVAL TO OZEMPIC DESIGNERDOG HEALTH DRUNK WORMS

The weight-loss drug’s makers have a Labradoodles and cockapoos may be no AND PIGEON BOMBS
more effective version, in pill form p18 healthier than their pedigree parents p20 It’s the 2024 Ig Nobel Awards p22

NEWS FROM
THE FRONTIERS
OF SCIENCE

SPACE

Satellite
collisions are
a disaster
waiting to
happen,
experts warn
With satellites old and new
orbiting alongside each other,
serious crashes are inevitable

n t he f i rst ha lf of 2024,
satellites belonging to
SpaceX’s Sta rlin k f leet
performed almost 50,000
collision-avoidance
manoeuvres. This reflects
t he nu mber of satellites
orbiting Earth and raises fears about
satellite collisions if we continue
to launch more in an unchecked
fashion. Considering how much
of our telecommunications and
navigation now comes from space,
not to mention t he obser vation
data that informs us about climate
change, fears of a catastrophic crash
– triggering a loss of such essential
services – are understandable.
But according to Andy Lawrence,
Regius Professor of Astronomy at
With more satellites
University of Edinburgh, it’s more
GETTY IMAGES

in orbit, there are

insidious t ha n t hat. “This idea more chances
that eventually there will be some of collisions
sort of catastrophe is not quite ´

15
 DISCOVERIES

RIGHT Satellite
collisions can
produce thousands
of pieces of debris
that litter orbital
space around Earth

´ right. It’s more like the infamous

‘boiling the frog’ problem,” he says.
Essentially, the idea is that if
a frog were dropped into boiling
water, it would instantly leap out.
But if it were placed into cold
water to which heat was gradually
applied, it wouldn’t perceive the
danger and be boiled alive. “It’s
exactly like climate change. You
know it’s getting gradually worse,
but where do you say ‘stop’, and
how do you ma nage to ma ke it
stop?” says Lawrence.
To circle the Earth, a satellite
has to move at a m ini mu m of
7.8k m/s (4.8 m iles/s). At t h is
velocity, collisions would release
an enormous amount of energy,
shattering the spacecraft involved
and producing large clouds of debris
“It’s exactly like climate change.
that could destroy other satellites.
Such crashes have already been
happening: in 2009, the functioning
You know it’s getting gradually
US satellite Iridium 33 and the
inoperable Russian Cosmos 2251
worse, but where do you say ‘stop’?”
collided at 11.7km/s (7.3 miles/s),
producing more than 2,000 pieces
of t rackable debr is a nd ma ny 10–20m (33–66ft) from a defunct have significantly added to it. While
smaller pieces. Russian satellite, Cosmos 2221. Lawrence doesn’t believe a single
There are now more than 13,000 Although functioning, TIMED is catast rophic event is what will
satellites in orbit, of which around a non-manoeuvrable spacecraft, happen, he says one day a collision
10,000 are functioning. In January meaning that operators on Earth could take out something important
2023, t he decommissioned US/ could simply watch and hope. to many people. “If suddenly you
UK/Netherlands’ IRAS (Infrared Commenting on the conjunction, can’t see t he Super Bowl game,
Ast ronom ica l Satellite) space as these close passes are called, the or a n i mpor ta nt m ilita r y asset
telescope ca me wit hin 15–30m space tracking company LeoLabs gets damaged, people will realise
GETTY IMAGES X3, ALAMY, LOFAR/ASTRON

(49–98ft) of America’s Gravity posted on X: “Too close for comfort.” something’s got to be done.”
Gradient Stabilizat ion In the subsequent message thread, Satellites have been a feature
Experiment (GGSE-4) satellite, it was pointed out that if these of our world since 1957 when the
which has been inoperable t wo satellites had collided, it Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 to
since 1972. A mont h later, would have produced 2,000–7,000 the astonishment of all. But the huge
NASA’s scient if ic TI M ED fragments big enough to track from increase in the number of satellites
(Thermosphere, Ionosphere, Earth. Since there are currently in orbit in recent years means the
Mesosphere, Energetics and around 12,000 pieces of trackable risk of these fast-moving objects
Dynamics) satellite passed just space debris, such an event would colliding has never been higher.

16
 DISCOVERIES

Obscuring
our view of
the Universe
As the number of satellites
around Earth grows, so does
the interference that
the probability of a collision is astronomers experience when
higher than 1 in 100,000. This is studying the sky. At visual
helpful, but some experts worry that wavelengths, satellites can
the increasing number of satellites leave streaks across images.
w ill over whel m t he sof t wa re’s At radio wavelengths,
ability to cope. (Starlink did not satellites can emit signals
respond to BBC Science Focus’s that drown out the precious
requests for comment on this.) whispers from the
In 2023, Dr Jonathan McDowell, distant Universe.
an astrophysicist at the Harvard- “As we industrialise space,
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, which is a good thing, there
expressed t h is concer n to t he will be challenges to
news website [Link], saying astronomy,” Prof Brian Cox
“we are operating at the edge of recently told BBC Science Focus.
what is safe.” “How you balance those things
And it’s not just orbital space that is the challenge in the next
could be at risk from the increasing decades.” (Read more from
number of satellites. In an early Prof Cox on p66).
A study with the LOFAR
effort to combat space junk, a decade
(Low Frequency Array) radio
or two ago NASA and ESA issued
telescope, below, in the
The dramatic rise in satellites has TOP Thousands guidelines saying that at the end
of satellites are
Netherlands showed that the
been driven by companies seeking of a satellite’s working life or after
crowding the most recent V2-mini Starlink
to establish space-based internet 25 years (whichever comes sooner) satellites emit unintended
night sky
services. To provide acceptable an operator must remove it. Mostly radio waves that are up to
response times, the satellites have to ABOVE Sputnik this means burning it up in Earth’s 32 times brighter than the
be in low-Earth orbits, where they 1, launched by the atmosphere, but this could just be previous generation. That’s
speed around the world every 90 Soviet Union in shifting the problem. 10 million times brighter than
minutes. So, to ensure unbreakable 1957, was the first “You’re filling the atmosphere the faintest objects that LOFAR
coverage and sufficient bandwidth, satellite to with aluminium and nitrous oxide, is capable of detecting.
hundreds, thousands, if not tens of orbit Earth so it’s about atmospheric pollution
thousands of satellites are needed. as well,” says Lawrence.
Sta rlin k is t he la rgest of t he In April, NASA confirmed that
satellite constellat ions, having a piece of discarded cargo from
placed more than 7,000 satellites the International Space Station
in orbit since 2019. To lower the had survived re-entry and fallen
risk of collisions, its satellites are to Earth, leaving a large hole in
manoeuvrable: onboard software the ceiling and floor of a Florida
executes a manoeuvre if it calculates house. Thankfully no one was hurt.

17
 DISCOVERIES

HEALTH
New Ozempic–like pill
cuts weight by 13 per cent
A new weight-loss drug’s effects could rival
the current injection-only medication

eight-loss drugs like average weight loss across three

Ozempic and Wegovy groups of people. At the end of
are a hot topic, but t he 12-week period, scientists
new research suggests found t hat people ta k ing a pill
there could be a more containing a double shot of 50mg
effective alternative: Amycretin lost 13.1 per cent of their
Amycretin. body weight, while those taking a
In the first human trial of single 50mg pill lost 10.4 per cent.
Amycretin, its creator Novo In comparison, people who took a
Nordisk A/S (the pharmaceutical daily placebo only lost an average
company behind Ozempic) of 1.1 per cent of their body weight
recorded promising results. In over the trial period.
fact, the trial found that people For comparison, a recent study
taking Amycretin lost an average published in JAMA Internal Medicine
of 13.1 per cent of their body found that people taking another
weight over a period of 12 weeks. weight-loss drug, Mounjaro, lost
But unlike Ozempic and Wegovy, 5.9 per cent of their body fat across
which require injections, three months, while those taking
Amycretin comes in pill form. Ozempic lost 3.6 per cent.
So how does this new pill work? “Novo Nordisk has perhaps NATURE
Well, Amycretin is a kind of two- been lagging behind when it
for-one deal, in that it mimics the
actions of two hormones involved
comes to developing competitive
multi-acting single molecules, but
Tiny bug sets record
in weight loss: amylin and glucagon- Amycretin appears to be a promising for the fastest
like peptide (k nown as GLP-1). advancement,” obesity expert Dr
They both help to decrease hunger Ch ristoffer Clemmensen of t he backflips on Earth
sensations and control appetite. University of Copenhagen, Denmark,
Published in t he journal who was not involved in the study,
The insect somersaults so quickly that
Diabetologia, the research compared told BBC Science Focus. it seems to disappear

n a year already filled

with incredible sports
achievements, one athlete
has now pulled off a truly
astonishing feat: the fastest
backflip on Earth. The
record goes to a tiny bug
known as a globular springtail,
which performs the manoeuvre
so quickly it appears to vanish
entirely to the naked eye.
ILLUSTRATIONS: ADAM GALE

The globula r springtail

(Dicyrtomina minuta) is very small
at only 1mm tall and a hexapod,
meaning it has six legs. Researchers
have discovered t hat it rapidly

18
 DISCOVERIES

PSYCHOLOGY The study collected information

somersaults backwards to propel about mental resilience and health
itself to over 60 times its body height Being mentally from a large study of US adults
– in the blink of an eye. aged 50 years and above. Over
To learn more about the bugs, resilient could help you time, the scientists followed 10,569
the researchers used a camera that adults for around 12 years or until
shoots 40,000 frames per second. live a much longer life, they died (whichever happened
They sta r ted by provok ing t he soonest).
bugs to jump by shining a light on study finds First, t hey measu red t heir
them or tickling them with a small Coping well in the face of hardship may mental resilience a nd scored
paintbrush. Then, using the super- them on a scale of 0–12 based on
benefit your body as well as your brain
fast video footage, they studied how their answers to a questionnaire.
the bugs take off, how fast they move, The questions established their
how far they go and how they land. perceived calmness, perseverance,
They discovered that the bugs f you feel that there is self-reliance and sense that certain
take off with the same acceleration more to cope with as you experiences must be faced alone.
rate as a f lea, moving at one- get older, you’re not alone. Then the researchers split the
thousandth of a second to backflip But new research suggests pa rticipants into four groups
off the ground. But then globular that those who bounce back depending on this score. They
springtails do something unusual: better from tough times discovered that, compared to the
they spin. Reaching 368 rotations per could enjoy longer lifespans. group with the least resilience, the
The new study, Published in BMJ most resilient older adults were
Mental Health, showed that adults 53-per-cent less likely to die in

“They started by with the highest levels of mental

resilience in older age had the lowest
chance of dying, cutting their risk of
the next 10 years.
According to t he scientists,
mental resilience is a n active

provoking the bugs death from all causes by a whopping

53 per cent.
process that changes across your
lifespa n a nd is inf luenced by
factors such as your sex, hormones
to jump by shining and genes that regulate the body’s
stress response. But having

a light on them or meaning in life, positive

emotions and satisfaction
with social support can all

tickling them with also impact your resilience,

they explain.
“Triggering these positive
a small paintbrush” emotions may enha nce
t he protective effects of
psychological resilience and
mitigate the negative impact
second, this action is what makes of accumulated adversity on
them disappear. mental health in adults,” the
This motion, t he resea rchers paper’s authors, from Sun Yat-
think, is like putting on a vanishing sen University, China, and the
act to escape predators: the globular Karolinska Institutet, Sweden,
springtail’s only superpower, given explained.
that it doesn’t fly, bite or sting. In fact, t he resea rchers
“This is the first time anyone think that mental resilience
has done a complete description could have similar effects to
of the globular springtail’s jumping bouncing back physically after
performance measures, and what illness and trauma, as good
t hey do is almost impossibly coping skills may offset the
spectacular,” said Dr Adrian Smith, negative impacts of tough
corresponding author of the paper times.
published in the journal Integrative
Organismal Biology.

19
 DISCOVERIES

ANIMALS f you’ve ever considered t he overall healt h of designer

getting a dog, you’ve crossbreeds (crossbreeds from two
Crossbreed dogs might probably been given the
same advice as every other
purebred dogs) is largely similar to
their parents. “The popularity of
not be as healthy as you potential owner: get a
crossbreed. With longer
designer crossbreeds has boomed
over the past decade in the UK,” said
think, says study lives and healthier bodies, Dr Rowena Packer, senior author of
these dogs are the obvious the study and lecturer at the RVC.
The largest-ever study into choice… or so we thought. “However, our previous research
the health of crossbreeds busts myths A new study f rom t he Royal discovered that many are purchased
about what makes a healthy dog Veterinary College (RVC), London based on assumed characteristics
suggests otherwise, finding that that are not well-evidenced, such as

ANTHROPOLOGY elephants) and bison. That, or the

humans used the sharpened rocks
New research reveals Ice Age to kill and butcher any wounded
animals they scavenged.
hunters tricked mammoths into But the new study, published in
the journal PLoS ONE, suggests we
impaling themselves may have got it wrong. The authors,
archaeologists from the University
Rather than tracking and killing prey, ancient humans may of California, Berkeley in the US,
have tricked animals to make them run into spears think the weapons were used to trap
and maim charging animals – and
in some cases as a defence against
hirteen thousand years ago, a specialised weapon to make sabre-toothed cats.
human existence depended animals impale themselves. The theory is that the hunters
on our ability to find ways Previously, researchers thought would plant the bases of Clovis
to survive in the snow and that hunters would throw spears point-topped spears into the ground,
ice. Now, scientists think topped wit h razor-sha rp rocks with the spike facing upwards at
the solutions we found (palm-sized tools known as Clovis an angle. Then, when a charging
were even more ingenious points) at their giant prey. These animal ran at them, its own force
– and brutal – than we initially included mammoths, mastodons would drive the spear deep into
thought. Research has found that (similar to mammoths, but more its body. Given a mammoth could
Ice Age hunters probably crafted closely resembling modern-day weigh as much as nine tonnes, this
is likely to have been more damaging
than even the strongest of hunters
thrusting a spear into the animal.
“This ancient Native American
design was an amazing innovation
in hunting strategies,” said Dr Scott
Byram, first author of the paper. “This
distinctive indigenous technology
is providing a window into hunting
and survival techniques used for
millennia throughout the world.”
Confirming this theory required
several bizarre methods, including a
simulation of this hunting technique.
Essentially, the researchers built
a test platform to see how much
force a replica spear system could
ILLUSTRATIONS: ADAM GALE

withstand before breaking. Next,

Byram and his team plan to build a
fake mammoth to further test their
theory, using a slide or pendulum
to thrust it down onto a replica
Clovis point.

20
 DISCOVERIES

perceptions they are hypoallergenic, information to compa re t he was equally likely to have these
good wit h children a nd have likelihood of each breed having disorders. Among the disorders that
good health.” one of 57 common disorders in dogs. designer crossbreeds were more
The study, the largest ever on They discovered that there was likely to have, ear infections came
the health of designer crossbreeds, no difference between the designer top. Cockapoos also had a higher
surveyed 9,402 UK owners of three crossbred and purebred dogs in chance of itchy skin. However, both
common crossbreeds (cockapoos, the likelihood of getting 86.8 per labradoodles and cockapoos had
labradoodles and cavapoos) and cent of these disorders. For the a lower risk of slipping kneecaps
their parent breeds (cocker spaniels, other 13.2 per cent, there was a compared to their parent breeds.
labrador retrievers, cavalier king difference between breeds, but no “Our foremost priority should
charles spaniels and poodles). The link between whether they were be overall dog welfare,” said Gina
researchers used owner-reported crossbred or purebred: each type Bryson, lead author of the paper.

HEALTH

‘Too much of a good

thing’: Fasting has
many health benefits,
but there’s a snag
Researchers warn of unseen risks

ntermittent fasting can

lengthen your lifespan
and aid weight loss – but
according to a new MIT
study, there could be a dark
side to the regenerative
powers of fasting.
The researchers behind the study,
published in Nature, discovered
t hat eating again af ter fasting
activates a pathway that’s crucial
for boosting regeneration in stem
cells – an important process for
healing injuries. But they also found
a downside: cancerous mutations
caused by this regeneration were
“They discovered that the mice
more likely to develop into early-
stage tumours. “Having more stem
cell activity is good for regeneration,
were much more likely to develop
but too much of a good thing over
time ca n have less favourable
consequences,” said Prof Ömer
cancerous polyps during refeeding”
Yilmaz, senior author of the study.
Obser ving mice eating again more specialised cells. But they very healthy, but if you’re unlucky
after a 24-hour fast, the researchers discovered that the mice were much and you’re refeeding after a fasting,
discovered t hat stem cells more likely to develop cancerous and you get exposed to a mutagen,
proliferated most at the end of the polyps during refeeding. like a charred steak or something,
‘refeeding’ period (much more than “I want to emphasise that this was you might actually be increasing
in mice who hadn’t fasted at all). This all done in mice, using well-defined your chances of developing a lesion
intense regeneration is caused by cancer mutations. In humans, it’s that can go on to give rise to cancer.”
nutrients becoming available again, going to be a much more complex The researchers emphasise that
which enables stem cells to divide state,” Yilmaz said. “But it does lead human trials are needed to confirm
and grow – and therefore build us to the following notion: fasting is the results in people.

21
 DISCOVERIES

THE IG NOBEL AWARDS

The annual spoof-Nobel prizes celebrate the weird and wonderful
side of science. Here are some of 2024’s winners

Peace Physiology Botany Medicine Physics Probability Chemistry Biology

Awarded to the Won by a team Jacob White, Fake medicine It’s not all fun A mostly Dutch In another fairly Fordyce Ely
late Prof BF of Japanese and from the US, that causes and games: Prof team of 50 simple, but and William E
Skinner for his American and Felipe painful side James Liao from researchers bizarre study, Petersen were
experiments researchers, the Yamashita, of effects can be the University won this a team from the posthumously
on live pigeons. physiology Ig the University more effective of Florida won category by Netherlands awarded this
In the paper Nobel Prize of Bonn, won in treating the physics setting out with used prize for their
‘Pigeons in a solved a crucial the botany patients than award for his a simple idea: chromatography 1940s research
Pelican’, he question: Can prize for finding fake medicine investigation to test the to separate into factors
details tests on mammals evidence that with no side into the hypothesis that drunk and affecting milk
the feasibility breathe out of the South effects, swimming coin tosses are sober worms. production in
ALAMY X3, GETTY IMAGES ILLUSTRATIONS: ADAM GALE

of housing the their anuses? American according to the abilities of a more likely to It’s not entirely dairy herds. They
birds inside Turns out they plant Boquila Swiss, German dead trout. land the same clear why, other placed a cat on
World War II can. The trifoliolata and Belgian Why? To way up as they than trying to the back of a cow,
bombs to guide discovery could can mimic the winners of the demonstrate started. To test advance and repeatedly
them to their also help treat leaves of plastic medicine prize. passive it, they flipped polymer burst inflated
targets. Skinner respiratory 350,757 coins, science. paper bags next
himself called failure in confirming to it to see if the
it a “crackpot humans. their theory, milk flow
idea.” but only by a changed. Turns
small margin. out a scared
cow
produces
less
milk.
 1. Paramotorists
Márcio Aita Júnior and
Senderson Laurido fly
over crescent dunes
near Lomas de Amara
in Peru. Together, the
ground and air teams
have been able to
survey over 150km2
(37,066 acres) of
Peru’s deserts.

2. Aita Júnior (left)

with botanists Oliver
Whaley (middle) and
Alfonso Orellana-
Garcia (right),
conducting fieldwork
to collect specimens
and establish
the distribution of
rare plants threatened
with extinction.

3. The Sechura and

Atacama hyper-arid
belt is a rare
ecosystem that
1 stretches about
OLIVER WHALEY, JUSTIN MOAT/RBG KEW, MIKE CAMPBELL-JONES X2

3,000km (1,864 miles)

2 along the coasts of
Peru and Chile. With
virtually no rainfall,
the plants that live
here have adapted to
survive on moisture
from the fog sweeping
in from the Pacific.

4. The scientists
discovered that the
paramotor pilots
completed their
missions 4.5 times
faster than the ground
crews and were also
able to identify
lomases that drones
were unable to
distinguish from the
surrounding desert.

24
 DISCOVERIES

BOTANY

The botanists
studying plants
from the sky
Scientists are working with paramotorists
to find rare flowers in the desert

inding tiny flowers in the

middle of the desert is hard,
but it’s far easier if you can
search from above. Desert
ecosystems are generally
delicate and inaccessible,
a nd off-road vehicles
ca n da mage t he f ragile
3 habitats. That’s why scientists from
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
turned to paramotorists (paragliders
4
powered by motors) to help in
their conservation efforts in the
deserts of Peru.
Scientists from Kew have been
studying plants in parts of the desert
known as lomases (oases fed not by
rain, but by fog) for almost a century.
There are over 1,700 plant species
in the lomases, but they remain
incredibly hard to map – some only
flower once a decade – and the areas
are extremely vulnerable to climate
change and human activity.
Working with Peruvian scientists
from Huarango Nature, RBG Kew
helped t rain pa ra motorists to
identify, collect, geo-reference and
preserve plants for taxonomic study.
“Our study shows that through
an exciting collaboration, today’s
extreme sports enthusiasts can work
alongside scientists to help monitor
ecosystems a nd gat her crucial
environmental data, protect species
and aid conservation efforts,” said
Oliver Whaley, Honorary Research
Associate at RBG Kew.
The collaboration has led the
Peruvian Government to protect a
63km 2 (15,689 acre) area of desert
on the coast of Peru and designate
it a conservation reserve.

25
 COLUMNISTS

26
 COLUMNISTS

COMMENT
becoming very important to our emotional processing.
Don’t try to solve They become an emotional ‘modulator’; someone
we depend on to accept and validate us, but also
your partner’s problems help define and refine our emotions through their
responses and interactions with us.
You may think you’re trying to help, but you’ll both We usually don’t k now we’re doing t his wit h
our partners, though. Like most of our emotional
be better off if you keep your advice to yourself development and processing, it happens subconsciously.
But that doesn’t mean it’s any less important.
What it does mean is that we regularly depend
f you r roma ntic pa r t ner is ra nting about on our romantic partners to validate our emotions.
a problem t hey have, you’d logically feel Pa r t icula rly t hose we’ve had to suppress, even
compelled to help. Why wouldn’t you? You temporarily, due to experiencing them in situations
don’t want someone you love to be upset, so or groups where expressing them would have negative
you try to resolve the issue, to remove the consequences – the anger at being unfairly blamed for
source of their upset by offering advice and something in a workplace meeting when the higher-
suggestions for how to fix it. ups are present, for example.
But if you do that, you may find your partner gets This means we’re even keener to have our legitimate
even more annoyed and frustrated – angry, even. feelings validated, so we express them, enthusiastically,
It’s not exactly a logical reaction. to our romantic partner.
If you’ve experienced this, you’re not alone. The Then they proceed to ignore our emotions and instead
key term used so far is ‘logical’. But real human focus on the objective source of them, before making
relationships have never been purely logical. They’re suggestions and offering advice, about a situation that
shaped by emotions and emotional connection. they weren’t involved with and have no experience
Emotional processing is sort of a mental equivalent of. What’s t his, if not a reject ion of emot ional
to digestion. Much like how food enters our bodies and expression and communication, a denial of much-
is gradually broken down into useful components by needed validation?
the digestive system, when an emotional experience On top of that, it can also be perceived as a loss
of status. Because your partner’s effectively saying:
“I will offer solutions that I don’t believe you will
“We regularly depend on our have thought of – ergo, I’m smarter than you.”
Loss of status and rejection of emotional connection?

romantic partners to validate Both are guaranteed ways to cause stress and upset
in the human brain, both experienced when your
romantic partner ignores your emotions and tries to fix

our emotions” your problems.

Let’s be clear: no one who genuinely wants to
fix their partner’s problems is a bad person. It’s an
occurs within our brains, various neuropsychological understandable and reasonable behaviour. But it’s one
systems gradually convert it into something that can that causes negative outcomes, due to unawareness
be safely added to and integrated into our existing of the emotional factors at work.
memories, psyche and understanding. That’s not necessarily a failing. Nobody understands
And just like how a disruption to your digestion exactly what another person is feeling, and what they
causes unpleasant physical consequences, prevention want, 100 per cent of the time. Not even long-term
of emotional processing is bad for your wellbeing, partners. Heck, much of the time, we don’t really
both mental and physical. understand what we’re feeling ourselves, and what
However, we hu ma ns a re incredibly social we want, until long after the event.
DR DEAN creatures, and much of how we develop and learn But it’s important to put the effort into improving

BURNETT
is based on our interactions with other people and understanding of these tricky emotional factors,
the social feedback they provide. for your partner’s wellbeing, and the wellbeing of
ILLUSTRATION: CHRISTINA KALLI

Dean is a This has many consequences, one of which is your relationship.

neuroscientist and that processing an emotion often means it needs Ultimately, if you ignore or dismiss your partner’s
author. His new book to be communicated, shared, acknowledged and negative emotions for long enough, unintentionally
Why Your Parents Are
validated by others. But while emotional validation or otherwise, they’ll eventually be left with nothing
Hung-Up On Your
Phone And What To can theoretically come from anyone, we prefer it but negative emotions. And t hen you’ll have an
Do About It, is out now to come from those closest to us. Evidence shows emotionally stressful problem to deal with all over
(Penguin, 2024) that a long-term romantic partner often ends up again. So, just shut up and listen.

27
 COLUMNISTS

28
 COLUMNISTS

COMMENT
Then, they excrete over 30 per cent of the dust-like seeds
Unseen engineers have still intact enough to take root in the soil and grow,
according to research published in the journal People,
been secretly shaping life Plants, Planet earlier this year. These tiny invertebrates
set a new record for t he smallest a nd lightest

on Earth, says new research animals to partake in seed dispersal after ingestion.
The seedlings still need the help of fungi to successfully
germinate, however.
Recently published studies suggest insects play a much
It doesn’t end there, though. Researchers in New
larger role in seed dispersal than previously thought <GCNCPFFKUEQXGTGFVJCVVJG9ðVÞETKEMGVCHNKIJVNGUU
native insect the size of a hamster, eats the seeds of
plants such as mountain snowberries and then disperses
lants produce fleshy, juicy, sweet fruit with them by excretion as they wander over large distances.
seeds inside so that birds and fruit-eating “I was amazed,” says Prof Kevin Burns, a biologist
ma mmals, f rom touca ns to f ruit bats to from the Victoria University of Wellington, whose
orangutans, are lured into taking a bite. Then, work helped discover the phenomenon. “In fact,
these animals fly or roam far and wide and, it was contentious. It still is contentious.”
once they’ve digested their meal, excrete the The humongous cricket likely stepped in to fill this
seeds together with the rest of their waste. unusual, surprising role in the ecosystem because the
In doing so, these hungry animals help plants, which isolated island nation isn’t home to any of the ground-
can’t move, to travel and disperse their seeds across dwelling, fruit-eating mammals that take care of seed
a wider range. dispersal elsewhere in the world.
This is at the base of how hundreds of ecosystems Similarly, Japanese camel crickets eat and excrete
work and has been since the dawn of time. However, the seeds of a leafy Asian shrub called Rhynchotechum
a growing body of research is starting to suggest that discolor, according to a new study published last
mammals and birds are far from the only ones shaping month. The plant, found along moist, shaded forests,
how seeds travel and spread plant life to new parts swamps, and thickets, has small, rounded, translucent
of the world. Tiny insects and invertebrates play a and fleshy fruits containing thousands of tiny seeds.
crucial role, too. Once the fruits plop to the ground, the crickets chomp
Ants are perhaps the most well-known seed-dispersing away and then excrete pellets with more than 78 per
insects. But the seeds they spread aren’t from fruit. cent of the seeds intact and ready to germinate.
This is the first evidence of insects acting as seed

“More research could upend dispersers for a light-harvesting, green plants in regions
where land-dwelling mammals are also present to
do the job.
everything we’ve known about It’s “quite groundbreaking” and “opens up a whole
new world of possibilities,” says Prof Kenji Suetsugu,

seed dispersal” a botany researcher at Kobe University in Japan and

lead author of the study.
This challenges the long-held notion that seed
They spread seeds from particular plants that have dispersal by insects is a special case – their role may
special, ant-friendly oil bodies attached to the seed, be much more widespread and ecologically important
known as elaiosomes. The ants carry the seed to their than previously understood.
nest, eat the elaiosome and discard the seed, either by Insects could be just as important as the more
carrying it to the surface or placing it into ‘rubbish traditionally recognised dispersers, says Suetsugu.
piles’ deep underground, according to Prof Ellen Because they’re incredibly diverse, abundant and
Simms, an integrative biologist at the University of small they can access a wider variety of areas than
California, Berkeley. larger animals. What’s more, plants might have evolved
Other insects are thought to help disperse seeds by specific traits not just to attract birds or mammals,

SOFIA
excreting them, like mammals and birds, but only for but also insects.
a special subset of plants. These are non-green plants While some experts think it’s important not to
ILLUSTRATION: OLLIE HIRST

QUAGLIA that don’t harvest light, but instead parasitise other

plants or consume underground fungi to harvest the
get ahead of ourselves, as it might still be a rare
phenomenon on a global scale, more research could
Sofia is a freelance nutrients and energy they need. upend everything we’ve known about seed dispersal.
journalist who
For example, minute, centimetre-long woodlice It may well be the case that small insects are the
specialises in writing
about biology eat t he small f ruits of a ghostly, pa rasitic bell- unsung heroes and tiny engineers of many of the
and nature. shaped Asian plant called Monotropastrum humile. world’s ecosystems.

29
COMMENT I’m curious to try it. And if there’s a way I can
indulge my appetite for meatballs and sausages
Lab-grown meat may be without the need for an animal to be slaughtered,
I’m keen to explore it.
better for livestock, but not But lab-grown-meat companies are already
making environmental claims that have yet to
necessarily for the environment be borne out by evidence.
The production of meat from livestock is
The move to put alternative protein on our plates is estimated to be responsible for over a tenth of our
gathering pace, but there are still questions to answer global greenhouse gas emissions, according to the
UN, and that’s only set to increase as the global
population, and its demand for protein, rises.
UK Research and Innovation – the government
n my morning walk with the dog, my path takes me past body that directs the country’s scientific research
a field where a small herd of cattle grazes. I usually pause funding – recently launched a National Alternative
there, partly because my dog is utterly fascinated by Protein Innovation Centre, announcing that lab-
EQYUCPFRCTVN[DGECWUGKVoUCRNGCUKPIN[DWEQNKEUEGPG| grown meat “could soon be a sustainable and
This is what I picture when I think of livestock farming: nutritious part of our diets.”
cows or sheep wandering around munching grass in a Because lab-grown meat doesn’t need herds of
ILLUSTRATION: SARA GIRONI CARNEVALE

field. Then, like a lot of us who don’t work in farming livestock and land for grazing, advocates say it’s
or meat production, I probably don’t dwell as much as I should an alternative with a much lighter environmental
on what happens between the grazing animals and the meat footprint. But not all grazing is equal. A recent
we see on the supermarket shelves. study published in the journal Nature Climate
But there’s a burgeoning meat-production industry that looks Change revealed that, if properly managed,
very different from this, which is set to offer us an innovative grazing can actually help sequester carbon from
alternative using science: meat grown not in an animal, but the air into the ground. But over-grazing, and the
cultured from a single cell, in a vessel inside an industrial resulting loss of carbon from the soil due to soil
production facility. erosion, is much more widespread.

30
 meat sector with traditional agriculture. The industry is too
“The carbon footprint of young and there will be economies of scale as it develops. Lab-
grown meat companies may also boost their environmental
lab-grown beef could, in credentials by using renewable energy sources to power their
production facilities.
fact, be higher than beef But some of these companies are already declaring that their
product is more sustainable. We’ll need data to back up those
farmed from an animal” assertions. And it does our environment no favours to claim that
lab-grown meat will be a silver bullet for the problems it faces.
There’s good reason to believe that lab-grown meat will have
a lighter environmental footprint than rearing and slaughtering
One widely reported preliminary study by cows and sheep. But as Lynch pointed out to me, it won’t be
researchers at the University of California, Davis, intrinsically good for the planet, just better than conventional
(yet to be peer reviewed) involved what’s known CITKEWNVWTCNRTQFWEVKQP|
as a life-cycle analysis and concluded that the And this is only if people actually want to eat lab-grown
carbon footprint of lab-grown beef could, in fact, meat. Brits aren’t always hungry for scientific innovation. Take
be much higher than beef farmed from an animal. the backlash and alarmist coverage about genetically modified
The study tried to unpick the emissions costs of foods, for example.
VICTORIA
GILL
running these facilities and heating the culture In a very non-scientific exercise of gathering some vox pops
media that the cells grow in. The ingredients for on the streets of Cardiff while making a radio programme about
this nutrient-rich media, which feeds the cells, lab-grown meat, I heard a lot of suspicion. “It doesn’t sound Victoria is
have to be grown somewhere. And extra energy is natural” and “it’s not real meat.” I also visited a lab-grown meat an award-
winning
needed to stir and heat the cultured animal cells as company in Oxford, where I saw how the product was made. On science
they grow, because the cows or sheep aren’t doing that day, a batch of Aberdeen Angus beef was being processed, all correspondent.
that part of the job. cultured from one specially selected, particularly “meaty” cell. Her reporting
can be found
Dr John Lynch from the University of Oxford I wasn’t allowed to taste the result – it hasn’t been approved
on television,
explained to me recently that it’s too soon for human consumption here yet. When it is, I’ll be keen to try radio and
to compare the climate costs of the lab-grown it. But I won’t pretend I’ll be saving the planet. online.

31
 RE ALIT Y CHECK

REALITY
THE SCIENCE BEHIND THE HEADLINES

CHECK

REVIEW

Olive mill wastewater: a health-boosting

tonic hiding in the leftovers
A by-product of the olive oil production process is packed with compounds
that lower your cholesterol and reduce your risk of developing cancer

32
 RE ALIT Y CHECK

For more fact-checking

live oil is well known for its health benefits.

O
news, visit the BBC’s
The star of the Mediterranean diet, it’s rich in Verify website at
good fats, packed with antioxidants that have [Link]/BBCVerify
anti-inflammatory properties, and linked
to a variety of improved health outcomes.
The olive oil production process does create a lot of
waste products, though. Luckily, however, it seems
one of them – olive mill wastewater – might be a
potentially health-boosting product in its own right.
Admittedly, olive mill wastewater, or ‘OMW’ as
it’s typically called in the scientific literature, isn’t
a particularly appetising name for a trendy, new,
nutrient-dense supplement. But, olive mill wastewater
is exactly what the name suggests – the wastewater
from olive oil production.
It’s one of many byproducts created when olives are
milled and the oil is separated and filtered. To reduce
such byproducts and improve profits, the waste is
‘valorised’ – reused, recycled, composted or converted
into more useful things that have value, including
materials, chemicals or fuels.
The solid waste products from olive oil production
– olive pomace, olive oil sediment, olive pit residue

“The high level The high level of organic compounds it contains, known
as phytochemicals – the very thing that makes olive
ABOVE Vast
quantities of
wastewater are
of organic mill wastewater harmful to the environment – has
potential health benefits for humans. Phytochemicals produced during
the production
a re chemical compounds produced by plants as
compounds natural defences against environmental stressors and
of olive oil

predators. These compounds, although not essential LEFT Olives and

has potential nutrients needed for survival, can have a positive olive oil are packed
impact on human health, earning them the broader with beneficial
health benefits” name of bioactives. compounds. So, it
seems, is one of
COSTS VERSUS BENEFITS the leftovers from
and spent olive cake – can all be used as animal feed, The bioactives in olive mill wastewater include 30 or the olive oil
compost or biomass fuel. more phenolic compounds such as tannins, flavanols, production process
The liquid waste from the extraction process, which oleuropein, hydroxyty rosol a nd a nt hocyanins,
includes water added as part of the processing, is the plus soluble dietary fibres such as mucilage and
olive mill wastewater, a dark, cloudy, bitter and slightly pectin. These compounds have antioxidant, anti-
acidic liquid – millions of litres of which are generated inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial,
each year. As a byproduct, it’s considered the most anticarcinogenic, anticholesterolemic, antihypertensive,
harmful waste from olive oil production – its high antihyperglycemic, analgesic and other beneficial
organic load and phenolic content are a significant effects, including for gut health.
environmental concern. If it’s not properly managed These compounds are thought to be part of the
and treated before release (which adds to the cost of reason why plant foods are health-promoting, above
production), it can contaminate waterways and soil, and beyond the essential nutrients they contain. High
and be toxic to plants and animals. consumption is linked to reducing risk of cardiovascular
But olive mill wastewater might be more useful diseases, metabolic disease, diabetes, cancer and more.
than most producers realise. One family-run farm in Because many of these phenolic compounds are
Tuscany, Italy is already selling olive mill wastewater water soluble, the concentration can be up to 10 times
as a health supplement shot and as a biodynamic higher in olive mill wastewater than in olive oil, with
cosmetics range called OliPhenolia. The shots are levels varying depending on pressing methods, storage
available in natural bitter and sweetened flavours, and olive type.
GETTY IMAGES, ALAMY

based on the traditional health tonic known as ‘aqua This health-giving wastewater could be consumed
mora’ (an old Italian name for olive mill wastewater as a drink, tonic or elixir, and there are extraction
that roughly translates as ‘dark water’). techniques t hat ca n concent rate t he bioactives
Scientists have also been looking into the contents and nut rients to allow t hem to be used in ot her
of olive mill wastewater and how it might be used. products. For the valorisation to be successful, these ´


33
 RE ALIT Y CHECK

“History is littered with examples that

prove how much we love a food trend,
especially one with purported health
benefits and a great origin story”
´ techniques need to be cheap enough to produce BELOW The History is littered with examples that prove how much
products of sufficient value to outweigh the costs health benefits we love a food trend, especially one with purported
associated with the treatment and discharge of waste. of olive oil are health benefits and a great origin story. We also love
Most of the research on olive mill wastewater is well documented the idea of ‘silver bullet’ supplements that claim to
centred around its potential use as a nutraceutical. help protect us from a range of conditions.
Nutraceutical is a portmanteau of the words ‘nutrient’
and ‘pharmaceutical’, and is used to describe products WEIGHING UP THE OPTIONS
derived from food and plant sources with significant It’s important to note that while multiple studies have
health benefits. Nutraceuticals are complex mixes of been conducted with olive mill wastewater, they’ve
nutrients and bioactives, which can have synergistic all been carried out on cell cultures or microbes. No
effects. They can be used as supplements or added studies have yet been conducted on actual humans to
to foods to give them bioactive health benefits, or assess if drinking olive mill wastewater, or consuming
t hey ca n be used in food production as natural foods into which it’s been added, has any direct health
preservatives. In 2021, at least five companies were benefits. There have been multiple studies conducted
known to be recovering phenolic compounds from on humans to investigate the health benefits of olive
olive mill wastewater for use as a natural preservative oil, however.
or bioactive to add to food products and supplements. So why not just eat the whole unprocessed olive?
So, can we expect olive mill wastewater to become After all, they contain all the nutrients and bioactives
the next wheatgrass or apple cider vinegar shot? Maybe. found in both olive oil and olive oil wastewater,
not to mention the dietary fibre that’s lost during the
olive oil production process.
The problem is olives can’t actually be eaten fresh
– they need to be processed via pickling or curing to
make them edible. This means they’re soaked for a long
time and can lose many of the beneficial compounds.
Olives can also be very high in salt due to this process.
But processing olives into oil and wastewater can help
release the phytochemical compounds they contain,
making them more available for absorption into the
human body. Compared to olive oil, the health benefits
of olives as a food aren’t actually very well studied.
Phytochemicals are plentiful in all plant foods, so can
be readily accessed in a diet high in fruits, vegetables
and wholegrains. Bioactive compounds are also many
and varied – over 10,000 have so far been identified. This
means consuming a specific bitter drink or extracting
the bioactives for use in foods or other nutraceutical
by DR EMMA products for repeat consumption isn’t likely to be
BECKETT more beneficial alone than the combinations found
(@DrEmma in a healthy balanced diet. Eating whole plant foods
Beckett) also has the added benefit of displacing less healthful
Emma is a senior foods from a person’s diet, which doesn’t happen with
lecturer in Food tonics and supplements, as, typically, these are simply
Science & Human added to someone’s existing diet.
Nutrition at the But, since most people aren’t eating plant foods at
University of the levels recommended by national dietary guidelines
Newcastle, Australia and the World Health Organization, novel products
and a senior may encourage the consumption of bioactives and
scientist at Nutrition nutrients, while simultaneously creating a valuable
Research Australia. use for a common waste product.

34
 A N A LY S I S

Could Ozempic ever be an over-the-counter drug?

The hunger for this new generation of weight-loss drugs is seemingly insatiable. Would making
them available without the need for a prescription save people from turning to the black market?

ince its launch in 2019, the hype and demand Clinical studies have shown that semaglutide can ABOVE Drugs

S for Ozempic has grown rapidily, owing to

its effectiveness not only at treating type 2
diabetes, but also its ability to help people
lose weight. Given its popularity, could we
ever see Ozempic, and drugs like it, being available
over the counter? And what would the implications of
maintain weight loss of on average 10 per cent over
four years in patients with obesity, as well as reducing
cardiovascular mortality. Newer GLP-1 analogues, such
as Mounjaro (tirzepatide) show even greater weight-
loss potential, averaging 22-per-cent weight loss over
72 weeks, and more are in development.
containing
semaglutide
have the potential
to help people
lose weight

such easy access to powerful appetite suppressants be? Considering the paucity of anti-obesity medications
that are both effective and safe, along with people’s
WHAT IS OZEMPIC AND HOW DOES IT WORK? desire for weight-loss solutions, it’s little wonder these
The active ingredient in Ozempic is semaglutide, a drugs have been highly sought after. Such has been
drug that mimics the actions of a naturally occurring the demand that the UK government’s Department of
hormone called glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). When Health and Social Care was forced to issue a National
we eat a meal, GLP-1 is released from cells in the Patient Safety Alert in July 2023 preventing doctors
intestines and does a few key things. Firstly, it signals from initiating new patients onto GLP-1 analogues,
the pancreas to release insulin, helping our bodies keep due to national shortages of the drugs.
our blood sugar levels under control. Secondly, GLP-1 It’s worth noting that Ozempic has never been licensed
GETTY IMAGES X2

works on our nervous systems to reduce both the feeling for the treatment of obesity. Instead, Wegovy, which also
of hunger and the desire to eat. This combination of contains the active ingredient semaglutide (albeit at a
actions places GLP-1 analogues in a unique position higher dose), was made available specifically for the
to treat both type 2 diabetes and obesity. treatment of obesity in September 2023. However, ´

35
“There’s anecdotal evidence that the
black market supply of Ozempic is booming,
potentially putting people at significant risk”

´ given supply issues of Wegovy and stringent body dangerously low blood sugar levels, suggesting the ABOVE An
mass index (BMI) criteria, many patients have looked pens may have contained insulin instead. illustration of how
to off-licence prescriptions of the relatively more Given the difficulty that many people experience semaglutide (red),
obtainable Ozempic for help with their weight loss. when trying to lose weight, the shortages associated the active
Concerningly, there’s anecdotal evidence that the black with this new generation of weight-loss medication, and ingredient in drugs
like Ozempic, binds
market supply of Ozempic is booming, potentially the stringent criteria applied to their prescription on
to GLP-1 receptors
putting people at significant risk. the NHS, it’s perhaps unsurprising that many people in the body (blue)
have turned to illegal routes to obtain them. But could to improve blood
HOW DANGEROUS IS BLACK MARKET OZEMPIC? Ozempic, Wegovy or any future GLP-1-based analogue sugar control and
GLP-1 analogues themselves are a relatively safe ever be bought over the counter? make us feel full
class of drugs. Clinical trial evidence shows that the
majority of patients who suffer side effects experience WHAT DETERMINES LEGITIMATE ACCESS TO A DRUG? ABOVE RIGHT
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea or constipation, with Medication in the UK can generally be obtained through Demand for drugs
few patients suffering more significant responses, two main routes: via a prescription typically given like Ozempic and
such as gallstones or acute pancreatitis. That being by a healthcare provider, or over the counter, where Wegovy is high
said, monitoring of patients on these drugs is vital, members of the public can buy what they need without
since their doses need to be carefully formulated to a prescription at a pharmacy or chemist. Whether a
increase tolerability. drug is available as a prescription or over the counter
There are a growing number of reports about people depends on certain factors, such as the risk of serious
buying Ozempic through non-legitimate routes (social side effects and the potential for misuse.
media websites, for example), only to find out that Some medications do t ra nsition f rom being
the products they receive often contain potentially prescription-only to available over the counter. For
harmful substances. example, the antihistamine fexofenadine was originally
GETTY IMAGES X2

Between January and October 2023, the Medicines only available on prescription. In 2020, however, after
and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) many years of clinical data demonstrating its safety
seized 369 potentially fake Ozempic pens in the and non-drowsiness, it was reclassified and made
UK, with reports of patients being hospitalised with available without the need for a prescription.

36
COULD OZEMPIC EVER BE AVAILABLE OVER THE COUNTER? are prescribed GLP-1-based medications, the benefits
Whether Ozempic, Wegovy or any other GLP-1-based of weight loss typically outweigh any risks and their
weight-loss drug could ever be available over the effectiveness has the potential to significantly and
counter depends on it meeting the criteria outlined: positively transform people’s lives.
is it safe and does it have the potential to be misused? If it becomes available over the counter, such stringent
The safety of GLP-1-based analogues is generally rules on who can access these drugs are removed.
very good, however there’s still the risk for potentially Given their powerful appetite-suppressive actions,
serious side effects to develop, so patients on these the effect that these drugs could have on people who
drugs do still require careful monitoring. suffer from body dysmorphia or eating disorders has
Case studies have demonstrated examples of patients the potential to be incredibly dangerous.
taking GLP-1-based medications who have developed
potentially life-threatening acidosis (where blood WHAT IS THE FUTURE FOR WEIGHT-LOSS MEDICATION?
levels become too acidic) due to significant nausea and Given the scale of the obesity crisis, multiple drug
diarrhoea, highlighting the need for careful monitoring companies are busy developing GLP-1-based anti-
of how patients react to the drugs. obesity medications to add to those already available.
Given the scarcity of these drugs and their significance Currently, medications such as Ozempic, Wegovy and
for many patients with type 2 diabetes in controlling Mounjaro are taken as once-weekly injections, a method
their sugar levels, it’s also important for clinicians to that’s not favourable with all patients.
restrict these drugs to those who have the potential Many of the medications currently in development
to gain the most benefit, as well as monitoring how are oral formulations, which have the potential to by DR
well patients are responding to them. dramatically reduce the costs and make it simpler for SIMON CORK
But perhaps t he biggest ba rrier to t hese drugs patients to use. New medications entering the market (@DrSimonCork)
being made available over the counter is the risk should also help address the shortages of existing drugs, Simon is a senior
associated with misuse. The strict criteria for their which will hopefully enable more patients to take lecturer in
prescription on the NHS (typically requiring a BMI over advantage of their benefits. Will we one day see any of physiology at Anglia
35kg/m2 plus conditions associated with obesity, such them readily available to the public without the need Ruskin University's
as cardiovascular disease) means that for those who for medical supervision? That seems a long way off. school of medicine.

37
 PREPARE YOURSELF FOR TOMORROW

COULD ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE BE

THE CURE FOR LONELINESS?
Rates of loneliness are increasing worldwide.
But big-tech companies think they have the solution…

38
 INNOVATIONS

D
espite being more connected than Elsewhere, miniature robots have found
ever, we’re pretty lonely right now. their way into retirement homes, offering
So lonely, in fact, that in 2023, a futuristic take on companionship with
the World Health Organization surprisingly promising results. Take
declared the ‘loneliness epidemic’ ElliQ for example (see left). As well
a global public health concern. as offering video calls and chats with
Roughly a quarter of the world reported trusted contacts, the table-top AI sidekick
feeling lonely, with young people making also initiates interactions by suggesting
up the brunt of that figure. games and conversation topics to help
In other words, we’re facing a crisis. keep elderly people engaged and active.
So, what’s the solution? Social clubs
are springing up in cities everywhere, ADDRESSING LONELINESS WITH TECH
Japan has pushed support groups and the While there are plenty of tech-based
Dutch have found success in flatshares attempts to address loneliness available,
that mix elderly and younger residents. they’re all relatively primitive in their
But while these measures have all been approach, designed to be temporary fixes
shown to help, they’re a drop in a rather
big, lonely ocean. Rates of loneliness are “BIG TECH HAS to the symptoms of loneliness, rather
than a solution to the causes of it.

OVER-SIMPLIFIED ITS
increasing and a global solution isn’t That said, Nobel believes that tech is
easy to come by… Or is it? perfectly positioned to play a greater role
Tech companies are jumping at the in addressing the problem of loneliness,

IDEA OF LONELINESS,
opportunity to fight loneliness with all but in order to do so the people behind
sorts of hard- and software. But while it need to take a different approach.

CONFLATING IT
they’ve gotten off to a surprisingly good “We need to perceive loneliness for
start, the tech has a long way to go if it what it is, an emotional signal. When
wants to actually cure loneliness. we feel thirsty, it’s a sign to drink water.

WITH A NEED FOR

When we feel lonely, it’s a sign that we
LONELINESS (OVER)SIMPLIFIED need social engagement or support. We
In its rush to design a solution, big tech wouldn’t feel embarrassed about feeling
has over-simplified its idea of loneliness,
conflating it with a need for conversation.
But that’s not necessarily big tech’s fault;
CONVERSATION” thirsty,” says Nobel.
“There’s a cultural narrative around
loneliness that suggests we’re flawed
few of us understand loneliness fully. for feeling lonely. That comes with guilt
“There are three types of loneliness. The psychological type that sends us into a self-perpetuating spiral.”
is what we know best – [the] ‘do you have someone to talk to The occasional pang of loneliness is perfectly normal, but
about your problems?’ [type]. If you don’t, your cortisol levels these spirals can be where loneliness becomes challenging.
are up, causing serious stress,” says Dr Jeremy Nobel, author of Nobel highlights the cycle of loneliness where someone doesn’t
the book Project UnLonely. “Systematic exclusion is the second, want to burden others so they withdraw. From the outside, this
whether that be due to race, gender, disability or something can be perceived as cutting other people out, causing people
else. The third is spiritual loneliness. [The] ‘does my life have who might be able to offer help to back away too.
meaning, does it have consequences?’ [type] – it’s the feeling Nobel sees a future where wearables could incorporate
that we’re alone in a big world.” loneliness sensors, tracking indicators of a period of loneliness.
The solutions currently being offered by the tech world are “The wearable could be paired with an app. When it notices
geared towards dealing with psychological loneliness. Take the signs, it could offer suggestions. Maybe to meet up with
Replika, for example. It’s an AI chatbot program in the form of a friend or something as simple as going out in public to feel
a virtual companion that you create. The more you chat with it, more connected to society,” he says.
the more the companion adapts its vocabulary, tone and emotion Alternatively, Nobel sees potential for the use of AI-powered
to become a friend you’d trust. It even remembers details about chatbots in solving all types of loneliness. Psychological
previous conversations you’ve had with it. loneliness could be aided by having social contact, even in the
It all seemed like a decent option for boosting people’s social form of an AI companion.
confidence and reducing loneliness... until the data breaches Equally, in social exclusion loneliness, or a more existential
happened. In addition, the companions began to offer sexually type, chatbots can help people unravel these concerns, acting
charged responses, while changes to the AI algorithm suddenly as a sounding board and advisor. It could even be as simple as
and drastically altered the companions’ ‘personalities’. apps that help people make new friends with shared hobbies – a
Then, there’s ‘Friend’, an AI in the form of a microphone you trend that’s growing in popularity.
wear around your neck. Say a few things into the mic and the We’re not there yet, but tech could soon be a crucial tool to
AI sends you texts based on your utterances and converses with deal with the loneliness epidemic. A variety of apps, wearables
you about your day’s events. The idea is well-meaning, but it and gadgets are emerging that, when combined, are able to
feels like a somewhat meagre solution to such a large problem. address the variety of types of loneliness we’re facing today.

39
 INNOVATIONS

THE BEST SMART SPEAKERS

FOR AN AUTOMATED HOUSE

SPEAKERS ARE GETTING SMARTER. THEY CAN ADJUST THEIR AUDIO TO SPECIFIC ROOMS, CHAT TO
YOU AND CONTROL OTHER GADGETS IN YOUR HOUSE. VERITY BURNS CHECKS OUT FIVE OF THE BEST

…THE BEST-SOUNDING SMART SPEAKER

The Sonos Era 100 takes audio quality seriously. It’s really a positioned to be the first part of the set-up, or to simply
music speaker first and a smart speaker second, delivering slot into an existing one. That means if you invest in Sonos
detailed and powerful stereo sound from a compact and speakers for different rooms, you can play music through all
stylish design that also happens to have all of Alexa’s talents of them simultaneously over Wi-Fi, while controlling them via
built in. As well as superb sound quality, it also has Sonos’s the Sonos app.
TruePlay, a feature that automatically optimises the speaker’s The Era 100 also has Bluetooth, which makes it easy for
performance depending on its position in your room. your guests to connect to the speaker and DJ your party, too.
If you’re looking to build a multi-room audio system Sonos Era 100
(whether now or in the future), the Sonos Era 100 is perfectly £199, [Link]

40
 INNOVATIONS

…THE GOOGLE ASSISTANT …THE PORTABLE SMART SPEAKER

SMART SPEAKER The Beosound A1 2nd Gen is a premium Bluetooth speaker with IP67
waterproofing and Alexa capabilities. It has a circular aluminium grille,
a leather carry strap and is perfectly sized for throwing into a picnic bag
or backpack, or simply moving it between rooms as needed.
But how does a Bluetooth speaker use Alexa without Wi-Fi? There’s
the catch: it needs to be linked to a phone with an internet connection
and the Alexa app. This limits some of its functionality, but it can still
answer your questions, play songs from Amazon Music, manage your
smart home and loads more.
It’s by far the priciest speaker here, but for a small Bluetooth speaker,
it sounds fantastic, delivering detailed, punchy and dynamic audio.
B&O A1 (2nd Gen)
£259, [Link]

The Google Nest Audio has better

natural language understanding than
the competition, so you can ask it
several questions at once and it can
handle them all. It supports over
50,000 devices and is a great option
for controlling Nest products, like
the smart thermostat and doorbell.
Its audio is pretty good, but has
directional drivers so it sounds best
when playing towards you, rather
than from the middle of a room.
Google Nest Audio
£89.99, [Link]

…THE SIRI SMART SPEAKER

We would recommend the HomePod
Mini for most Apple fans due to it
being £200 less than the HomePod 2
while having much of the same core
functionality. Sound-wise it has an
…THE BUDGET SMART SPEAKER
engaging and refined character that’s Amazon’s Echo speakers are among the very best when it comes to smart
great for all music genres. It’s fair to capabilities and if you’re looking to keep the cost down, the Echo Dot
say that Siri lacks some of the smarts is a great option. With a neat and compact design, and all the power
of its rival assistants, but the seamless of Alexa, it’s a great choice for anyone who has bought other Amazon
functionality it offers with the rest of smart-home products, like Ring’s doorbells and security products.
Apple’s ecosystem is a joy. That said, Alexa supports a wide range of third-party smart devices,
Apple HomePod Mini plus it can answer questions, set timers, sound alarms, and do plenty of
£99, [Link]/uk fun things like tell jokes and read bedtime stories.
You can play music and audiobooks from
the likes of Amazon Music, Spotify and
Audible, and, for its size, it’s a pretty
capable little speaker, with Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi built-in. We particularly
love having the ability to send
announcements to other Echo
speakers around the house, meaning
telling everyone it’s time for dinner
has never been easier.
Amazon Echo Dot
£54.99, [Link]

41
 INNOVATIONS

IDEAS …A WI-FI BOOSTER TO GET ONLINE ANYWHERE

Elon Musk has been involved in some bizarre projects. But

WE LIKE…
for every flamethrower, brain chip and social media takeover,
there’s the occasional useful project too. Starlink, a subsidiary
of Musk’s SpaceX company, specialises in making the internet
more accessible. With the Roam, a backpack-sized router, it has
made its most portable kit for getting online yet. Its size and
Our pick of ability make the Roam perfect for anyone who regularly finds
themselves far off the beaten track, whether they be hikers or
the month’s researchers deep in the field. It can withstand the elements and
smartest tech get access in some of the most remote parts of the world.
Starlink Roam
£399, [Link]

42
 INNOVATIONS

IDEAS WE
DON’T LIKE...
…A ROBOT CHEF
After a long day of work, cooking
is often the last thing you want
to do. So why not let a robot
handle it for you? Probably
because they’re not really up to
the task yet, as the Nymble
robot chef proves. You use an
app to choose a recipe and
schedule the cooking time, then
you prep all the required
…A HEARING AID WITH AI …A DICTAPHONE WITH AI ingredients and load them into
the machine. Nymble then drops
Artificial intelligence is being crammed Having some sort of wearable device them in the pan when they’re
into just about every gadget these days. equipped with artificial intelligence to needed, and proceeds to heat
Sometimes it’s great, and sometimes… record your every utterance is quite a and stir them. So it’s all the same
it’s not. Luckily, in the case of the Phonak trend at the moment. Plaud is jumping steps as actually cooking, just
Audéo Sphere, it’s great. The hearing aid on that bandwagon with its NotePin, an with slightly less stirring.
uses AI to separate speech from background AI-powered mic that you can wear as a Nymble
noise to improve clarity and help you hear necklace, bracelet or, as the name suggests, $1,500 (approx £1,120),
what’s being said. The company claims a pin. Press a button and it records your [Link]
that this technology can even work in busy conversations, adding everything that’s
environments like restaurants and bars, said to a document you can review later, if
cutting background noise to help you focus needed. It can even translate conversations
on the chat. There is a catch, though: it in different languages and add names for
comes at a price. speakers if they introduce themselves.
Phonak Audéo Infinio Sphere i90 Plaud NotePin
Approx £3,000 per pair, [Link] $169 (approx £125), [Link]

…A SMALL COOKER WITH BIG CAPABILITIES …A PAIR OF EARBUDS THAT PACK A PUNCH
Ninja is seemingly on a mission to make a Sony makes some of the world’s best
kitchen gadget that can do everything. Its headphones, but they’re normally found
latest attempt crams 12 different functions well beyond the £200 mark. The audio
into an electric cooker. The 12-in-1 Multi giant is making some of its high-end audio
Cooker will air fry, slow cook, bake, reheat, tech available at more affordable prices,
grill, cook multiple meals simultaneously however. The wireless WF-C510 earbuds …AN ICE BATH WITH
at different temperatures, boil rice, sauté, might be cheap, but they have a 22-hour ADDED TECH
prove bread and more. How your existing battery life, impressive audio quality and While the science behind ice
hob and oven will feel about being usurped an ambient sound mode that filters out baths is mixed, with a list of
concerns as long as the
by a comparatively tiny interloper, we can’t background noise so you can hear more
supposed benefits, that hasn’t
say. But if Ninja start incorporating fridges, of your music. They might not have active stopped tech companies from
freezers and dishwashers into their cookers, noise cancellation, but at this price, they’re diving in at the deep end. Monk
kitchens may never be the same again. a potential market leader. is offering a smart bath that has
Ninja Combi 12-in-1 Multi Cookerr Sony WF-C510 a range of features to help you
£279.99, [Link] £55, [Link] optimise the experience of
bathing in ice-cold water (and
take your mind off the fact you
paid almost £6K for a bathtub).
Its temperature can be set and
adjusted via an app, it has
“self-cleaning ozone sanitation”
and it can help you embrace the
cold using soundscapes and
guided breathwork. Sounds
impressive, but it’s still a lot to
pay for something you could
recreate with a bag of ice and
a smart speaker.
Monk Smart Ice Bath
£5,995, [Link]

43
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 FE ATURE RESHARKING

SAVE THE
SHARKS…
RUTHLESS PREDATORS, MINDLESS KILLERS, MAN-EATERS…
SHARKS HAVE A FEARSOME REPUTATION THAT BEARS LITTLE
RELATION TO REALITY. THE TRUTH IS, THESE REMARKABLE
CREATURES ARE STRUGGLING TO SURVIVE. BUT OUR WATERS
WON’T BE ANY SAFER WITHOUT THEM. IN FACT, THE PLANET’S SEAS
WILL BE IN EVEN GREATER JEOPARDY THAN THEY ALREADY ARE
by J O E P H E L A N

ach morning, hundreds of thousands of fishing

vessels head into the waters around Indonesia.
The country, comprising around 17,000 islands
with a combined coastline of almost 100,000km
(about 62,000 miles), is one of the world’s fishing
superpowers and, in recent decades, has grown
in strength.
The country has established a reputation for
providing quality tuna, shrimp and crab to high-end
restaurants around the world. But behind this economic
and culinary success story is an uncomfortable truth:
Indonesia ranks among the world’s top shark-killing
nations, catching an estimated 100,000 metric tonnes
(98,400 tons) of shark a year, which is contributing to
an alarming global decline in shark numbers.
“The biggest threat to sharks currently is fishing,” says
Dr Colin Simpfendorfer of the University of Tasmania’s
Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies. “Its impact
dwarfs any of the other impacts for almost all species.
Too many sharks are dying in fisheries.”
The issue is by no means exclusive to Indonesian
waters. Across the planet, an estimated 100 million
sharks are killed annually either intentionally or as
bycatch. That’s one shark per 80 people – a colossal
BRANDON COLE/[Link]

figure that’s almost impossible to comprehend.

According to an article published in Nature, the global
abundance of oceanic sharks and rays has declined
by 71 per cent since 1970 and, as reported in a 2021
analysis in Current Biology, one-third of sharks and rays
are now threatened with extinction. Historically, that
decline has been largely attributed to overfishing, ´ 

46
 RESHARKING FE ATURE

…SAVE THE

OCEANS
47
 FE ATURE RESHARKING

´ but it’s not the only activity putting pressure RIGHT Maryrose Tapilatu,
on shark populations today. “New threats such as an aquarist at Raja Ampat
shipping, offshore wind farms and climate change Research and Conservation
are also affecting populations,” says Dr James Centre, releases a zebra
Sulikowski, director of the Coastal Oregon Marine shark into a sea pen
Experiment Station in the US.
BELOW Fishing in
A KEYSTONE SPECIES Indonesia is big business
The decline of sharks is liable to be devastating and the country is a major
– for the creatures themselves, but also for the supplier of tuna
marine ecosystems that depend on them and their
behaviour. Behaviour that, generally speaking, is OPPOSITE TOP Millions
misunderstood. The creatures have gained a bad of sharks, like this smooth
reputation – as ruthless predators at best, mindless hammerhead, are
killers at worst – but it bears little relation to reality. unintentionally caught as
In fact, as scientists are learning, sharks play a bycatch in fishing nets
key role in regulating the populations of various
marine species. Insights gained into shark behaviour OPPOSITE BOTTOM
are showing how they support the development of As part of the ReShark
habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, without rewilding project StAR,
which many marine organisms could not survive. juvenile zebra sharks are
“Sharks are a diverse group of fish that vary in tagged so they can be
their respective roles across the oceans,” says Dr monitored after release
Philip Matich, instructional associate professor in
biology at Texas A&M University at Galveston. “They
feed on a variety of species, but they don’t only shape
marine food webs by feeding on prey and altering their
abundances. The presence and behaviour of sharks
can lead to changes in the distribution, movement
patterns and foraging of their prey.
“Healthy predator populations promote the health
of the organisms responsible for creating the habitat
itself, like seagrass and macroalgae.” But a decrease
in the number of sharks, adds Matich, means the
creatures usually preyed on by sharks can swell
in population, leading to the overgrazing of these
organisms, thus throwing an ecosystem out of kilter.
In oceans missing their most essential predators,
the ripple effects are devastating and can trigger a
trophic cascade – an ecological phenomenon that
can result in sweeping changes to the food chain.
“Healthy shark populations promote healthy
ecosystems and healthy ecosystems promote healthy
shark populations. It’s a reciprocal relationship,”
Matich says.
Urgent and sustainable steps need to be taken to
prevent population collapse, preserve ecological
functionality and ensure marine stability. Thankfully, rewilding,” says Dr Erin Meyer, chief conservation
crucial work is under way. officer at Seattle Aquarium and a founding member
RESHARK PROJECT X2, [Link] X2

Shark rewilding organisation ReShark was of the ReShark initiative. “Conservation efforts are
formed in 2020. On its website, it’s described as only as strong and enduring as the people who lead
an international coalition of over 90 conservation and collaborate on them.”
organisations, aquariums, governments and experts The Raja Ampat Islands, in the Indonesian
dedicated to reintroducing sharks to the world’s province of West Papua, were chosen as the location
oceans by re-establishing healthy, genetically diverse for ReShark’s first repopulation initiative, which
and self-sustaining populations. As a mission launched in 2022. The Stegostoma tigrinum
statement, it’s admirable, but easier said than done. Augmentation and Recovery (StAR) project was
“There’s no ‘one-size-fits-all’ solution to shark and ray devised with the aim of re-establishing healthy, ´

48
 FE ATURE RESHARKING

´ resilient populations of zebra sharks (Stegostoma

tigrinum) within their known ranges.
To date, two ReShark nurseries have been
established in Raja Ampat – the Raja Ampat Research
and Conservation Centre (RARCC) on Kri Island, and
the Misool Foundation nursery. Both are equipped
with advanced facilities to rear shark eggs and pups,
and include sea pens where young sharks acclimatise
before release. Since receiving the first zebra shark
eggs from Sea Life Sydney Aquarium, Australia
in August 2022, the nurseries have successfully
released five sharks into protected waters. “We’ve
spent the last two years scaling up and now have
20 pups ready for release this fall, with another 20
eggs ready to ship to Indonesia,” says Meyer.
The location of the nurseries was carefully
considered. The Misool Foundation has almost
20 years of experience looking after the Misool
Marine Reserve, which surrounds the nursery and
release site. Its team of full-time rangers currently
protect an area of around 1,214km2 (469 sq miles)
from poaching.
Reintroducing sharks requires patience, diligence
and a great deal of collaboration. First, appropriate
shark eggs need to be laid in partnering public
aquariums before being shipped to the specialised
nurseries, where they hatch. The young sharks
are then reared until they reach around 70–80cm
(27–30in) in length, tagged with RFID and acoustic
trackers and moved to the specially designed sea
pens. Once their health and behaviour have been
deemed normal, the sharks can be released into
designated marine protected areas. Post-release, the
sharks are monitored regularly, with detailed data
on their movements collected every six months to
gain further insights into their behaviour.
Nathaniel Soon, media and communications
coordinator for ReShark, is confident the StAR
Project is on course to be successful not only in
terms of bolstering shark numbers in Raja Ampat,
but also with regards to raising awareness of the
shark’s plight. “Our population viability analysis
suggests that releasing 500 individuals over 10
years will establish a healthy, self-sustaining local
zebra shark population. Therefore, increasing the
number of eggs from our aquarium partners to our
nurseries remains our top priority. Currently, we
receive eggs periodically and in small batches, but
we must scale up the number of available breeders
and eggs in the coming months and years.”

SHARK SANCTUARIES
While resharking is arguably the most compelling
initiative, it’s not the only one aimed at saving sharks.
Dwindling shark populations have encouraged a
handful of progressive, conservation-focused nations
to create sanctuaries where sharks can roam and hunt
without risk of being killed. “[In 2011], the Bahamas
enacted legislation that protects all sharks across

50
 RESHARKING FE ATURE

“THE FACT IS, WE’RE NOT ON THEIR MENU. IF WE WERE,

THERE WOULD BE A LOT MORE HUMANS MISSING”
its 630,000km2 (243,000 sq mile) national waters and the drivers of them – as well as where
so that sharks can’t be targeted or caught,” Matich sharks spend critical time during key life stages
says. “The economic benefits derived from sharks (pregnancy, for example) could help conserve
being alive far outweighs those from sharks being shark populations.”
harvested, because of the more than $100m (£76m) Without approval from governments and the
shark diving brings to the Bahamas annually, and public, however, bringing sharks back from the
also the value sharks have in keeping Bahamian brink will be difficult.
ecosystems healthy.”
A 2021 study by non-profit research group Beneath A REPUTATIONAL REBRAND
the Waves concluded that efforts in the Bahamas were Thanks to the efforts of organisations like ReShark,
working. Not only is its healthy shark population governments and the public are, slowly, beginning
encouraging more people to visit the country, but to appreciate the value of sharks thriving in their
the initiative provides a tangible example of how natural habitats. But experts agree that more needs
action can make an impact in just over a decade. to be done to highlight how endangered they are.
Similar protective measures are also in place “Scientists are aware of historic and continued
around Micronesia in the western Pacific. The declines in shark populations, but the public is often
Micronesia Regional Shark Sanctuary, launched in uninformed,” Matich says. “The conservation of any
2015, prohibits the commercial fishing and trade of species is inherently linked to garnering support
sharks and rays. It encompasses the waters of several from the public.”
island nations and territories, including Palau, the Sharks are polarising. While some people are
ABOVE Scientists say an Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, fascinated by the animals, many more are fearful
overhaul of global fishing and the Northern Mariana Islands. It covers over of them. Indeed, galeophobia (a fear of sharks) is
practices is needed to 6.5 million km2 (2.5 million square miles), making one of the world’s top phobias. “One of the biggest
protect sharks it one of the largest shark sanctuaries in the world. misconceptions about sharks is that every time we
Given the top threat to sharks remains overfishing, enter the ocean, they’re going to eat us, or want to
LEFT Prof James the best chance of conserving them internationally eat us,” Sulikowski says. “The fact is, we’re not on
Sulikowski has spent 25 must be to make fisheries, and fishing practices, their menu. If we were, there would be a lot more
years studying sharks, more sustainable. It’s perhaps unrealistic to expect humans missing, as we’re slow and make noises
skates and rays all countries to pass legislation that excludes the that sound like injured prey.”
fishing of sharks from its waters, but it’s clear that Typically, around 100 unprovoked shark attacks
effort needs to be made to understand how the are reported and confirmed each year, meaning that
introduction of protected areas and shark-friendly for every shark attack recorded annually, humans
regulations can lead to effective conservation. kill close to one million sharks. If anything, sharks
“Many communities around the world rely on should be scared of us.
sharks for subsistence or income, and past bans Matich believes that, while changing the narrative
have proven ineffective because enforcement was about sharks isn’t an easy proposition, it’s something
too expensive,” says Dr Daniel C Abel, professor of that can be done in increments. “Work to share this
marine science at Coastal Carolina University, in knowledge through media is valuable, along with
the US. “It’s therefore preferable to work with shark- reducing, and ideally eliminating, media that creates
fishing interests to devise management strategies.” a false idea around the inherent danger sharks
GETTY IMAGES, ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

Effective strategies, Abel suggests, could be to pose to humans. Such an approach, coupled with
implement strict catch quotas or to prohibit shark improving the public’s understanding of why sharks
fishing in critical habitats at specific times, such are important, should increase the number of ocean
as breeding season. stewards and improve shark conservation efforts.”
Simpfendorfer adds: “Because of the large number
of shark species [around 530] and the fact they occur
throughout our oceans, the conservation measures by J O E P H E L A N (@acedece)
required are going to be diverse.” Joe is a freelance journalist whose work has
Sulikowski agrees: “We need to look at a holistic appeared in Scientific American, The Observer,
approach. Understanding migration patterns – Vice and National Geographic.

51
 FE ATURE ASTEROID DEFLECTION

D A M A G E

A S S E S S

52
 ASTEROID DEFLECTION FE ATURE

%QWNFYGFGƃGEVCPCUVGTQKFVQUVQRKVHTQOJKVVKPI'CTVJ!
The success of NASA’s DART mission suggests so,
but only after ESA’s soon-to-launch Hera mission
has checked the results will we know if this approach
to planetary defence is a viable possibility

M E N T
by D R S T UA R T C L A R K

nother day, another rocket launch. In November 2021, NASA launched the Double
So many, in fact, it’s easy to get Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission. It
blasé. In 2023, almost 200 rockets targeted Dimorphos, a small asteroid with a
lifted off from Earth, carrying diameter of 177m (580ft) in orbit around a larger
satellites and other spacecraft into one called Didymos. The DART spacecraft would
orbit. By early September this year, collide with Dimorphos on purpose to see if it
the number for 2024 had already could alter its orbit around Didymos. Any change
reached 158, most of them from would be reflected in a shift in the small moonlet’s
Elon Musk’s SpaceX company, orbital period.
which has launched 89 rockets and is aiming The mission was designed to test a deflection
for around 150 by year’s end. technique known as the kinetic impactor –
In October, one of those additional SpaceX essentially smashing one thing into another – and
launches will carry the European Space Agency’s it succeeded spectacula rly. The spacecraf t
(ESA) Hera mission into space. Although one impacted Dimorphos at a speed of approximately
more launch may seem almost insignificant, 6.6km/s (over 14,750mph) in September 2022,
ESA SCIENCE OFFICE

Hera could prove to be one of the most important changing its orbital period around Didymos by
missions ever launched, because it’ll tell us 33 minutes – far more than had been expected.
how capable we are of def lecting asteroids. It was a historic moment, marking the first ´

53
 FE ATURE ASTEROID DEFLECTION

´ time we had intentionally altered the

trajectory of a celestial body.
“DART has really shown how effective
a kinetic impactor can be in moving
and diverting small asteroids. It was a
complete and utter success of a mission,” says
Prof Alan Fitzsimmons, an astronomer from
Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland, who
specialises in asteroid research.
To really make use of DART’s success, however, astronomers
need to know a number of crucial facts about its target – for
example, the internal structure of Dimorphos and exactly
how it responded to being hit.
This is where Hera comes in. Arriving at the Didymos-
Dimorphos system in 2026, Hera will perform a detailed
post-impact survey of both asteroids, carrying out high-
resolution imaging, measuring the asteroids’ masses and
studying the full aftermath of DART’s impact.
“DART succeeded so well that we have no clue what
Dimorphos now looks like,” says Dr Patrick Michel of the
Université Côte d’Azur, in France, and Hera’s principal
investigator. “We have different kinds of predictions that
all work, but are all very different.”
One of the predictions says there will be a well-defined
crater on the surface, while another says that the asteroid
could have been completely reshaped and that boulders
might have been thrown from it onto the surface of the
larger Didymos. Astronomers will find out by comparing
the images from DART’s Draco camera to those from Hera.
“It’ll be like the discovery of a new world,” says Michel.

THE HERA SPACECRAFT

Hera is a 1.2-tonne (2,645lb) spacecraft carrying five science
instruments that will gather complementary data to help
cha racterise Dimorphos. There a re two cameras, one
working at visible wavelengths and another in the infrared;
a hyperspectral imager that allows light to be split into small ABOVE Solar wings This is because asteroids can come
bands to aid geological and compositional investigations; a will power the Hera in two broad types: monolithic and
laser altimeter to gauge how far Hera is from the asteroid’s asteroid mission as it rubble piles.
surface; and a radio experiment that helps determine the ventures out to meet Monolithic asteroids are single slabs
asteroids’ masses and gravitational fields. the Dimorphos and of rock that were once molten. Rubble
Didymos asteroids
In addition, Hera will also deploy two CubeSats, nanosatellites piles are conglomerations of pieces of
named Milani and Juventas. These small, secondary spacecraft RIGHT The Hera
debris with no real solid structure to
will carry out additional investigations, including radar and spacecraft’s antenna them. Each would react to a kinetic
spectroscopic analyses. Milani will allow the mineralogy will transmit back the impactor in a different way. Dimorphos
of the asteroids’ surfaces to be detected, whereas Juventas close-up images of the is thought to be a rubble pile asteroid.
carries a radar that will allow the scientists to look inside asteroids “When we get t hose first images
the asteroids to help determine their internal structure back from Hera at the end of 2026, we’ll
and composition. know very quickly what the internal
Taken together, the data will prove essential in our st ructure of Dimorphos is, how it
understanding of asteroid deflection techniques and their reacts and its physical characteristics,”
potential applications in future planetary defence efforts. says Fitzsimmons.

GLOBAL EFFORTS
“PLANETARY DEFENCE HAS During the past 20 years, planetary
defence has become a major focus
BECOME A MAJOR FOCUS for space agencies around the world,
reflecting the growing recognition of the
FOR SPACE AGENCIES threat asteroids pose. It’s not just NASA
and ESA that are involved in protecting
AROUND THE WORLD” the planet from dangerous asteroids.

54
 ASTEROID DEFLECTION FE ATURE

China is also working on a deflection test similar to DART

and Hera. Although unnamed at present, the mission is due
for launch sometime around 2027 and the current target is
asteroid 2015 XF261. This is a small asteroid that’s estimated
to be between 17–78m (55–255ft) wide.
“China plans to combine the DART and Hera missions into
one launch. So they would have a single launch sending two
probes. One would go on a course to intercept this asteroid
and, at the same time, the other probe would take a different
trajectory and be able to do follow-up observations,” says
Andrew Jones, a space journalist who specialises in covering
China’s space industry.
Reversing the DART and Hera process, the Chinese observer
spacecraft would arrive first so that it could spend months
studying the unblemished target asteroid. It would also
watch the impact in real-time and begin scrutinising the
aftermath instantly.
As well as advancing our understanding of planetary
defence, there’s a lot of pure science to come from these
missions. Asteroids are the leftover remnants from the
beginning of the Solar System. They hold crucial clues about
the formation of Earth and other planets. Any mission that
studies an asteroid’s structure and composition is adding
to our knowledge of our origins, as well as to our future
survival as a species.
There’s also a geopolitical angle to China’s interest. “China
aims to demonstrate leadership in space and generate prestige,
similar to NASA,” says Jones. “So national security and
strategic implications are also motivating factors.”
This may not lead to competition, however. Instead, the
global nature of asteroid threat could bring similar nations
together in collaboration, according to Jones.
Fitzsimmons agrees: “Asteroids don’t care about boundaries
or geopolitics, so perhaps having a little bit more openness
and being able to work with each other would be quite nice.”

EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS

While it’s the def lection tests that capture the
headlines, the true cornerstone of planetary
defence is detection.
Former Army officer Jonat han Tate
established Spaceguard UK in 1997. It’s an
independent observatory and visitor centre
in Powys, Wales, that supplies information
to schools, universities and tourist parties
about the asteroid threat and what’s being
done to detect and prepare for them.
For Tate, the message is clear. “There’s
absolutely no reason that a proper, well-
organised, reasonably well-funded planetary
defence organisation can’t protect Earth,” he says.
While The Spaceguard Centre is modest in global terms,
it continues to perform essential follow-up work of tracking
known asteroids to refine the knowledge of their orbits. Tate
is also just coming to the end of a long project to install a
ESA/SJM PHOTOGRAPHY X2

discovery camera to help in the search.

Of the larger government-funded initiatives, ground-based
telescopes and radar systems, such as those operated by
NASA’s Planetary Defence Coordination Office (PDCO) and
the International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN), now
continuously scan the skies for objects that could come ´ 

55
 FE ATURE ASTEROID DEFLECTION

´ dangerously close to Earth. There are dozens of facilities wavelengths, the telescope will provide
around the world that contribute to this effort, and two good size estimates for the asteroids
stand out. They are the Pan-STARRS (Panoramic Survey that it finds and provide information on
Telescope and Rapid Response System) telescopes at the their compositions, shapes and rotation
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tend to be called. Inf ra red) t hat, if approved, would
#RCTVKEWNCTUWEEGUUHQTVJG%55YCUVJGFKUEQXGT[QH provide ea rly wa rning of asteroids
CUVGTQKF49CQPGOGVTGYKFG HV URCEGTQEMVJCVYCU approaching Earth from the direction
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analysed the data and realised that it was heading for Earth, ground-based observatories, as they are
posting the prediction on X (formerly Twitter), stating: “A
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may see a spectacular fireball! Discovered this morning by
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humankind has ever spotted before impact.”
And, indeed, the disintegrating space rock produced a
super-bright meteor that was caught on numerous cameras %JKPGUGTGUGCTEJGTUJCXG
and videos. Although the time between detection and impact
was around eight hours, it proves to Fitzsimmons the progress
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“The important thing is that it was actually found,” he QH0'1/+4oUUKPINGURCEGVGNGUEQRGVJG
says. “The orbit was calculated, it was tracked, and we knew CODKVKQWU%JKPGUGEQPEGRVRTQRQUGUUKZ
it was going to hit; the impact time was calculated and the URCEGVGNGUEQRGUKP8GPWUNKMGQTDKVUVQ
impact position was calculated very accurately before it keep a close watch on this difficult-to-
GPVGTGF'CTVJoUCVOQURJGTG)QDCEMQT[GCTUCPFVJCV survey region of space.
wouldn't have happened.”
In other words, the telescope survey systems and the THE GREAT SERPENT
associated follow-up calculations are now sensitive and quick Even before Hera has launched, ESA
enough that they can predict impacts. And if we can do it for is already setting its sights on its
a small, one-metre-wide object found only a few hours before PGZVCUVGTQKFVCTIGV+PCUVGTQKF
KVGPVGTU'CTVJoUCVOQURJGTGYGUJQWNFDGCDNGVQFKUEQXGT Apophis will make a historic close
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size of Dimorphos around a month or longer before they hit. HV #RQRJKUECWUGFEQPEGTPWRQP
This is crucial because early detection is the key to success BELOW Dr Patrick KVUFKUEQXGT[KP&GEGODGTYJGP
when deflecting asteroids. The sooner a dangerous asteroid Michel of the Université initial orbital calculations gave it a
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QWVQHJCTOoUYC[ is Hera’s principal  #RTKN  KTQPKECNN[ C (TKFC[ 
investigator Somewhat melodramatically, it was
INTENSE OBSERVATION
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new facilities being planned and built. ESA is working on a
ground-based telescope called Flyeye, which uses specially
constructed optics inspired by the compound eyes of insects
VQXKGYCNCTIGCTGCQHVJGPKIJVUM[CNNCVQPEG+VoUEWTTGPVN[
ATARUS77/WIKIPEDIA, TYVAK INTERNATIONAL

scheduled to be built on the Italian island of Sicily.

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telescope is designed to discover and characterise most of the
potentially hazardous asteroids and comets that come within
OKNNKQPOKNGUQH'CTVJoUQTDKV9QTMKPICVVYQKPHTCTGF

56
 ASTEROID DEFLECTION FE ATURE

“THE ASTEROID WILL COME SO CLOSE

TO EARTH THAT OUR PLANET’S
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD HAS THE POTENTIAL
TO ALTER ITS ROTATION AXIS AND ORBIT”

named after the ancient Egyptian mythological serpent who ABOVE The Milani however, that not only is it possible, but
was said to attack the Sun god Ra each night to stop sunrise. CubeSat, built at Tyvak also that launching asteroid missions as
Subsequent observations refined the orbit of Apophis International in Turin, quickly as possible will be a necessary
VQVJGRQKPVVJCVVJGEQNNKUKQPYCUTWNGFQWVDWVKVoNNRCUU Italy, will investigate component of planetary defence. After
'CTVJLWUVMO OKNGU CDQXGKVUUWTHCEGsNQYGT the minerals of all, as soon as we detect an asteroid on
the Didymos and
than the ring of geostationary communications satellites at CEQNNKUKQPEQWTUGYGoNNYCPVVQVCMGC
Dimorphos asteroids
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and Asia could have the opportunity to see it pass across probe to tell us the properties so that we
VJGUM[%CNEWNCVKQPUUWIIGUVVJCVUWEJCUKIJVKUCQPEGKP can design the best deflection mission
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ITCXKVCVKQPCNHKGNFJCUVJGRQVGPVKCNVQCNVGTKVUTQVCVKQPCZKUCPF by D R S T UA R T Rewind the clock a few decades and
QTDKVCPFOC[GXGPETGCVGnSWCMGUoQPKVUUWTHCEG5Q/KEJGN CLARK the threat from asteroids was largely
and others from the Hera team are proposing a new mission (@DrStuClark) UYGRVWPFGTVJGECTRGV0QYYGoTGQP
to ESA, to be built and launched fast enough to rendezvous Stuart is an astronomer, the cusp of having a fully tested and
with Apophis and follow it through its closest approach, science journalist and understood deflection mechanism.
gaining valuable scientific data. The mission, dubbed Ramses, author. His latest book is, p+EQWNFPoVJCXGKOCIKPGFYGoFDG
is currently in the design phase, and will need to be approved Beneath the Night: How YJGTG YG C TG PQY  [GC TU CIQ UQ
D['5#CVKVU/KPKUVGTKCN%QWPEKNOGGVKPIPGZV[GCTKHKVoU the Stars have shaped the KOCIKPGYJGTGYGoNNDG[GCTUHTQO
VQRTQEGGF+VoNNVJGPPGGFVQDGDWKNVCPFNCWPEJGFYKVJKP History of Humankind PQY +VoU IQKPI VQ DG CP KPVGTGUVKPI
VJTGG[GCTUp6JKUKUEJCNNGPIKPIqUC[U/KEJGN*GKPUKUVU (Guardian Faber, 2020). journey,” says Fitzsimmons.

57
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 HAIR LOSS FE ATURE

MORE THAN HALF OF MEN AND MILLIONS OF WOMEN ARE AFFECTED BY HAIR LOSS.
IT CAUSES LOW SELF-ESTEEM IN SOME AND ANXIETY IN OTHERS.
THANKFULLY, SCIENTISTS AROUND THE WORLD ARE GETTING TO THE
ROOTS OF THE PROBLEM WITH PIONEERING NEW TREATMENTS
by H AY L E Y B E N N E T T

s the partner of a 40-something male, I’m loss medications have been around for years and
acutely aware of the hair-loss horizon don’t benefit everyone who tries them. Meanwhile,
looming large in our house. With the hair transplants may be a great solution for the
first signs of a receding hairline come celebrities of the world, but they’re not affordable
furtive glances in the bathroom mirror, for most of us. All of this means that scientists are
then throwaway remarks about shaving still seeking new ways of saving our scalps.
it all off. Pretty soon, we’ll be stocking
up on scalp cream and hats. IN THE GENES
Going bald is no joke, though, as the As with many conditions, treating balding depends
now-retired American body-image expert, on k nowing what causes it. That’s somet hing
Prof Thomas Cash, showed in a 2001 study. Cash scientists are still working on. What we do know
convinced 145 customers of Virginian barber shops is that it’s a complex picture involving ageing hair
and hair salons to visit his lab, where he checked follicles, hormones and stress – as well as whatever
the extent of each man’s hair loss and asked them genes our parents passed on.
how they felt about it. Men who had more severe More than 380 sites in the human genome are
balding were less satisfied with their hair, but also known to play a part, although this large collection
with their overall appearance, admitting to feeling doubtless boils down to fewer mechanisms that
self-conscious and unattractive, while actively coping could be targeted to develop new treatments. “That
by restyling their hair, trying to dress better and will somehow merge into a number of pathways and
embracing the aforementioned hats. maybe a number of main regulators and switches,”
And while Cash’s study focused on men’s hair says Dr Stefanie Heilmann-Heimbach from the
hang-ups, plenty of women have to confront hair University of Bonn in Germany, whose work focuses
loss too. In fact, according to Dr Christina Weng, a on the genetics of hair loss. Since the human
dermatologist in Boston, Massachusetts, and chief genome was sequenced, scientists have uncovered
medical officer at Los Angeles- strong links between balding and

“IT’S A
based company Pelage, which is genes on the X chromosome that
developing a new drug to treat inf luence t he body’s response
the condition, the majority of to testosterone. Evidence for a

COMPLEX PICTURE
patients she sees for hair loss hormonal link emerged much earlier,
are women. “Hair is obviously a however. In 1960, the anatomist
big part of identity so it’s really Prof James Hamilton noticed that

INVOLVING AGEING
distressing and the treatments mentally disabled men castrated
a re ver y limited for female in American prisons (a shockingly
patients,” she says. In contrast common practice associated with

HAIR FOLLICLES,
to men, who lose their hair in the eugenics movement) didn’t go
the classic pattern we’ve come bald. Moreover, those who had a
to expect (the receding hairline family history of balding started

HORMONES
ILLUSTRATION: MAGIC TORCH

and bald spot) women are more to lose t heir hair if t hey were
likely to have thinning across given testosterone.
the whole scalp. The role of testosterone became
Either way, the widespread even more int riguing in t he

AND STRESS”
psychological impact of hair loss 1970s when a rare ‘gender-switching’
makes it a condition deserving condition was discovered in families
of better solutions. Existing hair- in the village of Las Salinas in ´ 

61
 FE ATURE HAIR LOSS

´ the Dominican Republic. Children with

the condition are initially brought up as
girls, but develop male genitalia during
puberty. As adults, however, their prostate
glands remain small and they don’t lose
their hair like other men.
When US scientists studied how these
people metabolise testosterone, t hey
appeared to have normal testosterone
levels while, crucially, lacking the enzyme
needed to convert the hormone into its
more potent form: dihydrotestosterone
(DHT). It’s DHT that’s responsible for the
development of male sex characteristics
in the womb and, later, acne and hair
loss. Both DHT and testosterone stick
to receptor molecules, called androgen
receptors, whose production we now
know is housed in the same region of
the X chromosome that links to balding.
The triggering of these receptors all over
the body (including in those associated
with hair follicles) mediates the hormones’
effects. DHT binds more tightly to the
receptors than ordinary testosterone and
people whose genes make them more
sensitive to DHT, or who convert more
of their testosterone into it, face a greater
risk of going bald.
DHT accumulating in hair follicles is
considered key to the chain of events
that eventually leads to a bare scalp. This
process centres on the ‘shrinking’ of hair
follicles, as they spend less time actively
growing and more time in the resting phase
between one cycle of hair growth and the
next (see ‘The hair growth cycle’, p64).
“Usually the new hair cycle is switched
on and there’s a regrowth of the hair,” says
Heilmann-Heimbach. Whereas in balding,
she says, the follicles spend more and more

703,183
time resting between cycles, becoming
shorter and shorter, until eventually they suicidal thoughts. The drug is also not prescribed for women,

STATISTICS: THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF HAIR RESTORATION SURGERY

fail to breach the scalp at all. largely due to risks to unborn babies (though benefits for post-
A few decades back, the enzyme that menopausal women are being explored).
converts testosterone to DHT – 5-alpha-
reductase (5AR) – became a target for NEW APPROACHES The number of hair
pharma companies as it was presumed Testosterone may be essential to the balding process, but as transplants performed
that suppressing it could treat men with Heilmann-Heimbach notes, interfering with testosterone is “not globally in 2021
conditions like an enlarged prostate and the ideal option” for treating the condition, precisely because
hair loss. In 1992, these efforts led to of the hormone’s widespread effects. So, alternative solutions
the approval of the first 5AR blocker, targeting other, or multiple, biological pathways are in demand.
HAIR
finasteride, which remains one of only One increasingly popular experimental treatment is platelet-rich RESTORATION
two widely approved hair-loss treatments plasma (PRP) therapy, in which a whole bunch of components SURGERIES
– the other being minoxidil, a drug whose with restorative potential are concentrated from the patient’s BY SEX
action isn’t fully understood. own blood and then injected into their scalp. But while the (2021)
Both offer limited benefits and neither therapy has shown promising results and is safe for men and
come without side effects. In finasteride’s women, it’s not clear exactly how it works or what the standard
case, the side effects can’t be glossed treatment regimen should be. Plus, it’s impossible to predict 12.7% on women
over: erectile dysfunction, depression and who it’s going to work for – a problem for such an expensive 87.3% on men

62
 HAIR LOSS FE ATURE

offer longer-lasting benefits than existing

medications. In August, López Bran and
colleagues at Complutense University of
Madrid published a study outlining the
latest advances in regenerative hair-loss
therapies, highlighting several examples
where stem cells were collected from
patients’ excess fat tissues, which offer
more accessible stores than sources like
bone marrow and teeth. These therapies
can essentially use fat from your bottom
to regrow the hairs on your head.
In 2020, plastic surgeons and
dermatologists in t he US t reated a
group of 71 men and women with stem
cell-enriched fat, collecting the fat via
liposuction, processing it to concentrate
the stem cells and then injecting it back
into the participants’ scalps. The treatment
increased hair growth over 24 weeks
(albeit with a possible need for repeat
treatment after a year) and is now being
developed by US company Bimini Health
Tech under the name Kerastem.

SIMPLER METHODS, BETTER RESULTS

However, it’s becoming clear that what
stem cells produce when they’re cultured
in the lab – their so-called ‘secretome’
– may be more practical for treatment
purposes than whole stem cells, which
have to be kept alive. Recent trials suggest
such secretions can increase both hair
density and thickness, with better results
the longer treatments last. In one trial,
patients receiving laser therapy for hair
loss also got a preparation made from stem
cells (or a placebo) applied to their heads.
Those who received the rejuvenating elixir
grew an extra 14 hairs per cm2 compared
to two per cm2 with the placebo.
So what’s the secret of the secretome?
treatment. As Weng points out, “[You might pay] $800-plus TOP More and more Essentially, it’s a collection of molecules
(around £600) a pop for a series of six injections and then people are seeking that scientists hope can manipulate key
hair transplants,
maintenance injections thereafter. So the cost really adds up which cost anything biological pathways involved in hair
and you don’t know if you’re going to be one of the folks who from £1,000 to growth. One such pathway is the ‘Wnt’
£30,000 (approx
respond until six treatments in.” $1,300–$40,000)
pathway, which Heilmann-Heimbach’s
PRP therapy is one of a growing number of new ‘regenerative’ genetic studies have linked to hair loss.
treatment approaches intended to stimulate hair regrowth “Wnt signalling is an important regulator
through growth factors and other components, which experts of the hair growth cycle,” she says. “And
think may tackle inflammation, reduced blood supply and the what genetic studies show is that men
altered hair growth cycle in thinning hair. who are balding more frequently have
Many regenerative approaches use stem cells, either in an particular genetic variants in or near
attempt to freshen up ageing hair follicles’ stores of stem cells, genes involved in Wnt-signalling.”
which are supposed to generate new hairs, or as a source of Intriguingly, it’s thought the Wnt pathway
molecules with the desired regenerative effects. may also interact with testosterone-
“We think that by providing stem cells we could restore related pathways. As well as individual
GETTY IMAGES

the population that has been diminished,” says dermatology molecules, many cells (including stem
chief Dr Eduardo López Bran from the Hospital Clínico San cells) also release bigger bubbles of
Carlos in Madrid, Spain, who believes that stem cells could molecules, seemingly to communicate ´

63
 FE ATURE HAIR LOSS

1
´ with cells elsewhere in the body and
to transfer useful cargoes to them. These
‘exosomes’ were only discovered around
40 years ago and thought of as cellular
‘garbage’, but some scientists now see them
as potential treatments for everything
from Alzheimer’s disease to bone cancer.
Exosomes from the stem cells of healthy
human hair follicles have been shown to
alter the hair regeneration cycle in mice
by teasing follicles out of their growth
phase and delaying the shedding phase,
a neat trick apparently accomplished
by hair-growth-regulating molecules –
including those in the Wnt pathway. Dr
Mert Ersan, a plastic surgeon at Yeditepe
University Hospitals in Istanbul, Turkey,
has just completed a trial aiming to treat
baldness using exosomes from stem cells
in foreskins. While Ersan couldn’t divulge
anything more about the trial before the
results are published, he confirmed that
it’s “one of the first in a clinical context.”

NEW AWAKENINGS
If you don’t fancy fixing your hair with
your own fat or other people’s foreskins,
however, there may one day be regenerative
options that resemble more traditional
medications. Pelage recently attracted
investment to continue clinical trials of
its topical treatment for hair loss, PP405,
which Weng says delivered “fantastic”

The hair
growth
cycle SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY X3 ILLUSTRATION: ACUTE GRAPHICS

64
 HAIR LOSS FE ATURE

[regular male or female pattern baldness] the stem cells are

still there and so our approach is just to wake them up.”
Meanwhile, tissue regeneration experts from other fields
are exploring solutions that don’t focus on stem cells at
all. At the COMSATS University Islamabad in Pakistan, Dr
Muhammad Yar has devoted much of his career to finding
better treatments for burns and ulcers. One of the problems
2 he has been trying to solve is poor blood supply to wounds,
which can impair healing. Poor blood
supply affects ageing hair follicles, too. So,
when he came across a natural molecule
3
that appeared to help restore blood supply,
it occurred to him it might also be a good
bet for hair regrowth.
This 2-deoxy-D-ribose (2dDR) molecule is
a sugar that forms part of our DNA and is
already available from companies stocking
scientific supplies. “We were very happy
to see that we could buy this at kilogram
scale from various companies,” says Yar.
“So it was really easy for us to buy and
use it.” The implication being that it could
provide a quick, and possibly cheap, option
for a new treatment.
Work ing wit h resea rchers at t he
University of Sheffield in the UK, Yar
made a gel containing 2dDR that they
tested on mice. It turned out to be as
effective as minoxidil and Yar suggests
it should have fewer side effects, since
it’s “already in our bodies anyway, so it’s
not something strange.” Still, it’ll have to
undergo testing in humans before making
its way on to pharmacy shelves.
The question is, t hen, ca n today’s
40-somethings feel any more hopeful
results in initial safety trials in humans. The drug works by 1. Human cells about saving their 50-something hairlines?
secrete bubbles
targeting stem cells already living in the hair follicles. In of molecules
Well, López Bran expects some new stem
healthy hair follicles, these stem cells maintain a “mysterious known as cell-based therapies to reach the latter
lifestyle”, says Dr William Lowry, Pelage co-founder and stem exosomes, stages of clinical trials in the near future,
which can be
cell expert at the University of California in Los Angeles. “They used in a hair- while PRP, he says, is likely to be approved
wake up at the start of a new hair cycle to produce very rapidly loss treatment soon. Meanwhile, women’s options look to
dividing cells that go on to make a new hair and then they to stimulate hair be expanding with companies like Pelage
follicles and
return to quiescence a couple of days later.” In ailing follicles, encourage new testing their products in both sexes.
however, they can get stuck in the resting phase of the cycle hair growth For Heilmann-Heimbach though, the
and carry on sleeping. 2. Minoxidil is
chances of finding a cure for balding
What Lowry’s team discovered is that the sudden awakening of one of only two increase along with each new gene and
hair follicle stem cells is associated with metabolic quirks that widely approved biological pathway we can link up in the
hair-loss
seem to be particular to stem cells, which can be manipulated treatments chain of events that causes it. “Balding is
by the right drug molecules to shake the cells out of their currently something we see every day,” she says. “Yet
slumber. While such drug molecules could also be used to available, but it in biological and genetic terms, we’re still
doesn’t work for
activate stem cells in other areas of the body, Weng says PP405 everyone and a bit in the dark – we have some clues, but
has been specially engineered to penetrate the hair follicle. The comes with it’s not the full picture.” In other words, if
side effects
drug can be incorporated into easy-to-apply gels or creams for we’re going to stop hair loss, we’re going
home use – an advantage over injections that can only be given 3. When balding to have to get to the root of it.
at a clinic. Reviving the hair’s indigenous stem cells is easier occurs, hair isn't
being lost, rather
than relying on stem cells that have to be cultured outside the hair follicles by H A Y L E Y B E N N E T T (@gingerbreadlady)
the body. “Cell-based therapy is just much more complicated are shrinking Hayley is a science writer based in Bristol, UK.
logistically,” says Lowry. “Maybe, one day it could be a way Thanks to Lorena Pozo Pérez for interpreting the
to restore follicles if you’ve lost all your follicles, but for most interview with Eduardo López Bran.

65
66
FE ATURE
X

SOPHIA SPRING/EYEVINE ILLUSTRATION: ANDY POTTS

 SOLAR SYSTEM FE ATURE

T H E G O L D E N A G E

O F S P A C E

E X P L O R A T I O N

W I T H

PROFESSOR
BRIAN COX
The biggest space missions yet are making their way to new parts of the
Universe. In his new BBC Two series Solar System, Prof Brian Cox
reveals what these explorations are discovering about life in our galactic
neighbourhood. Noa Leach sat down with him to talk about the
most exciting new missions, life in the Universe and his top
behind-the-scenes moments of filming

A s you read this, five of the eight

planets in the Solar System have
to his hope that aliens might explore the vast
expanses of the Universe after we humans (possibly)
spacecraft orbiting them or landers extinguish ourselves.
on their surfaces – and more are on the way. In his
new series Solar System, Prof Brian Cox reveals the As a show, Solar System sounds familiar, but this
freshest insights coming from these spacecraft and series is very current and looks behind the scenes
landers, and which of the planets they’re studying of the biggest space missions right now. What were
holds the most promise for finding signs of life. your hopes for the show?
So, naturally, we had to ask him all about it: That was one of the central ones: to show that there
from filming in the most alien-like places on Earth are over 40 spacecraft currently active in the ´ 
 FE ATURE SOLAR SYSTEM

´ Solar System, so the amount of knowledge

that we have of our neighbourhood is increasing
all the time. With that increase – that huge
amount of data that’s raining down on us
every second from these probes – we find that
there are more questions than answers quite
a lot of the time.
So, as with a lot of science, one of the things
I hope that the audience takes away is that in
no sense do we know everything about our
neighbourhood in space.
In particular, [in the show] we talk about life
– and life is a central part of any exploration
of the Solar System. We say that the Solar
System is a giant chemistry set and life is
chemistry – complex carbon chemistry.
I think it’s fair to say that we’re finding
more potential habitats than we ever would
have guessed, in stranger places than we ever
would have guessed. Ceres, the minor planet,
is a good example. The fact that it appears,
because of data from a spacecraft called Dawn,
to have liquid water below its surface is a
tremendous surprise.
Even the fact that the moon Enceladus
around Saturn seems to have liquid water,
an ocean perhaps, going all the way around it
was a surprise. We would never have guessed
that before the Cassini spacecraft got there.
So we’re finding more and more places where
the possibility for complex chemistry, and
therefore possibly life, exists – and that’s,
I think, one of the messages.

There are lots of behind-the-scenes moments: You’ve previously said that stupidity is one of the
I loved the bloopers you’ve integrated into the biggest threats to our species. In the series, you
series. Why did you decide to keep these in? also talk about our responsibility not to destroy
That stuff always happens – I’m always messing ourselves, given how rare we seem to be. What
around! But the decision to put them in was, do you think: are we special?
I think, a really good one because it shows As with many profound questions, the answer
you that not everything’s perfect all the time is: we don’t know. But what I can do is look at
when you’re trying to do experiments and what we do know and make a guess – my guess
demonstrate things. would be that civilisations are very rare in a
But I think [it also shows] there’s joy in doing galaxy like the Milky Way.
science – even the apparently silly experiments What [the evidence] suggests, if you look just
that actually illustrate deep properties of at Earth, is that single-celled life may potentially
nature. I like that we decided we would just be quite common (although we don’t know). But
put in some of the fun stuff as well, and not complex multicellular life might be less common,
take ourselves too seriously. and something as complex as a human being in
a civilisation might be extremely uncommon.
My guess is t hat, a nd I wouldn’t
ZACH LEVI-RODGERS/BBC STUDIOS, ESA

be surprised if, t here a re no ot her

civilisations in the Milky Way. But in
“ I ’ M O P T I M I S T I C A B O U T the entire observable Universe, where
there are over a trillion other galaxies, I
would be very surprised if there weren’t
T H E F U T U R E O F S P A C E any other civilisations. It’s a big place!
Someone asked me once what I
would feel if I saw an alien spaceship.
E X P L O R A T I O N ” I wouldn’t be surprised if an alien

68
 SOLAR SYSTEM FE ATURE

spaceship came floating down and landed in scientists. The thing is, the distances are so big. We
Hyde Park. I’d go: “Okay, well, that solves a big could get things there more quickly, but it would
puzzle here.” make them a lot more expensive at the moment.
But what I’d feel would be relief. We’re such That’s part of the reason rocket technology, like
idiots, I fear, that I think the chances of us what SpaceX and Blue Origin are working on, is
surviving long enough to get out there to the stars really important.
are perhaps quite low. I’m not entirely convinced Getting things into orbit and sending them off
that we’re going to do it; that we’re going to solve to the planets is really expensive. So the cheaper
the problems that we have here sufficiently well that gets, the easier it’ll be to get more there,
so that we can start to move out and become a more quickly – and the easier it’ll be to learn
multiplanetary and interstellar civilisation. more. So, although I’m sometimes pessimistic,
I’m quite miserable in the sense that if we don’t I’m optimistic about t he f uture of space
do it, I think maybe nobody will. So there’ll be exploration just because it’s getting easier and
nothing; the whole Galaxy will be meaningless, cheaper to do.
potentially, forever, because there’s nothing out
there that thinks, other than us. So if it turns What were your top highs and lows of filming?
out there [are aliens], then at least it’s a weight We filmed in Spain, a beautiful location that
off my shoulders. Then I’ll think, “Well, at least really delivered for us. But [we forgot that] it was
ABOVE ESA’s JUICE
somebody’s done it.” the place that Terry Gilliam tried to film the Don
spacecraft, launched in I’d be utterly delighted if I was wrong. And Quixote film, which failed because of the location.
April 2023, will investigate that’s really important because the foundation The thing is, it’s a Spanish Air Force bombing
Jupiter and three of the
gas giant’s moons of science is to be delighted that you’re wrong range, which immediately should tell you it’s
– that’s when you find stuff out. The job is not not the easiest place to film because they’ve got
ABOVE RIGHT Prof to be right, but to find out more. jet aircraft practising bombing runs in it. And
Brian Cox filming on
location by the then it’s also full of mosquitoes like you wouldn’t
Thrihnukagigur volcanic Let’s talk about some of the missions and the believe – just clouds of these insects. It turned
chamber in Iceland
research. The timescales involved are long: out very beautifully, but it wasn’t very nice to
Europa Clipper is launching now, due to arrive film there!
at Jupiter’s moon in 2030; the Jupiter Icy Moons And also Alaska: it was freezing cold. I always
Explorer (JUICE) will arrive in 2031; and the enjoy Alaska, but it’s never easy. They told me to
Perseverance rover is due to return its rock take a lot of protective clothing cause it’s zero
samples from Mars in the mid 2030s. How do degrees, and I thought “Oh, that’s fine.” But it was
you stay patient while we wait for these results? zero Fahrenheit (-18°C) they were talking about!
What about the people who are working on [When filming] my nose would go white, which
them? Can you imagine? You build these things, is a sign of the start of frostbite, so then I’d have
then have to wait 10 years, 15 years, 20 years for to put hand warmers on my nose and sit there for
the data. It’s a remarkable way of life for space 10 minutes [before starting again].

69
 FE ATURE SOLAR SYSTEM

70
 SOLAR SYSTEM FE ATURE

THE

ORIGIN
OF THE

SOLAR
SYSTEM by C O L I N S T UA R T

There are key details missing from the story of how our Solar
System formed. But recent discoveries are helping scientists
fill in the blanks and understand how rare it is

Origin stories have a special way of capturing our its own weight and collapsed until newborn stars
imaginations. Whether it’s a particular species of lit up inside. The Sun was one of those stars.
plant or animal, or a favourite fictional character, Leftover material was hurled around these
knowing how they came to be makes for captivating f ledglings, forming f lat bands k nown as
stories. It’s no different in space. Especially the protoplanetary discs. Gravity then took over,
small corner of it we live in: the Solar System. pulling and sculpting debris until it snowballed
How did it form and why does it look the way into objects, each one about a kilometre (just over
it does today? How does it compare to other solar half a mile) or so across. These ‘planetesimals’ then
systems and is the one we’re part of special or just collided, smashing into each other and bulking
like all the others? In recent years, astronomers have up until the planets finally emerged.
got closer to answering these important questions But, where we find the Solar System’s eight
and uncovering the story of our Solar System. planets today isn’t where they started their ´ 
How they’re doing it is a story in itself. Humans
may not have been around to see and record how
the Solar System began, but there were witnesses,
of a sort, who can relate that part of the tale. The “ T H E R E W E R E
rocky asteroids and icy comets that silently patrol
ILLUSTRATION: SÉBASTIEN THIBAULT

the Solar System date back to its earliest days.

Many are older than Earth. W I T N E S S E S W H O
“Their chemical composition and the distribution
of their orbits contain clues as to what happened
in t he Sola r System’s past,” says Prof Alan C A N R E L A T E
Fitzsimmons, an expert on asteroids and comets
at Queen’s University Belfast.
T H A T P A R T O F
ONCE UPON A TIME…
The story starts around 4.6 billion years ago, when
a cloud of interstellar gas and dust buckled under T H E T A L E ”
 SOLAR SYSTEM

´ lives. They’ve jostled and jockeyed for position,

migrating from their birthplaces to settle into a
“ A S T R O N O M E R S more stable configuration. At least that’s according
to the Nice model, a popular version of the Solar
System’s origin story named after the city in France
A R E C O N F I D E N T where it was devised.
As the largest planet, Jupiter had a particularly big
role to play. Today, Jupiter shares its orbit around
T H E S U N W A S N ’ T the Sun with a population of ancient rocks known
as the Trojan asteroids. These asteroids appear to
be quite diverse, with varying compositions. This
B O R N A L O N E . means it’s unlikely that they all formed together in
the same spot. If the planets did shuffle around,
they would have scattered asteroids and comets
T H E Y T H I N K far and wide, from many different places, in
the process. Jupiter’s intense gravity could have
vacuumed up many of the stragglers. “We know
I T H A D M A N Y very little about the Trojans,” Fitzsimmons says.
That may soon change, though, thanks to NASA’s
Lucy mission, which is en route to the outer Solar
ESA, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

S I B L I N G S T H A T System. The spacecraft is named after the 3.2

million-year-old fossils of a hominin found in
Ethiopia, which, when they were discovered in 1974,
H A V E S I N C E were the oldest-known, human-like remains. The
choice of name underscores the fact that asteroids
and comets are the fossils of the Solar System.
D R I F T E D A W A Y ”
 SOLAR SYSTEM FE ATURE

the Nice model alone can’t account for the way

the Scattered Disc looks today.
A relatively new idea – one t hat’s gaining
popularity – could yet save the day. Astronomers
are confident that the Sun wasn’t born alone. They
think it had many siblings that have since drifted
away. Just as our siblings help shape the people
we become, so the Sun’s brothers and sisters may
have contributed to the way the Solar System
looks today.
The infant Solar System could have experienced
one or more stellar fly-bys as the Sun’s siblings
drifted away – other stars buzzing past us at
t housands or maybe even only hundreds of
times Earth’s current distance from the Sun.
The gravitational pull of these stars could have
upset the astronomical apple cart. “If the nascent
Solar System got a little push with a close fly-by,
that gives a much better fit to what we see now,”
Fitzsimmons says.
In this way, the distribution of comets may
hold the key to unlocking the secrets of the early
Solar System. They may also be responsible for
making it a suitable place for life, delivering the
chemicals necessary for life to evolve on this
planet. For many years, comets were thought to
ABOVE
Planetesimals, rocks have delivered water to the early Earth once it had
Astronomers, like archaeologists, pore over ancient that form from the cooled sufficiently after its fiery formation from
fragments in search of answers. Lucy launched dust and gas around colliding planetesimals.
newborn stars, collide
in 2021 and should arrive at the Trojans in 2027. and fuse together, Astronomers are starting to change their minds,
With the data that Lucy collects, “we should be eventually creating however. “The consensus is swinging towards
new worlds
able to work out where the Trojans have been,” asteroids,” Fitzsimmons says.
Fitzsimmons says. In turn, that could tell us how LEFT ESA’s Comet One of the major catalysts for the change of heart
the Solar System’s early evolution forced them into Interceptor will be came when the European Space Agency’s (ESA)
the first mission to
their current position. visit a comet coming Rosetta mission visited the comet 67P/Churyumov-
from the outer Gerasimenko a decade ago. Rosetta’s study of the
STELLAR SIBLINGS reaches of the Solar comet found it contained a ratio of deuterium
System in a bid to get
According to the Nice model, Jupiter moved slightly a snapshot of its to ordinary hydrogen that’s three times higher
inwards towards the Sun, whereas the other three earliest days than the ratio found on Earth. The result suggests
giant planets (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) moved comets like 67P may not have been responsible for
outwards. The outer trio then encroached upon the delivering such chemicals to Earth.
Kuiper Belt, an icy band of objects that includes But it’s not as clear-cut as that. Comet 67P has
dwarf planet Pluto. The outward migrating planets, spent a long time in the inner Solar System.
particularly Neptune, scattered smaller objects Interactions with the Sun have eroded its surface
from the Kuiper Belt further out and off the main and could have changed its chemistry. If we’re to
plane of planets, creating what’s known as the really see what comets were like back when the
Scattered Disc. Solar System formed, we need to study one that
This distant region is thought to be the source of has never entered the inner Solar System.
short-period comets – those that tumble around the That’s exactly the plan behind ESA’s Comet
Sun every few decades or centuries (Halley’s Comet Interceptor mission, slated for launch in 2029. Its
being the most famous example). Except there’s a target hasn’t even been discovered yet. Astronomers
problem: “The predictions and the observations are waiting to spot a pristine, incoming comet
don’t match,” says Fitzsimmons. In other words, before they pounce. “We’d see an object in a ´ 
 SOLAR SYSTEM

probably rains liquid metal or jewels. Many of these other

“ I T T U R N S O U T solar systems contain types of planets that we simply don’t
have. “The typical exoplanetary system has lots of in-between
planets larger than Earth, but smaller than Neptune,” says
O U R S O L A R Prof Karin Öberg, an astrochemist at Harvard University in
the US. Then there are hot Jupiters – giant planets that have
migrated so far inwards that they orbit their stars in days,
S Y S T E M M A Y V E R Y sometimes even hours.
Astronomers have now discovered so many exoplanetary
systems that they can begin to classify them, like biologists
M U C H B E T H E placing animals and plants into different species groups.
Last year, a team of Swiss astronomers identified four types
of solar system: ordered, anti-ordered, mixed and similar.
E X C E P T I O N , N O T All the planets in a similar solar system have masses that
are, unsurprisingly, similar, while in a mixed system, the
masses vary from one planet to another. Ordered solar systems
T H E R U L E ” (like ours) have planets that generally increase in mass the
further out you go. In anti-ordered systems it’s the other
way around, with mass decreasing as you head outwards,
So which type of system is the most common? To date,
´ deep freeze from the time the giant planets formed,” says no examples of anti-ordered systems have been found,
Fitzsimmons. As the pieces of our Solar System’s story begin but according to the Swiss study that came up with the
to fall into place, attention is turning to how it compares to classifications, around 80 per cent of systems can be classified
other planetary systems. as similar. But just 1.5 per cent can be classified as ordered
solar systems, like ours. It turns out our Solar System may
STRANGE AND EXOTIC SYSTEMS very much be the exception, not the rule.
The last 25 years have seen an explosion of discoveries of What’s more, it seems the seeds of our relative uniqueness
exoplanets. The number of these planets orbiting other stars were sown long ago, before there was even a collection of
is fast approaching 6,000 and many are giving astronomers planets to orbit the Sun. It all comes down to the order in
big surprises. Before detecting these exoplanets, they which the planets emerged from the disc of gas and dust.
expected to find solar systems that were broadly identical Once again, it’s Jupiter that appears to be the key.
to ours, confirming their suspicion that ours is an average,
or typical, solar system. THE RIGHT KIND OF JUPITER
The emerging reality couldn’t be more different. Astronomers “One idea is that Jupiter formed early enough to stop the
have found a celestial zoo of strange and exotic systems that inf low of material into the innermost part of the Solar
wouldn’t look out of place in a science-fiction saga. Systems System,” says Öberg.
with planets that orbit two stars, instead of one, or systems To play this role effectively, Jupiter also had to form in
with planets orbiting so close to their central star that it the perfect spot, close to a region astronomers refer to as
 FE ATURE

the ice line. It’s the point at which temperatures is really good at observing the organic molecules
drop sufficiently for gases such as water vapour, that are in pebbles,” says Öberg.
ammonia and methane to freeze into icy pebbles. Given what we know about discs and how solar
Like pebbles found on a beach, they’re typically systems form, Öberg thinks one of the best places
a few centimetres (about an inch or two) across. to find Earth-like planets could be around smaller
“As Jupiter feeds on those pebbles it creates a gap,” stars such as red dwarfs. But could asteroids and
Öberg says. “It’s very difficult for other pebbles to comets have delivered water and the building blocks
cross that gap.” With the remaining pebbles stranded of life from elsewhere in their discs? “The jury
in the outer Solar System, the inner Solar System is still out,” Öberg says. “I’m optimistic, but I do
was starved of material from which to build large think we have a few more years of gathering data
planets. This potentially explains why we have an ABOVE The ALMA before that optimism is completely rewarded.” For
antennas on the
unusually ordered solar system apparently carved Chajnantor Plateau one thing, the chemistry around these low-mass
in two, with small planets close to the Sun and in the Chilean stars might be different from the chemistry we
giant planets further out. Not many systems have Andes observe in our Solar System.
the right kind of Jupiter. So, for now we must wait. But continuing our work
LEFT
Intriguingly, new observations by the James Webb to understand how the Solar System formed will
Protoplanetary
Space Telescope (JWST) of the protoplanetary discs discs are providing lead to more answers. “If we manage to decipher
from which a system’s planets form, lend credence evidence for why what happened in our Solar System, those lessons
to this idea. In discs with large planets forming, the planets in our might be applicable to other solar systems,” says
there’s very little water vapour close to the star Solar System Fitzsimmons. “Mother Nature is clearly very adept
increase in size the
where an Earth-like planet could be forming. The further out they are at making all sorts of planets,” he says.
opposite is also true. “In discs where there are no from the Sun Slowly, chapter by chapter, ast ronomers
gaps carved out by giant planets, we do see a huge a re piecing toget her t he origin story of t he
amount of water in the innermost disc,” Öberg says. Solar System, and
ESO, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

Along with JWST, the other telescope improving wit h each new
our understanding of protoplanetary discs is chapter we’re by C O L I N S T UA R T
the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA). learning more about (@skyponderer)
A collection of 66 radio dishes scattered in the how we came to be Colin is an astronomy author
Chilean desert, it’s best suited for looking at the in a position to and speaker, and a fellow of the
outer, cooler parts of protoplanetary discs. “ALMA wonder about it. Royal Astronomical Society.

75
 THE BIG QUESTION TIPPING POINTS

THE BIG QUESTION

What tipping point

are climate scientists
most worried about?
Collapsing ice sheets, loss of the Amazon rainforest, melting permafrost…
-G[RCTVUQH'CTVJoUENKOCVGU[UVGOCTGKPVTQWDNG9JKEJEQWNFVTKIIGTFKUCUVGTƂTUV!
by P RO F B I L L M C G U I R E

I
f you want to make a climate switch starts, there’s no going back, they’re
scientist uncomfortable, just sidle “The AMOC is called tipping points.
up to them and whisper “tipping 6JGTGCTGRNGPV[QHFGƂPKVKQPUQWVVJGTG
points” in their ear. Climate now weaker than but the one that really hits the nail on the
breakdown driven by global heating head comes from The American Heritage
is scary enough, but so-called climate at any time Dictionary of the English Language, which
tipping points send a shiver down the describes a tipping point as: “A critical
spine. So, what are they and why do they probably since the moment in a complex situation in which
JCXGWUCNNTWPPKPIUECTGF! CUOCNNKPƃWGPEGQTFGXGNQROGPVRTQFWEGU
We’re in the middle of a unique end of the last Ice a sudden large or irreversible change.”
experiment that’s driving up the global Where the climate is concerned, for large,
average temperature at least 10 times faster Age, more than read disastrous.
than at any time in the geological record.
The consequences are all around us: 11,500 years ago” How things could tip
explosions of extreme weather, collapsing Scientists who work to model where
ice sheets and accelerating sea-level rise. likelihood of sudden, permanent switches global heating is taking our climate
But as greenhouse gas emissions in dangerous elements of the climate struggle with tipping points for two
continue to climb as fast as ever and the system is becoming increasingly possible. reasons. Firstly, they’re not easy to pin
global temperature rise (compared to Because a critical threshold needs to be down in terms of timing and impact.
pre-industrial times) for the last 12 months reached before a switch can occur, and Secondly, how tipping points are treated
touches 1.64°C (a rise of almost 3°F), so the because – like a tilting seesaw – once a within climate models can dramatically

76
 The Amazon rainforest plays a vital role in regulating Earth’s climate. If too much of it is lost, it could set off a chain of events with disastrous results

KPƃWGPEGVJGQWVRWVVJGTGD[KPETGCUKPI would also mean that more heat was which would only happen given a global
uncertainty in terms of forecasting how absorbed, pushing up Earth’s temperature temperature rise of several degrees. But all
climate breakdown will unfold in years further. The loss of the Amazon rainforest that has changed.
to come. and thawing of Arctic permafrost would The Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Such is the complexity of the climate add massively to carbon levels in the Circulation (AMOC) is now weaker than
system, that there are likely to be countless atmosphere, driving up the heat even at any time probably since the end of the
tipping points, most having local or more. And we aren’t talking of the distant last Ice Age, more than 11,500 years ago,
TGIKQPCNKPƃWGPEGU0KPGJQYGXGTCTG future here. Irreversible collapse of the GIS and the authors of an analysis published
recognised as having the potential to and WAIS will likely be triggered by a in 2021 suggest that it may already
trigger massive environmental changes at global average temperature rise of just have suffered an “almost complete loss
the global scale. These include the 1.5°C, which we’ll see by the early 2030s. of stability.”
collapse of the Greenland and West And the same goes for an abrupt thaw of A study published earlier this year
Antarctic ice sheets (GIS and WAIS Arctic permafrost. reports that the AMOC has gone through
respectively), the dieback of the Amazon The tipping point that keeps members of a “noticeable reduction in strength” in
rainforest and the release of colossal the climate science community awake at the last couple of decades, and recent
volumes of methane from thawing night, however, is the collapse of the Gulf estimates of when shutdown might happen
Arctic permafrost. Stream and associated oceanic currents, are getting ever closer to our time. A 2023
GIS and WAIS collapse would eventually which help to keep the UK and northern study forecast sometime between 2025 and
GETTY IMAGES

result in a 12m (almost 40ft) sea-level rise Europe warmer than they would otherwise 2095, with a central estimate of 2050.
VJCVYQWNFƃQQFCNNEQCUVCNEKVKGU6JG be. Go back a decade or so and this was Another analysis, revealed in August
replacement of white ice with dark rock thought to be highly unlikely, something this year, points to collapse sometime ´

77
 THE BIG QUESTION TIPPING POINTS

´ between 2037 and 2064. Even more across the Amazon. But the biggest and
concerning (if not downright terrifying): “Are we talking most severe impacts are reserved for the
up to almost half of high-quality climate
models suggest that serious weakening of The Day After North Atlantic region. Average
temperatures will plunge across the UK
Atlantic currents will see cooling across
the North Atlantic region begin as early
Tomorrow? Well, and Europe by at least 10°C, while winter
sea ice could reach almost as far south as
as the 2030s. not quite. But it the southernmost point of the UK.
Meanwhile, on the other side of the
Earth’s great engine would still be Atlantic, the eastern seaboard of North
To understand why collapse would be a America would see a rapid hike in sea
big deal requires some understanding of a catastrophe” NGXGNCUVJGPQTVJYCTFƃQYKPIYCVGTU
what the AMOC does. In a nutshell, it’s a backed up, leading to inundation or
critical component of the worldwide ƃQQFKPIQHEQCUVCNEQOOWPKVKGU
system of currents known as The Global The bottom line is that AMOC collapse
Conveyor Belt, carrying heat from the would be a cataclysmic event that could
tropics northwards into the Arctic. result in crop yields being slashed across
The numbers associated with the the planet, bringing widespread starvation
AMOC are mind-boggling. Every second CPFURCYPKPIEKXKNEQPƃKEVCPFYCT#PF
it shifts 17 million cubic metres of water don’t expect this to be short-lived. Once a
– equivalent to nearly 7,000 Olympic- tipping point tips, it stays tipped, at least
sized swimming pools. At the same time, on the scale of a human lifetime.
the AMOC carries around 1.2 million The question is: can we stop it
gigawatts of heat, equivalent to more than happening? Reducing emissions to zero as
150 times the energy capacity of the global by P RO F B I L L M C G U I R E soon as possible could help, but the
electricity network, which amounts to Bill is Professor Emeritus of Geophysical & problem with tipping points is that we
one-quarter of all the heat transported into Climate Hazards at University College London might not know we’ve passed one until
the northern hemisphere. and the author of Hothouse Earth: An it’s too late. Fingers crossed that this isn’t
The tropical waters carried northwards Inhabitant’s Guide (Icon Books, 2022). the case with the AMOC.
by the AMOC are warm, shallow and
salty. As they approach the Arctic, they
cool and become more dense, causing
them to sink into the deep ocean, where
they feed a cold current that returns
south. This explains the ‘overturning’ part
of its name. But this process is becoming
harder all the time, as the shallow,
PQTVJYCTFƃQYKPIYCVGTUCTGTGVCKPKPI
more of their heat.
On top of this, water from melting
Greenland ice is pouring into the North
Atlantic in increasing volumes, freshening
the waters and reducing salinity. Because
warmer, less saline waters have relatively
low densities, this hinders sinking, slows
the whole system down and threatens to
bring everything to a grinding halt.
So what can we expect if and when the
AMOC stalls? Are we talking The Day
After Tomorrow? Well, not quite. But
make no mistake, it would still be a
catastrophe for Earth and humankind.
The AMOC is one of nature’s great
engines, which helps to drive not only
the climate, but also global weather
GETTY IMAGES

patterns. Knock-on effects of shutdown

will extend across the planet, weakening
the Asian and African monsoons, and
playing havoc with weather patterns Recent research suggests the Antarctic ice sheet may be melting faster than existing models predict

78
 .90
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 Q&A

YOUR QUESTIONS ANSWERED

OWEN BARRE T T, C AMBRIDGESHIRE

CAN SCIENCE
EXPLAIN
HAUNTED
HOUSES?
Paranormal phenomena, including
supernatural ‘hauntings’, have been the
subject of serious scientific investigation
since the emergence of spiritualism during
Victorian times. Unfortunately, the vast
majority of paranormal investigations have
been of the pseudoscientific variety – based
on incorrect, incomplete or misrepresented
science, or invalid due to bias, manipulation,
assumption or omission. In these cases, the
presented ‘evidence’ doesn’t satisfy
scientific rigour, or can also be interpreted in
ways that don’t require the paranormal.
Other cases can be shown to be fraudulent.
So, the conclusions (and methods) of such there’s no logical connection between the reason to conclude that these are associated
studies can be safely ignored from a strictly evidence and the conclusion. There may well with extraterrestrial craft or ancient alien
scientific perspective. be other, as yet unknown, phenomena that civilisations. It’s an unscientific leap of faith
Of course, there are some cases of can explain the observations. to believe in alien visitation based solely on
‘hauntings’ for which there is evidence of The problem is akin to the UFO, or UAP unexplained sightings. The same is true for
some physical phenomena: magnetic, (Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena), the belief in ghosts; there’s no scientific
pressure or temperature variations, issue. While there are undoubtedly rationale for it.
recorded images, video or audio, for numerous cases of unidentified aerial Science does offer some potential
example. These phenomena don’t prove the objects, some even with documentary or explanations for hauntings. Most are
existence of the supernatural though, as physical evidence, there’s no scientific environmental or psychological in nature.

80
 Q&A

PETE DR HELEN DR ALASTAIR IAN TAYLOR CERI PERKINS DR CLAIRE LUIS PROF PETER
LAWRENCE PILCHER GUNN Human Weather and ASHER VILLAZON BENTLEY
Astronomy Nature Physics body climate Mysteries Planet Earth Biotech

“CARBON MONOXIDE HAS DAN KNAPTON, VIA EMAIL

BEEN SHOWN TO BE THE HOW SPICY IS TOO SPICY?

CAUSE OF HAUNTINGS” It depends on the pepper and
it depends on the person. For
most people, capsaicin, the
also be poisonous to children.
In 2023, a 14-year-old
American boy with underlying
Perhaps the most obvious is the simple active compound that heart conditions died after
misperception of perfectly normal eating a spicy tortilla chip
experiences. Sleep paralysis (when the body taste and heat, is as part of a social
is paralysed, as during sleep, but the mind is harmless at the levels we media challenge.
fully active) can create perceptions that can typically consume. Some It’s hard to say what a
easily be misconstrued as paranormal. studies even suggest it dangerous dose is, but we’re
Hallucinations can also be brought on by improves our health. not talking about Tabasco here.
sleep deprivation, high stress, At higher concentrations, The world’s hottest chilli peppers
electromagnetic variations, infrasound however, capsaicin is devilish: it have higher Scoville Heat Units
(low-frequency sound), or simply high- causes heartburn and swelling in than military-grade pepper
temperature environments. the stomach, and complicates spray and can easily be 100 times
Surprisingly, mould, often found in old pre-existing conditions such as hotter than the sauces we spice
houses, may play a part. Some species are irritable bowel syndrome. It can up our dinners with. IT
known to cause inflammation of the optic
nerve and subsequent hallucinations.
Experiments have shown that Stachybotrys
(black mould) induces a feeling of fear in
laboratory mice. One study even found that
SAM TOOVEY, VIA EMAIL
houses with reported hauntings were
statistically more likely to contain mould. WHAT HAPPENED TO
Other scientists have proposed that
chemical intoxication can result in convincing
EINSTEIN’S BRAIN?
‘supernatural’ hallucinations or
misperceptions. Suspect chemicals include Einstein died in 1955 at Princeton
some pesticides and formaldehyde (which Hospital, New Jersey, in the US, and the
can be found in treated wood as well as some autopsy was conducted by pathologist
paints and varnishes). Dr Thomas Stoltz Harvey. Einstein’s
Also, carbon monoxide (CO) has been body was cremated the next day, but,
shown in several cases to be the cause of unbeknown to his family, Harvey had
GETTY IMAGES, ALAMY ILLUSTRATION: KYLE SMART

hauntings. In February 1921, the American removed Einstein’s brain and eyes.
Journal of Ophthalmology published a letter Although he later received
in which a haunting, including ‘ghostly permission to use the specimens for
apparitions’, was unequivocally associated scientific study, Harvey’s actions
with CO. So, not only is your home CO alarm attracted great controversy. The brain
preventing you from asphyxiation, it may also was sliced into 240 pieces and 12 sets
be guarding you against ghosts and demons! of 200 microscope slides. Some went
In conclusion, there’s no evidence that to scientific and medical institutions,
houses are haunted by the spirits of the but he kept 170 pieces for himself,
departed. On the other hand, there are plenty preserved in jars. He eventually
of ‘hauntings’ that have been shown to have handed them over to the University
rational explanations. AG Medical Center of Princeton in 1998. LV

81
 Q&A

NATURE’S WEIRDEST

DEAD MAN’S FINGERS

Picture the scene. It’s Halloween and you’ve Then you look again closely and realise base of broadleaved trees such as beech
gone for an ill-advised stroll through the it’s not a hand at all. Although dead man’s and oak. Hence the first part of its Latin
graveyard on the edge of town. As the fingers (Xylaria polymorpha) may look like name, ‘xylaria’ means ‘growing on wood.’
screams of trick-or-treaters fade into the it belongs on the end of a dead man’s arm, The second part of its Latin name,
distance, a shroud of dense fog rolls in, it’s actually a fungus. ‘polymorpha’, means ‘many shapes’,
blanketing the tombstones. It already feels A quick fungus primer: Fungi can’t eat reflecting the fact that this fungus changes in
like an episode of Scooby-Doo, but things food, like animals, and they can’t make appearance over time. In spring, when it
are about to get worse. You stumble and food, like plants and algae. Instead, they emerges, it sprouts in clusters of three to six
fall, face-planting into the detritus, where secrete enzymes that break down nearby ‘fingers’, which are pale to dark grey, each
you spot a putrid-looking hand sticking out organic matter, releasing nutrients that they with a pale ‘nail’ at the top. But by winter,
of the ground. Misshapen digits. Long, can then absorb. Disappointingly, given its when it’s mature, each finger is up to 10cm
twisted nails. You try to scream, but the zombie-like appearance, this fungus doesn’t (4in) tall and dark brown to blue-black. For
sound is stuck in your throat. Where is break down dead bodies, but dead wood. It this reason, it has been described as looking
Velma Dinkley when you need her? can be found, sprouting from the rotting like a putrid finger, a piece of burned wood,

82
 Q&A

MARLOW SMITH, VIA EMAIL

CAN ANIMALS BE RIGHT

OR LEFT-PAWED?
Here’s a fun experiment to try. If you hand more, which then became dominant
have a cat or a dog, place a treat in a thin, over time.
empty container and see which paw they The theory has its critics, who point to
use to retrieve it. If the science is correct, the fact that some primates don’t follow
most males will favour their left paw, the rules. Slow lorises are arboreal yet
while most females will favour their right. favour their right hands, while Hanuman
Many animals are ambilateral (the langurs live on the ground and are mainly
non-human equivalent of being left-handed.
ambidextrous), and sometimes there’s a Adding to the confusion, glossy black
sex bias to these preferences. cockatoos hold seed cones with their left
Other times, differences exist at the foot, walruses preferentially use their
species level. Around 85–90 per cent of us right flipper to forage for clams and
humans favour our right hands, and we’re red-necked wallabies prefer to use their
not alone. Among primates, most chimps, right paw to reach for food.
gorillas, baboons and ring-tailed lemurs For the record, my cat failed to comply
also prefer to use their right hands, but with the experiment, with either right or

“BY WINTER, WHEN IT’S Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkeys, de

Brazza’s monkeys and orangutans tend to
left paw, and instead miaowed loudly
until she was fed. HP

MATURE, EACH FINGER

use their left.
This plays to the idea that handedness is

IS UP TO 10CM (4IN) TALL”

linked to lifestyle. Among those listed, the
right-handers are predominantly ground
dwellers, while the left-handers like to
hang out in trees. According to the
and a mummified penis. postural origin theory of handedness,
Fungi aren’t mobile, so they spread by
producing spores that they disperse from dominant left hand to grab food and
their fruiting bodies, which are the bits of branches, while holding the tree with their
the fungus that you can see above the right. Then, as they adapted to life on the
ground. In this case, the fingers are the ground, they started to use their right
fruiting body. Like many fungi,
X. polymorpha has two modes of
reproduction, asexual and sexual. Asexual
reproduction produces genetically identical
copies of the fungus. It occurs in spring
when the fungus releases spores, called
conidia, from all over the surface of the
finger. Meanwhile, sexual spores, called
ascospores, are released through a hole at
the top. When an ascospore from one
parent fuses with an ascospore from
another, a new, genetically different fungus
is produced.
It may look bizarre and a little grotesque,
but this fungus is good news for all the
invertebrates that feast on the soft,
nutrient-rich detritus it creates. But don’t
ALAMY X2, GETTY IMAGES

be tempted to eat it yourself. A 2018 study

found that the macabre-looking fungus
contains toxins that are similar to those
found in the infamous death-cap
mushroom. Tuck in and you could be the
one who ends up in the graveyard! HP

83
 Q&A

GEORGE GRAINGER , LONDON

WAS AMELIA
EARHART OR
HER PLANE
EVER FOUND?
One of the most famous pioneers in aviation,
Amelia Earhart is best known for becoming the
first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. But
her story ended in tragedy in 1937, when her
Lockheed 10-E Electra plane disappeared
without a trace while she attempted an
ambitious round-the-world flight.
Hoping to become the first person to
circumnavigate the globe around the equator,
Earhart planned a 46,670km (29,000-mile)
journey from California across Central and
South America, Africa, Australia and finally
crossing the Pacific Ocean. Six weeks into the
trip, Earhart and her navigator Fred Noonan,
set off from New Guinea towards Howland
Island, about 2,735km (1,700 miles) southwest
of Honolulu. This 20-hour flight was the

JACK CHILDS, VIA EMAIL

COULD I REALLY
LAND A PLANE IN
AN EMERGENCY?
According to an utterly believable survey
by YouGov in 2023, almost half of men
think they could safely land a plane in an
emergency. We’re not here to ground
anybody’s confidence, but landing an
aircraft – especially a large passenger plane
– without experience is an extremely GETTY IMAGES ILLUSTRATIONS: PETE LAWRENCE, KYLE SMART
difficult thing to do.
There are documented cases of people
landing smaller aircraft with the guidance of
air traffic controllers and flight instructors on
the ground, but remember that pilots of all believe a novice could manage it with the In a smaller plane, the odds improve a lot.
kinds undergo hundreds of hours of training. right help. Petter Hörnfeldt, a 737 instructor, It’s more manual and familiar, with fewer
Some larger aircraft, like the Boeing 737, details a 20-step procedure that a non-pilot controls. In 2022, a BBC journalist with no
have an autoland function that allows the could follow in an emergency on his YouTube experience landed a two-seater plane,
plane to land itself, even without power, and channel. You’d still have to set the plane’s guided by instructors in a set-up scenario
is sometimes used by pilots in low visibility. speed, heading and altitude, and also engage where the actual pilot only played dead.
Setting this up requires dozens of steps the flaps and landing gear. More importantly, Experts say that for small aircraft, flight
and knowledge of the instruments in the as Hörnfeldt points out, you’d also first have simulator games give a good approximation
cockpit, but some pilots and instructors to find a way into the locked cockpit. of what’s needed to make it back to Earth. IT

84
 Q&A

ASTRONOMY FOR BEGINNERS

longest leg of the journey and close to the
maximum range of the plane. Despite support
from the US Coast Guard, they failed to locate
the flat, 6.5km2 (2.5 square mile) island in the
vast Pacific Ocean and were never seen again.
The US government’s investigation concluded
that, after failing to find Howland Island, Earhart’s
plane ran out of fuel and crashed into the ocean.
But the lack of definitive evidence has spurred
wild speculation and there are many theories
about what happened. One of the most popular
is that Earhart and Noonan landed on the coral
reef around Gardner Island, 650km (400 miles)
southeast of their intended destination, where
they ultimately died.
Navigational issues may have been to blame
for why Earhart and Noonan failed to reach
Howland Island. One explanation, known as
the Date Line Theory, suggests that Noonan

“LACK OF DEFINITIVE
EVIDENCE HAS SPURRED Looking east at midnight BST mid-October and 10pm GMT at the end of October

WILD SPECULATION”
didn’t account for crossing the International
HOW TO SEE: JUPITER’S GALILEAN MOONS
Date Line in his calculations. He was using WHEN: MID-LATE-OCTOBER INTO EARLY NOVEMBER 2024
celestial navigation, which is based on the
position of the Sun, stars and planets. Because Jupiter is currently prominent, a veritable rotates in just under 10 hours (no wonder
the Earth simultaneously rotates on its axis beacon among the stars of Taurus. It’s it appears to bulge at the equator). On the
and revolves around the Sun, the positioning very bright to the naked eye, more so nights of 26 October and 3 November,
of these celestial bodies, relative to the Earth, when the Moon appears close, as will be Jupiter’s largest moon, Ganymede, casts
changes slightly each day. So, it’s important to the case just before dawn on 21 October. its giant shadow on Jupiter. A small
know the exact date and time to navigate Binoculars make Jupiter look brighter, telescope will show this as a black dot, a
accurately with this method. Noonan was but don’t show any detail. Hold them view that barely conveys the immensity
aware of this effect, but the timing of the flight really still, however, and you may see of what it would be like up close.
made the calculations particularly complex. some or all of its four brightest moons: Ganymede is the Solar System’s largest
During their flight, they passed midnight local Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto – also moon. With a diameter of 5,268.2km
time and Noonan would have needed to adjust known as the Galilean Moons. These (3,273.5 miles), it’s larger than Mercury!
his calculations accordingly. They then flew appear as star-like dots dancing slowly With a small telescope, you should be
over the International Date Line, changing the from one side of the planet to the other. able to detect a couple of dark bands
date back again. If Noonan hadn’t noted this Gravity rules at Jupiter and the running parallel across Jupiter’s disc.
second date change, he would have navigated distances between the three innermost These are the North and South Equatorial
the plane off course, ending up 110km (70 moons are such that orbital resonance Belts (NEB and SEB). The famous Great
miles) east of Howland Island. occurs. Each moon exerts enough of a Red Spot sits in the southern edge of the
In January 2024, an ocean exploration team gravitational influence on its neighbour SEB, a huge persistent storm system,
from the US, Deep Sea Vision, found wreckage to roughly double its orbital period – Io’s which requires at least a 100mm
on the seabed that might be Earhart’s plane. being 1.76 days, Europa’s 3.53 and telescope to see. PL
They used an underwater drone to sonar scan Ganymede’s 7.16 (Callisto breaks form
more than 12,950km2 (5,000 square miles) of slightly at 16.69 days). by P E T E L AW R E N C E
the Pacific Ocean floor. The images revealed A small telescope will show Jupiter’s (@Avertedvision)
an object that resembles the shape of a disc. A vast gas giant with a diameter Pete is an astronomy expert and
Lockheed Electra, located roughly where the 11 times larger than Earth’s, the planet presenter on The Sky at Night.
Date Line Theory predicts. The team plans to
return to the site to investigate further. CA
WATCH THE SKY AT NIGHT ON BBC FOUR AND BBC IPLAYER

85
 Q&A

TANIA MAT THE WS, VIA EMAIL LUKE PARKER, SOUTHAMPTON

WHY DOES COULD TECHNOLOGY GIVE US

TIME MOVE SO MORE THAN FIVE SENSES?
SLOWLY WHEN We already have more than five senses.
Besides touch, taste, sight, sound and
into the retina of the eye. They stimulate
the remaining light-sensitive cells to
I’M AT THE GYM? smell, we have a sense of pain
(nociception), a sense of balance
restore some level of vision, with
degraded colour vision restored in some
(equilibrioception) and a sense of body cases. In the future, it might be possible
The answer to this one is a little more positioning (proprioception). But to have retinal implants that are sensitive
nuanced than simply wishing you hadn’t evolution moves at such a slow pace that to more than just the part of the
booked a spin class for 6:30am. Our it might be millions of years before we electromagnetic spectrum that’s visible
perception of time can be faster or slower develop a new sensory organ, assuming to humans. In theory, you might one day
than reality in different situations. When it’s there’s sufficient need for us to have it. be able to see into the infrared or
slower, the phenomenon is called time Technology could provide us with extra ultraviolet ranges, maybe even beyond.
dilation. It can sometimes happen in senses much faster than evolution, The same principle applies to cochlea
scenarios that are boring, anxious or mindful though, and how artificial enhancements implants, which have been developed to
– and exercise could be any of those things could be added to our bodies to achieve restore the hearing of people with
for different people. that is a popular trope of science fiction. auditory impairments.
They say a watched pot never boils. The But, similarly, we’re already using tech While such devices exist, they’re
same is true of a stopwatch if you’re plodding to augment our senses. Microscopes nowhere near that advanced yet, but one
away on a treadmill when you’d rather be allow us to see very small objects, while day they might be. Which leads us to the
somewhere else. The more aware you are of telescopes make very distant ones visible. key question: not whether this could
the passage of time, the more it can seem to Then there are X-rays, positron emission happen, but whether it should. Restoring
drag. A small, recent study even quantified tomography (PET) scans and other sight and hearing to those without them is
the effect. Researchers at Canterbury Christ medical imaging techniques that enable one thing, but implanting devices to
Church University in the UK asked people to us to see into our bodies. As the enhance perfectly functioning senses
ride trials on a stationary bike and measure capabilities of virtual- and augmented- could be problematic.
30-second intervals as best they could. reality headsets improve, it might be Already, some patients with retinal
Participants were nine-per-cent faster, possible to incorporate this sort of tech implants have found themselves using
suggesting that time had passed slower for into wearable devices, making it more like obsolete technology that’s no longer
them than it had in reality. an extension of ourselves. But could it supported. When the company that made
The researchers suggest that “physical ever become part of us? Potentially, and your eyes goes out of business, what do
activity creates a heightened associative again, precedents for this already exist. you do? Or when the tech fails, as it
state of impulse awareness and causes a Developed to improve vision for inevitably will in some cases, will the
perceived slowing of time.” In other words, visually impaired people, retinal implants work to repair, replace or remove it cause
your raised heart rate and other physical are little light-sensitive chips embedded damage? Be careful what you wish for. PB
changes in your body could contribute to the
feeling that time is moving slower than it
actually is. Similar phenomena have been
reported in dangerous situations, where a
person’s heightened state of anxiety makes
an ordeal feel like it’s occurring for longer.
Time perception is obviously important for
professional runners or cyclists. Knowing that
your perception of time could be
slower than reality may help
athletes pace themselves
better. The team behind the
study also think that further
research could help to design
exercise classes that are more
enjoyable… But maybe
don’t mention this
to your spin
instructor. IT
 Q&A

QUESTION OF
THE MONTH
SE AN ROBERTS , VIA EMAIL

WHAT HAPPENS
TO TIME AT THE
EVENT HORIZON
OF A BLACK HOLE?
In Einstein’s theory of gravity, mass
warps space-time, creating an effect
known as gravitational time dilation.
This means that an elapsed span of
time is measured differently for
observers in different gravitational
potentials. So, as you get closer to a
black hole, the flow of time slows
down, compared to the flow of time
far from the black hole.
According to an observer far from
the black hole, an object falling into a
black hole freezes in time at what is
known as the ‘event horizon’ (the edge
DAWN GREER, VIA EMAIL of a black hole, the point of no return).
Nothing ever appears to cross the
WHAT IS HECTOR THE CONVECTOR? event horizon. However, the observer
falling into the black hole doesn’t

AND WHY DOES HE ALWAYS ARRIVE experience time stopping at the event
horizon. They witness time passing

AT PRECISELY 3PM?
normally, but will see time speeding up
far from the black hole. The closer to
the event horizon they approach, the
faster time will appear to progress far
Meteorologists normally only name weather nowhere to go but up, carrying moisture from from the black hole.
systems that threaten significant impacts the seas with them. As the column of air rises, Gravitational time dilation can
over a large area – think hurricanes, or the it cools and condenses, forming water actually be measured. In 1976, NASA
massive winter ‘nor’easters’ that batter the droplets and clouds, and injecting instability launched an atomic clock into space
Atlantic US and Canada. Hector is an into the atmosphere that quickly builds into a to measure the rate at which time
exception: a simple thunderstorm, named not deep convective storm. Hence Hector’s passes at an altitude of 10,000km
for his power, but for his dependability. nickname: Hector the Convector. (6,214 miles), compared to that on
Hector forms over the Tiwi Islands, off the He was named by World War II pilots, who Earth’s surface. The measurement
coast of Darwin in Australia’s Northern used his hulking cumulonimbus thundercloud precisely matched that expected from
GEOFF WHALAN/FLICKR, GETTY IMAGES ILLUSTRATION: KYLE SMART

Territory, so reliably that you can set your as a navigation beacon when flying between Einstein’s theories. At sea level, time
watch by him. Nearly every afternoon during Darwin and Papua New Guinea. According to progresses by one-billionth of a second
the build-up and rainy seasons, September the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Hector less per year than at the summit of
through to March, Hector appears at 3pm. is one of the most consistently large Mount Everest. AG
His clockwork consistency is the result of a thunderstorms on the planet, regularly
local microclimate, created by sea breezes reaching over 19km (12 miles) high — and
and the Tiwis’ pyramid-like topography. The occasionally punching into the stratosphere. W IN NE R
The winne
r
islands are surrounded by tropical marine air. He’s also one of the most well-studied. Question of of next issue’s
th
In the morning sunshine, dry air over the land Thunderstorms tend to be unpredictable, pair of popu e Month wins a
lar sc
Your Face Be ience books:
warms faster than the humid air over the sea. short-lived beasts. It’s difficult to pinpoint longs to Us
and Inside
As the dry air heats up, it expands, creating just where they’ll pop up, but since the 1980s the
Stargazer’s
Palace
a pocket of low pressure above the islands scientists have been exploiting Hector’s worth over
£35!
that sucks the marine air onshore as extraordinary reliability to probe the
afternoon sea breezes. mechanics of storm formation and
These sea breezes rush in from all sides. investigate phenomena including lightning EMAIL YOUR QUESTIONS TO
When they converge at the peaks, they have and updrafts. CP
QUESTIONS@[Link]

87
 NEXT ISSUE

CROSSWORD TUNE IN
The scientists using sound to improve
PENCILS AT THE READY! your attention, relaxation and sleep
     

 

  

 

   

  

 

PLUS
ACROSS DOWN
1 Location around a royal 1 Called after parking
building (6) accident (5)
4 Bully with hesitation, then
cringe (5)
2
3
Little room for experiment (3)
Feline treatment for the ache
GHOST CATCHER
8 Risk not starting walk (5) (7) See inside China’s JUNO detector, the
9 Unruly trio wandered round 4 Hag gets right into shape (5) instrument intending to catch ghost particles
America (7) 5 Club to behold application for
10 Wonderful fireplace, by the crustacean (9)
sound of it (5) 6 Rise awkwardly, owing what’s
12 Require small light when
annoyed (7) 7
left (7)
Doorman rants about starting
WASH YOUR MOUTH
13 Understand how to succeed as a truck (11) OUT… WITH OIL?
photographer (3,3,7) 11 Divert Internet, worried about
15 Nobleman and former queen answer (9)
The science behind oil pulling, the latest
holding one in the past (7) 13 Calculated visitor, by the sound TikTok health trend
17 European nerd holds record, of it (7)
initially (5) 14 Pen old university student put

ON SALE 12 NOVEMBER
19 Reportedly notice team in jacket (7)
coast (7) 16 Colder and more risky, but not
20 Turn pets out, distressed (5) initially (5)
22 Party, and not for a 18 Drawing, removing first
contributor (5) boat (5)
23 Lack of newly-woven thread (6) 21 Teacher seen back in prison (3)
GETTY IMAGES

ANSWERS For the answers, visit [Link]/BBCFocusCW

Please be aware the website address is case-sensitive.

89
 BETTER
LIVING
THROUGH
SCIENCE

WHEN’S THE BEST TIME

FOR A CAFFEINE HIT?
Wakey-wakey! Find the sweet spot for
a coffee shot and science says the
benefits are grande

T
hey don’t call it go-juice for partly what causes us to feel alert exercise. If you want to get more
nothing. Caffeine is the world’s and full of energy after a cup of Joe. from a workout or run a faster 5K,
favourite performance-enhancing The flipside of caffeine’s go-faster Betts recommends a coffee 45–60
drug. And it is a drug, not a potency is that we can sometimes feel minutes before you start.
nutrient – the most widely taken its effects when they’re not useful to “It can take that long to peak in the
psychoactive stimulant known to us. A coffee late in the day can make system and in its effects,” he says. “We
humankind. In the UK, we knock back it harder to fall asleep. Or too much know that even in people who have
98 million cups of coffee every day. caffeine overall can make us feel jittery a lot of caffeine, the effects last for
Besides getting us moving in the or anxious if we don’t have an outlet an hour or two. In people who don’t
morning, it’s k nown to improve for the power-up it gives us. drink so much caffeine, the effects
athletic performance, from strength So when should you ta ke your last for four to six hours, so they can
to endurance, as well as cognitive caffeine hit to optimise its effects? have the coffee way before.”
skills like alertness, reading speed Science is beginning to understand the For cognitive tasks, the research
and problem-solving. nuances. Betts’s research looks at how is mixed. Everyone knows a well-
“There’s a massive list of supposed the timing of nutrient or substance timed coffee can boost a person’s
performance-enhancing substances,” consumption affects human health. concent ration for a n exa m or
says James Betts, professor of metabolic In 2020, he found that drinking a presentation. A paper from Johns
physiology at the University of Bath. strong coffee straight after a poor Hopkins University in Baltimore,
“You can count on one hand those night’s sleep can impair your blood in the US, also found that caffeine
that clearly work and I would have sugar control as the day continues. immediately after study can improve
caffeine at the top of that list because “When people have a poor night’s memory consolidation.
the effects are so potent, so consistent, sleep and then have caffeine right However, research has shown that
and because it’s absorbed by just about before their breakfast, this results too much caffeine can lead to poor
every tissue in the body.” in significantly higher glucose and academic performance if students
Those effects are driven by quite insulin response,” Betts says. “So use it so much that it affects their
by I A N
varied biology. Caffeine stimulates people lost metabolic control – they sleep quality, sleep duration or their
TAY L O R the nervous system and increases couldn’t tolerate sugar. In other words, daytime sleepiness.
Ian is a
freelance adrenalin to make us less tired. It it impairs your body’s ability to handle Ultimately, Betts believes caffeine
science promotes fat-burning for energy, the breakfast.” is a good thing, especially when you
writer and allowing the body to save its glycogen As well as bungy-jumping energy have it in the morning. And there’s a
the former stores, which is how caffeine improves levels, poor blood sugar control may convincing pile of evidence to suggest
deputy
editor of
endurance. It also jams receptors for increase your risk of conditions such it can protect against mass killers like
BBC Science a neurotransmitter called adenosine, as type 2 diabetes and heart disease. heart disease and dementia, as well
Focus. which encourages us to sleep. That’s “Waiting until t he hour af ter as other diseases.
ILLUSTRATION: SAM BREWSTER

brea kfast probably mea ns t hat “I think one of the biggest benefits

“EVERYONE KNOWS A WELL-TIMED COFFEE

you’ve completed your digestion of caffeine is the fact that it helps you
and absorption of the nutrients, and get up and go in the morning. And

CAN BOOST A PERSON’S CONCENTRATION

then it’s safer to have your coffee,” living an active, busy lifestyle is one
Betts says. of the healthiest things someone can

FOR AN EXAM OR PRESENTATION”

It’s also a good idea to time your do,” Betts says.
caffeine inta ke a round tasks or Double espresso to go?

90
 Despite its 10.95mm height, the Trident C60 Pro 300 ‘Lumiére’ leaps from your
wrist. (Just like it jumped off this page.) Its brightness results from proudly
protruding indices and the logo they encircle. Featuring facets finely machined
to tolerances of 0.03mm, these mini-monoliths are super-legible in daylight. But
it’s the Globolight®, the unique luminous ceramic from which they’re hewn, that
produces their astounding, super-brilliance at night. And inspired this timepiece’s
name. The light show doesn’t end there. Carved from titanium, the 41mm case
incorporates a second sapphire crystal displaying its super-accurate movement.
But it’s not the back of this beautiful tool watch you’re buying into. Is it?

Do your research

[Link]