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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

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( PRELIMS + MAINS )

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERNS ”
( ENGLISH MEDIUM )
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BY : SUDARSHAN GURJAR
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 WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM................................................................................................2
TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES ( GROUP - A )...............................................................................................5

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DRY CLIMATES ( GROUP - B )...................................................................................................................... 6
WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - C )........................................................................................... 7

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COLD TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - D ).............................................................................................8
POLAR CLIMATES ( GROUP - E )................................................................................................................. 9
HIGHLANDS ( H )......................................................................................................................................... 10
EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.................................................................................................................................... 11
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TROPICAL MONSOON AND TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATES....................................................................... 17
TROPICAL SAVANNA CLIMATE....................................................................................................................... 23
HOT DESERT AND MID - LATITUDE DESERT CLIMATES............................................................................. 28
WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN ( MEDITERRANEAN ) CLIMATE..................................................34
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TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL ( STEPPE ) CLIMATE........................................................................................39

WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN CLIMATE....................................................................................... 43
COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (BRITISH TYPE) CLIMATE........................................................... 49
COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL CLIMATE................................................................................................53
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COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN ( LAURENTIAN ) CLIMATE............................................................57

ARCTIC OR POLAR CLIMATE.......................................................................................................................... 61
PRELIMS POINTERS......................................................................................................................................... 64
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS.........................................................................................................................65
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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 1
 KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The Köppen Climate Classification is a globally recognized system for identifying and categorizing

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climates based on patterns of temperature , precipitation and vegetation. Introduced by German
climatologist Wladimir Köppen in the early 20th century , this system groups the world’s climates

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into broad types ( such as tropical , dry , mid - latitude temperate and polar ) , with subcategories that
consider seasonal variations in rainfall and temperature . By focusing on the environmental conditions
that influence vegetation and ecosystems , Köppen's classification offers a practical way to study

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climate patterns across regions .
The Koppen system describes five major climate groups in capital letters : A , B , C , D and E , where

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groups A , C , D , E delineate humid climates and B dry climates . The climatic groups are subdivided
into types , designated by small letters , based on seasonality of precipitation and temperature

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characteristics .
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PRIMARY CLIMATE GROUPS

Each of these letters represents a broad climate type based on temperature and precipitation :

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1. A - TROPICAL CLIMATES :
● Found near the equator , characterized by consistently high temperatures year-round .

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● Significant rainfall throughout the year , supporting dense vegetation like rainforests .
2. B - DRY CLIMATES :
● Defined by very low precipitation , resulting in arid or semi-arid conditions .

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● Evaporation exceeds rainfall , leading to desert and steppe regions .
3. C - WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES :

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● Mild temperatures with moderate seasonal changes , typically warmer than polar climates

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but cooler than tropical .
4. D - COLD TEMPERATE CLIMATES :
● Notable for extreme seasonal temperature variation , with warm summers and cold winters.
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5. E - POLAR CLIMATES :
● Very cold year-round , with the warmest month below 10°C .
● Limited vegetation , primarily found in tundra and ice-covered regions .
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PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
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These letters indicate the distribution of precipitation throughout the year :

1. NON - DRY CLIMATES ( A , C and D - CLIMATES ) :

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● f - Perennial rainfall : Rain falls throughout the year without a distinct dry season
● m - Monsoonal : Distinct dry season with a strong , prolonged rainy season due to
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monsoonal winds
● s - Summer Dry : Most rain falls in winter ; summers are dry
● w - Winter Dry : Most rain falls in summer ; winters are dry
2. DRY CLIMATES ( B - CLIMATES ) :
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● W - Desert : Extremely arid with minimal rainfall

● S - Steppe : Semi-arid , with slightly more precipitation than deserts

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TEMPERATURE PATTERNS

1. For C and D climates ( Warm Temperate and Cold Temperate Climates) , this letter further
refines climate based on seasonal temperature variations :

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● a - Hot summer
● b - Warm summer

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● c - Cool summer
● d - Extremely cold winter

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2. ​For E climates (Polar Climates) :
● T - Tundra : no true summer

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● F - Ice Cap : perennial ice

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TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES ( GROUP - A )

Tropical humid climates exist between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn . The sun being
overhead throughout the year and the presence of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ )

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make the climate hot and humid . Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is

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high . The vegetation is dense due to ample rainfall , mostly tropical rainforests .
The tropical group is divided into three types , namely :
1. Af (Tropical Wet Climate) : wet all year

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2. Am (Tropical Monsoon Climate) : dry winter , wet summer
3. Aw (Tropical Wet and Dry Climate) : dry winter

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TROPICAL WET CLIMATE ( Af )

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● Characteristics : Year-round high rainfall without a distinct dry season
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● Vegetation : Dense , multi-layered tropical rainforest
● Examples : Amazon Basin , Congo Basin and parts of Southeast Asia
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TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE ( Am )

● Characteristics : Strongly influenced by monsoon winds , leading to a short dry season and a
prolonged rainy season
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● Rainfall Pattern : Very high rainfall during the wet season , with slightly reduced rainfall during the
dry season
● Vegetation : Lush, green forests , but some deciduous trees may shed leaves in the dry season
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● Examples : Coastal India , parts of Southeast Asia

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TROPICAL WET AND DRY CLIMATE ( Aw )

● Characteristics : Has a distinct wet and dry season with a pronounced seasonal rainfall pattern .
It is also known as the Savanna Climate .
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● Rainfall Pattern : Wet season during summer with intense rainfall, often due to the ITCZ moving
north or south . Dry season during winter months, influenced by the subtropical high-pressure
systems that limit rainfall .
● Vegetation : Predominantly grasses with scattered trees , adapted to the dry season

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● Examples : Much of central Africa , parts of Brazil and northern Australia

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DRY CLIMATES ( GROUP - B )

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Dry climates are characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of plants.
These climates cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from 150 - 600

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north and south of the equator.
● At low latitudes , from 150 - 300 , they occur in the area of subtropical high where subsidence
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and inversion of temperature do not produce rainfall .
● On the western margin of the continents , adjoining the cold current , particularly over the west
coast of South America , they extend more equatorwards and occur on the coast .
● In the middle latitudes , from 350 - 600 north and south of the equator , they are confined to the
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interior of continents where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas often surrounded
by mountains .
The following are the types of dry climates :
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ARID OR DESERT CLIMATE ( BW )

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Extremely dry with sparse vegetation and minimal rainfall , typically under 250 mm annually . These
climates include :
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● BWh (Hot Desert Climate) : Found in areas like the Sahara and Arabian deserts , characterized
by intense daytime heat and drastic night cooling .

● BWk (Cold Desert Climate) : Present in regions like Central Asia and parts of North America ,
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with lower temperatures and occasional winter frost .

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SEMI-ARID OR STEPPE CLIMATE ( BS )

Receives slightly more rainfall than desert climates , around 250–500 mm annually , supporting short
grasses and shrubs . These include :

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● BSh (Hot Semi-Arid Climate) : Found in subtropical areas with warm temperatures year-round ,

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such as parts of the Sahel and southwestern United States .

● BSk (Cold Semi-Arid Climate) : Typical of higher latitudes or elevations , with cooler winters, as

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seen in Central Asia and parts of the Great Plains in the USA .

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WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - C )
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Warm temperate ( mid-latitude ) climates extend from 300 - 500 of latitude mainly on the eastern and
western margins of continents . These climates generally have warm summers with mild winters . The
three main subtypes are Mediterranean (Cs), Humid Subtropical (Cfa) and Marine West Coast
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(Cfb) each distinguished by its seasonal temperature and rainfall patterns .

HUMID SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE ( Cfa )

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● Characteristics : Lies on the eastern parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes and known for
hot , humid summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall year-round .
● Rainfall Pattern : Annual rainfall between 75 –150 cm , with summer peak due to convectional
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and monsoonal rains . Winter sees moderate rainfall from frontal storms .
● Vegetation : Supports broadleaf evergreen forests and mixed forests .
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● Examples : Southeastern USA , parts of Brazil , Southeast China , parts of Japan and Eastern
Australia .

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE ( Cs )
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● Characteristics : Occurs around Mediterranean sea , along the west coast of continents in
subtropical latitudes between 300 - 400 latitudes . The climate is characterised by hot, dry

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 summers and mild, wet winters since they are affected by the subtropical high-pressure
systems during summer and westerlies in winter .
● Rainfall Pattern : Receives between 35 – 90 cm of rainfall, mostly during the winter months .
Rainfall is primarily from cyclonic or frontal storms during the winter .

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● Vegetation : Drought-resistant vegetation, like olive , oak and evergreen shrubs .
● Examples : Mediterranean Basin (Italy, Spain, Greece) , Central California (USA) , parts of

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Central Chile and South-western Australia .

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MARINE WEST COAST CLIMATE ( Cfb )

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● Characteristics : Located poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the
continents . The region experiences mild, damp climate with cool summers and mild winters ,

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dominated by the westerlies and oceanic influence that bring consistent moisture .
● Rainfall Pattern : Precipitation occurs throughout the year and varies greatly from 50 - 250 cm .
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● Vegetation : Dense temperate rainforests with evergreen trees . Common vegetation includes
fir, cedar, and spruce, which thrive in the moist conditions .
● Examples : Northwestern Europe (UK, France) , Pacific Northwest of the USA (Washington,
Oregon) , parts of New Zealand and Chile .
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COLD TEMPERATE CLIMATES ( GROUP - D )

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Cold Temperate Climates include regions with strong seasonal contrasts in temperature, generally
found between 40° and 70° north latitudes in Europe , Asia and North America , with significant
differences between summer and winter . These climates are often characterized by cold winters and
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mild to warm summers . The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes .
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They can be further categorised based on the seasonal precipitation patterns as :

COLD CLIMATE WITH HUMID WINTERS ( Df )

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● Year-round Precipitation : Consistent precipitation with no distinct dry season .

● Long , Cold Winters : Temperatures can drop significantly , with prolonged snow cover .

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 ● Mild to Warm Summers : Summers are short but can be mild to moderately warm .
● Vegetation : Dominated by coniferous forests , with some mixed forests in southern areas .
● Locations : Found in northeastern North America , northern Europe and parts of Russia .

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COLD CLIMATE WITH DRY WINTERS ( Dw )

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● Distinct Dry Winter : Most precipitation falls in the summer months , with very little in winter .
● Severe Winter Cold : Intense cold during winter , often below freezing for extended periods .

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● Vegetation : Dominated by boreal or taiga forests in high latitudes .

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● Locations : Typical in northeastern Asia , including Siberia and parts of China .

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POLAR CLIMATES ( GROUP - E )
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Polar Climates exist poleward beyond 700 latitude . They represent some of the most extreme
conditions on Earth, where temperatures rarely exceed 10°C even in the warmest months . These
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climates are characterized by severe cold , minimal precipitation and unique ecosystems adapted
to harsh conditions . The adaptation to polar climates :

➢ Ecosystems : Polar climates support minimal biodiversity ; animals and plants are highly
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specialized to survive low temperatures and limited resources .

➢ Human Habitation : Sparse human populations due to harsh conditions , with some scientific
stations and indigenous communities in the tundra regions .
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They can study under categorisation as :

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TUNDRA CLIMATE ( ET )

This is the region of permafrost where the subsoil is permanently frozen . The short growing season
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and water logging support only low growing plants .

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 ● Temperature Range : Summer temperatures can briefly rise above freezing , allowing limited
thawing of the ground .
● Vegetation : Features mosses, lichens and low-growing shrubs adapted to permafrost and short
growing seasons .

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● Location : Commonly found along the edges of the Arctic Ocean, in northern Canada,
Greenland and parts of Antarctica .

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ICE CAP CLIMATE ( EF )

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● Perennial Ice and Snow : Temperatures are consistently below freezing year-round, supporting
massive ice sheets .

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● Lack of Vegetation : No plant life due to constant ice cover .
● Location : Found in central Antarctica and Greenland .
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HIGHLANDS ( H )
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The highland climates (Group H) in Köppen's classification represent areas with complex climate
patterns influenced by elevation , typically found in mountainous regions. These areas are unique
because elevation affects temperature, pressure and precipitation , leading to a variety of climatic
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conditions within relatively small geographic areas .

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 EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

The Equatorial climate, found primarily along the equator in regions like the Amazon Basin, Congo

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Basin and parts of Southeast Asia, is characterized by consistently warm temperatures and high
humidity throughout the year. This climate experiences minimal seasonal variation and abundant

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rainfall, supporting dense tropical rainforests. Known for its double rainfall peak , the equatorial
climate is highly conducive to rich biodiversity but also presents unique challenges for human
settlement and agricultural activities .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● Equatorial climates are found within about 5-10 degrees North and South of the equator ,

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covering regions like the Amazon Basin in South America , the Congo Basin in Africa and the
islands of Southeast Asia .
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● Moving away from the equator, the influence of onshore trade winds leads to a variation of the
equatorial climate, characterized by monsoonal effects .
● Within the tropics, equatorial highlands experience a distinctly cooler climate due to the modifying
effect of altitude, as seen in regions like the Cameroon Highlands in Malaysia , the Northern
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Andes and the Kenyan Highlands in East Africa .

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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● Equatorial regions have minimal seasonal variation in temperature i.e. uniformity of

temperature throughout the year .
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● The average monthly temperatures are typically around 26° - 280C , with very narrow daily and
annual temperature ranges ( i.e. small diurnal range and annual range ) .
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PRECIPITATION PATTERN

● The rainfall is both high and consistent throughout the year , ranging between 200 - 400 cm
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annually .

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● Due to the great heat in the equatorial belt , the higher rate of evaporation set the region to
experience convectional rainfall , often leading to daily thunderstorms .
● In addition to convectional rainfall , mountainous regions receive significant orographic or relief
rainfall. Furthermore, occasional showers also occur due to cyclonic atmospheric disturbances

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caused by the convergence of air currents within the Doldrums .
● There is little to no dry season due to the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) remaining close

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to the equator .
● Double Rainfall Peak : Equatorial climates experience two distinct periods of heavy rainfall

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annually ( April and October ) , which occurs shortly after the equinoxes . This occurs due to the
movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) , which moves north and south of the

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equator twice each year .

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EQUATORIAL VEGETATION

Equatorial vegetation is characterized by dense , diverse and evergreen rainforests. These forests
thrive due to consistently high temperatures , abundant rainfall and high humidity levels throughout

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the year. This climate supports a complex ecosystem with towering trees , a multi-layered canopy

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and an astounding variety of plant and animal species. Equatorial forests are sometimes referred to
as "lungs of the Earth" because of their significant role in global oxygen production and carbon
absorption .

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● EVERGREEN FORESTS :

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○ Trees retain their leaves year-round due to the absence of a distinct dry season . The
equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood.

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● MULTI - LAYERED CANOPY :
○ Vegetation grows in layers with towering emergent trees , a dense upper canopy , an
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understory of smaller trees , shrubs and forest floor vegetation .
● TALL TREES :
○ Many trees reach heights of 30-50 meters , competing for sunlight in the dense forest
environment .
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● HIGH DENSITY OF EPIPHYTES :

○ Plants such as ferns , orchids and mosses grow on the branches of large trees , utilizing
them for support to access sunlight .
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● LIANA AND CLIMBING PLANTS :

○ Vines and climbers (lianas) grow extensively , using tall trees for support to reach sunlight in
the canopy .
● BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT :
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○ Equatorial forests support the richest biodiversity on the planet , including various endemic
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plant and animal species .

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND ADAPTATION

● Cultural Adaptation : Housing styles often use natural ventilation and elevated structures to cope
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with high humidity and reduce insect exposure. Though the region is sparsely populated,
indigenous groups adapt using traditional methods of rain and water management .

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● Diverse and Self-sufficient Communities : Many indigenous communities depend on the
rainforest for sustenance through activities like hunting , fishing , gathering and shifting cultivation
(also known as slash-and-burn agriculture) .
● Agricultural Practices : Due to the consistent warmth and rainfall , agriculture thrives

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year-round . Crops like cocoa , bananas , rubber and oil palm are commonly cultivated .
● Natural Resource Utilization :

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○ Abundant forests provide timber, medicinal plants and other resources, leading to
significant forestry industries .

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○ In the Amazon basin , tribes collect wild rubber . In the Congo basin the Pygmies gather
nuts and in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products .

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○ Sustainable management practices are increasingly prioritized due to deforestation
concerns .

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● Transportation and Accessibility : Navigable rivers are a primary mode of transport due to the
dense forest coverage and limited road networks .
● Tourism and Conservation : Many regions engage in ecotourism focused on rainforests and
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biodiversity. Conservation efforts are growing to protect these habitats , especially in response to
the impacts of industrial development .
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CHALLENGES TO EQUATORIAL REGION DEVELOPMENT

1. LUMBERING CHALLENGES :
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● In equatorial climates , logging operations face difficulties due to the dense vegetation and
challenging terrain .
● The high humidity and rainfall can lead to rapid decay of timber if not processed quickly ,
reducing the economic viability of logging activities .
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● Sustainability concerns also arise , as deforestation for timber can exacerbate soil
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deterioration and impact local ecosystems .

2. LIVESTOCK FARMING CHALLENGES :

● The abundance of moisture promotes pests and parasites , which can further threaten
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livestock health and productivity .

● Grazing lands may also suffer from poor soil quality and nutrient depletion , making it
challenging to sustain healthy pastures for livestock .

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3. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION RISKS :
● Logging, mining and agriculture , while economically beneficial , can lead to deforestation
and biodiversity loss , with long-term environmental consequences that complicate

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sustainable development .

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4. DENSE VEGETATION AND ACCESSIBILITY :
● Dense rainforests make transportation and accessibility difficult , hindering infrastructure

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development and increasing the cost of logistics .

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5. TROPICAL DISEASES :
● The warm, moist climate supports the proliferation of diseases like malaria and dengue,

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posing health risks to local populations and affecting workforce productivity .

6. ECONOMIC DEPENDENCY ON PRIMARY SECTORS :

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● Many equatorial regions rely heavily on agriculture and raw material exports , which can be
vulnerable to global price fluctuations , limiting economic stability and diversification .
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DETERIORATION OF TROPICAL SOIL

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1. HIGH TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL :

● Equatorial regions experience consistently high temperatures and heavy rainfall , leading to
accelerated chemical weathering of rocks and minerals .
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2. NUTRIENT LEACHING :
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● High rainfall leads to nutrient leaching, where essential elements like nitrogen , potassium
and calcium are washed out of the soil .
● This makes the upper soil layer nutrient-poor , particularly impacting agriculture .

3. LATERIZATION PROCESS :
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● Leaching often results in laterite soils - rich in iron and aluminum oxides , which are left
behind as nutrients wash away .

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 ● These soils are hard , less fertile and unsuitable for long-term agriculture without soil
management techniques .

4. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE :

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● Farmers often rely on shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture to temporarily
enrich soils , but this can degrade soil quality over time .

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● Continuous cultivation on the same land without rest or soil-enhancing practices leads to
soil exhaustion and further nutrient depletion .

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 TROPICAL MONSOON AND TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATES

The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates are both shaped by significant seasonal wind

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patterns and oceanic influences, largely present in regions near the equator . In tropical monsoon
areas, large-scale seasonal winds bring moist , onshore monsoons in the summer , causing intense

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rains, while drier , offshore winds dominate in the winter . Outside these monsoon zones, the Tropical
Marine Climate prevails, marked by the influence of steady onshore trade winds throughout the year .
This results in a more consistent , evenly spread rainfall pattern across the seasons .

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TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE

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The climate is characterized by a strong seasonal influence of monsoon winds , with warm, wet
onshore winds in summer and dry, offshore winds in winter . Mountain ranges perpendicular to
prevailing winds can enhance rainfall by forcing moisture-laden air to rise (orographic effect) , which
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is seen along the Western Ghats in India . The proximity to large water bodies and landmasses
amplifies seasonal wind shifts, which leads to distinct wet and dry seasons .
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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

● Found primarily in regions with strong seasonal wind shifts .

● Commonly located in South Asia (e.g. India, Bangladesh and Myanmar) , Southeast Asia (e.g.

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Thailand, Vietnam) , Northern Australia and parts of Central and South America .
● Typically situated near the equator but specifically in areas influenced by the seasonal monsoon

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winds , which bring a distinct wet and dry season .

PRECIPITATION AND SEASONAL WIND PATTERNS

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● High Annual Rainfall : The annual precipitation usually exceeds 200 cm , with most rainfall
concentrated in a single wet season . Heavy rainfall occurs in the summer months (May -

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September in the Northern Hemisphere) due to onshore monsoon winds , while winter is relatively
dry .
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● In summer, moist onshore winds from the sea bring frequent and heavy rainfall, often
accompanied by thunderstorms. In contrast , during winter , the winds reverse direction and blow
offshore , leading to a dry season with significantly reduced rainfall, often less than 100 mm per
month , lasting only a few months .
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● Total Annual Precipitation : Typically ranges from 200 cm to 400 cm , though some areas
receive more , particularly where orographic lifting occurs (e.g. windward mountain slopes) .
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TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS

● During the hot summer months, temperatures typically range from 30-35°C and peak just before
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the onset of the rainy season. The arrival of the monsoon brings intense rainfall and cloud cover,
which slightly cools daytime temperatures .
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TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATE

Tropical Marine Climate is a type of tropical climate influenced by oceanic conditions and prevailing
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trade winds, typically found in coastal regions near the equator . This type of climate is experienced
along the eastern coasts of tropical lands , receiving steady rainfall from the trade winds all the time .

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 ● This climate is commonly found on the eastern sides of continents near the equator , especially
in the Caribbean, parts of Central America, the eastern coast of Madagascar, the eastern shores
of Australia and the Pacific islands .
● Evenly Distributed Rainfall : Unlike tropical monsoon climates, rainfall in tropical marine

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climates is more evenly spread throughout the year, though there may be slightly wetter and
drier months . The climate is humid year-round due to continuous moisture from the ocean .

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● Trade Winds Influence : Trade winds (easterlies) blow constantly from the east , bringing moist
air from the ocean to the land , supporting regular rainfall and cloud cover .

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● Minimal Temperature Range : Daily and seasonal temperature variations are minimal due to
the moderating effect of the ocean .

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● Occasional Cyclones : Some tropical marine regions are susceptible to cyclones , which can
bring intense rainfall and winds during certain parts of the year .

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VEGETATION
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● Tropical Deciduous Forests : The predominant vegetation in monsoon regions consists of
deciduous forests , where trees shed their leaves during the dry season to conserve water.
Common species include teak , sal and mahogany .
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● Evergreen Forests in Coastal Areas : In regions with heavy rainfall and marine influences,
tropical evergreen forests thrive, with dense canopies and species like ebony, rosewood, and
rubber .
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● Grasslands and Scrubs : In areas with lower rainfall or prolonged dry periods, grasslands and
thorny scrubs dominate. These are adapted to withstand seasonal dryness .
● Mangroves : Coastal areas and river deltas , particularly in marine climates , support mangrove
vegetation, such as in the Sundarbans or along tropical coastlines .
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● Mixed Vegetation : Transitional zones between monsoon forests and drier regions often have
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mixed vegetation , combining grasslands , shrubs and scattered trees .

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND ADAPTATION

1. AGRICULTURE AND CROP CYCLES :

● Seasonal Crop Patterns : Crops are timed around the monsoon season . Rice , a staple, is

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heavily cultivated due to its need for abundant water . Other crops like sugarcane , jute and
tea are also grown .

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● Multiple Cropping : The fertile soils and high rainfall during the monsoon season enable
multiple cropping , particularly in South and Southeast Asia .

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● Lowland cash crops : A wide range of lowland tropical cash crops are cultivated for the
export market . The most important crop in this category is cane sugar . As much as

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two-thirds of the world's sugar production comes from tropical countries .
● Highland plantation crops : The colonization of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a

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new form of cultivated landscape in the cooler monsoonal highlands . This is the cultivation of
certain tree crops in tropical plantations , of which the most important crops are tea and
coffee .
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● Irrigation Dependency : During the dry season , irrigation systems , such as canals and
reservoirs , are essential for continued crop production .
● Shifting Cultivation : The most primitive form of farming is widely practised . It is so widely
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practised amongst indigenous peoples that different local names are used in different
countries . For example :
○ Ladang ( Malaysia )
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○ Taungya ( Burma )
○ Tamrai ( Thailand )
○ Caingin ( Philippines )
○ Humah ( Java )
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○ Chena ( Sri Lanka )

○ Milpa ( Central America )
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2. WATER MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION :

● Water Harvesting : Rainwater harvesting systems are common , especially to store water for
the dry season .
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● Reservoirs and Dams : Constructed to store excess water during the rainy season for use in
agriculture , drinking and other purposes during the dry period .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 20
3. HOUSING AND ARCHITECTURE :
● Stilt Houses : In flood-prone areas , homes are built on stilts to prevent water damage
during heavy rains .

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● Steep Roofs and Elevated Structures : Houses often have steeply sloped roofs to prevent
water pooling and structures elevated on platforms to manage flooding risks .

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4. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES :

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● Seasonal Labor Migration : In some regions , people migrate seasonally for agricultural
work or construction to align with the agricultural calendar .

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● Fishing and Aquaculture : Coastal areas , such as in Bangladesh and Thailand , rely on
fishing and aquaculture. The monsoon season boosts freshwater sources , helping fisheries

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thrive .

CHALLENGES TO MONSOON LANDS

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1. FLOODING AND WATERLOGGING :
● Monsoon Flooding : Intense rainfall during the monsoon season often causes rivers to
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overflow , leading to widespread flooding in low-lying areas .

● Crop Damage and Soil Erosion : Excessive rains can waterlog fields , destroy crops and
cause soil erosion , impacting agricultural productivity .
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2. DROUGHT IN DRY SEASON :

● Water Scarcity : The long dry season can lead to water scarcity , affecting both agriculture
and drinking water supply .
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● Dependence on Irrigation : During dry periods , agriculture relies heavily on irrigation

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systems , which can strain water resources and lead to conflicts over water allocation .

3. CYCLONE AND STORM SURGES :

● Vulnerability to Cyclones : Coastal regions in monsoon areas are particularly vulnerable to
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cyclones , which bring destructive winds , heavy rainfall and storm surges .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 21
4. IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND LIVELIHOOD :
● Unpredictable Rainfall Patterns : Climate variability and the unpredictability of the monsoon
can delay planting , impact crop yields and affect farmers' livelihoods .
● Pest and Disease Outbreaks : The warm, humid climate during the monsoon fosters

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conditions for crop pests and diseases , impacting productivity .

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5. ECONOMIC AND INFRASTRUCTURE STRAIN :
● Economic Losses : Recurrent natural disasters , including floods and cyclones , incur

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substantial economic losses , particularly in agricultural sectors and low-income
communities.

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● Damage to Infrastructure : Roads , bridges and buildings often suffer damage during the
monsoon , leading to high repair costs and disruption of transportation and trade .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 22
 TROPICAL SAVANNA CLIMATE

The Savanna Climate , also known as the Sudan Climate , is characterized by distinct wet and dry

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seasons due to its unique position between the equatorial rainforests and desert regions. It is found
primarily in Africa (Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya) , South America and parts of India and Australia . This

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climate is marked by a long dry season in winter and a short , intense rainy season in summer.
The seasonal rains are due to the migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) , which
brings a monsoon-like summer with heavy rains and thunderstorms , nourishing a landscape

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dominated by grasslands , scattered trees and shrubs .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● The Savanna climate is primarily located between 5° and 20° latitude , north and south of the
equator .
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● It is commonly found in regions like parts of Africa (especially central and eastern Africa), northern
Australia and parts of Brazil .
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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 23
TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS

● High Annual Temperature : Generally warm to hot throughout the year , with monthly
temperatures typically ranging between 20°C and 30°C .

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● Distinct Hot Season : The period just before the rainy season is often the hottest ( and it does

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not coincide with the period of the highest sun ) , as there’s a buildup of heat before the onset of
monsoon rains .
● Day-Night Temperature Variation : The daily temperature range is more pronounced than in

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equatorial climates , with warm days and cooler nights , especially during the dry season .
● Seasonal Variation : Minimal temperature fluctuations compared to temperate regions , but a

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slight drop in temperature may occur during the dry season due to clear skies .

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PRECIPITATION PATTERN
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● Distinct Wet and Dry Seasons : Characterized by a marked wet season followed by a
pronounced dry season .
● Rainfall Concentration : The rainy season is influenced by the movement of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and lasts about 3-4 months, during which most of the year’s
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precipitation occurs .
● Annual Rainfall : Typically ranges from 75 cm to 130 cm , but this can vary depending on the
specific location .
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● Dry Season : The remainder of the year is dry , with little to no rainfall , which leads to
drought-like conditions and impacts local vegetation and water availability .
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VEGETATION IN SAVANNA
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● Grasslands : The dominant vegetation is tall, coarse grasses that can grow up to 2-3 meters
during the wet season, but they become dry and brown in the dry season .
● Transition Zones : In areas closer to the equatorial rainforest , vegetation is denser , with more
trees and shrubs , while regions nearer to deserts have sparse vegetation .
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● Scattered Trees : Trees are sparse and widely spaced , with species such as acacia, baobab,
and palm, which are well-adapted to withstand dry periods and fire .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 24
● Drought-Resistant Plants : Vegetation includes drought-tolerant plants with deep roots or
water-storing capabilities , enabling survival through prolonged dry seasons .

LIVELIHOOD IN THE SAVANNA REGION

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The human life in savanna regions are deeply influenced by the seasonal rhythms of the tropical

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savanna climate . Communities have developed sustainable practices that allow them to thrive
despite the challenges of alternating wet and dry seasons .

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1. TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOOD :

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● Pastoralism : Nomadic and semi-nomadic herding is common , with communities like the
Masai in East Africa raising cattle , goats and sheep .

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● Subsistence Farming : During the wet season , communities practice subsistence
agriculture , growing crops like millet , sorghum and maize that are resilient to drought .
● Shifting Cultivation : In areas with less fertile soil , tribes may use shifting cultivation,
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clearing new land after the soil is exhausted .

2. PASTORALISM AND LIVESTOCK REARING :

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● Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Herding : Many communities, especially in Africa (e.g. the
Maasai, Samburu and Fulani), practice pastoralism. They herd cattle , goats , camels and
sheep, often moving between locations depending on the season to find adequate grazing
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land and water for their animals .

○ The Masai are the nomadic tribe who once wandered with their herds of cattle in the
central highlands of East Africa - in Kenya , Tanzania and Uganda .
○ Today , their numbers have been greatly reduced ( due to tribal clashes , epidemics and
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natural deaths ) and are now mainly confined to the 15,000 square miles of Masai
reserves in Kenya and Tanzania .
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● Animal Dependency : Livestock is central to their way of life , providing milk , meat and
hides . Animals are often a measure of wealth and are integral to social and cultural identity.
● Transhumance : In certain regions , pastoralists follow a seasonal migration pattern called
transhumance , moving to highland or riverine areas during dry seasons and returning to the
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plains in the wet season .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 25
3. SUBSISTENCE FARMING AND CROP CULTIVATION :
● Seasonal Crop Planting : During the wet season , farmers plant crops like millet , sorghum ,
maize and groundnuts that can survive both wet conditions and subsequent dry periods .
These are staple grains suited to arid soils .

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● Intercropping : To maximize limited water and nutrient resources , farmers often plant
multiple crops together , increasing resilience to pests and reducing soil depletion .

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● Use of Local Knowledge : Farmers rely on indigenous knowledge to predict rainfall and
adjust planting dates . This traditional knowledge has been passed down through

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generations , helping them adapt to seasonal variations .

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4. AGROFORESTRY AND BUSH-FALLOWING PRACTICES :
● Planting Trees with Crops : Farmers in some savannas plant drought-resistant trees, such

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as acacia or baobab , alongside crops to provide shade , improve soil nutrients and offer
additional food sources .
● Use of Natural Fertilizers : Communities often rely on organic waste from animals to fertilize
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their crops , increasing soil fertility sustainably and avoiding chemical inputs .

5. ADAPTATIONS TO SEASONAL CHANGE :

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● Rainy Season Activities : The rainy season supports agriculture , with communities planting
crops and setting up temporary shelters near rivers and water sources .
● Dry Season Movements : Many pastoralists migrate in search of water and grazing land ,
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adapting to the shortage of resources . Some communities build homes with mud and thatch
to withstand harsh dry-season conditions .
● Water Storage and Conservation : Communities in savanna regions often rely on wells,
cisterns and seasonal riverbeds , adopting water-conserving practices to manage resources
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during the dry season .

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CHALLENGES FACED IN THE SAVANNA REGION

In the years to come , world population pressure and the need for greater food production will
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necessitate greater economic development of the savanna .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 26
● WATER SCARCITY : The prolonged dry season brings water shortages , impacting crop
production , livestock and human consumption . Unless counter-measures can be taken in the
form of adequate provision for irrigation , scientific farming techniques suitable for the tropical
grasslands , crop failures can be disastrous for the people .

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● SOIL FERTILITY : The soils in savannas , often nutrient-poor and heavily leached by rainfall ,

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limit the types of crops that can be grown. Repeated cultivation can further deplete the soil ,
reducing agricultural productivity .

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○ During the dry season , intense heating and evaporation dry up most of the water . Many
savanna areas therefore have poor laterite soils which are incapable of supporting good

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crops .
○ Unless the soil is properly conserved through regular manuring , weeding and careful

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maintenance , crop yields are bound to decline .

● CLIMATE VARIABILITY : Increasing unpredictability in rainfall patterns due to climate change has
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introduced new challenges . Communities may face prolonged droughts or shorter rainy seasons,
impacting both agriculture and livestock .
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● HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS : The savanna regions are rich in wildlife and the expansion of
human activities can sometimes lead to conflicts over water and grazing areas , especially near
national parks .
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● HEALTH ISSUES : Diseases like malaria, often linked to seasonal rains, are prevalent .
Additionally, food scarcity in the dry season can lead to malnutrition in some communities .
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● SHIFTING ECONOMIES : Global economic pressures have influenced some traditional savanna
communities to adopt cash crops or engage in tourism-related occupations , leading to changes in
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their traditional ways of life .

● URBANIZATION AND LAND-USE CHANGES : Expanding urban areas and commercial

agriculture often encroach on savanna lands , limiting pastoral lands and leading some groups to
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settle in one place rather than continue traditional migrations .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 27
 HOT DESERT AND MID - LATITUDE DESERT CLIMATES

The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climate represent regions characterized by extreme
aridity and unique adaptations to low precipitation and intense sunlight . Typically found in subtropical

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regions between 15° and 30° latitude, especially along the western coasts of continents, these

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climates are heavily influenced by high-pressure systems that prevent significant cloud formation and
rainfall. The clear skies and low humidity allow for intense heating during the day , causing very high
temperatures , while at night , temperatures can drop drastically due to rapid radiation loss .

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➢ The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Subtropical high pressure belts where the

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air is descending , a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take place .
➢ The rain - bearing trade winds blow off - shore and the Westerlies that are on - shore blow

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outside the desert limits .
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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

● HOT DESERTS : Found primarily in subtropical regions such as the Sahara in North Africa ,
Arabian Desert in the Middle East and the Australian Desert .
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● MID - LATITUDE DESERTS : Occur in regions like the Gobi Desert in Central Asia and the Great
Basin Desert in North America , where the inland location and rain-shadow effect contribute to
aridity .
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● COASTAL DESERTS : Examples include the Atacama in South America and the Namib in Africa,
where cold ocean currents contribute to the dry conditions .

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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HOT DESERT :
● High Daytime Temperatures : Can reach between 40°C and 50°C in peak summer months
due to intense solar radiation and clear skies .
● Diurnal Temperature Range: Day-to-night temperature variation is high , often ranging
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between 20°C to 30°C , as the lack of moisture causes rapid cooling at night .
● Mild Winters : Winters are comparatively mild , with temperatures between 10°C and 20°C , but
occasional frost can occur in some desert regions .

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MID - LATITUDE DESERT :
● Seasonal Temperature Variation : Experience colder winters and warmer summers than hot
deserts . Temperatures may range from 25°C to 35°C in summer and dip to around -10°C to 0°C
in winter .

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● Lower Maximum Temperatures than Hot Deserts : Due to their higher latitudinal position ,
they receive less intense solar radiation than hot deserts , resulting in lower maximum

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temperatures .
● The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot deserts .

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● Continentality accounts for these extremes in temperature . Winters are often severe , freezing
lakes and rivers and strong cold winds blow all the time . In the early summer , thawing of ice

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accounts for flooding in many places .

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PRECIPITATION PATTERN

● Extremely Low Annual Precipitation : Both Hot and Mid - latitude deserts receive very little
rain , usually less than 250 mm (10 inches) per year , with some deserts receiving almost no

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precipitation at all .
● Unpredictable and Scanty Rainfall : Rainfall is highly irregular and unpredictable , often

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occurring as brief , intense thunderstorms that lead to rapid surface runoff instead of significant
groundwater replenishment .

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● Seasonal Variation : Many hot deserts experience slightly more rain during certain times of the
year , often in the summer , due to convectional rainfall or the occasional influence of nearby

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monsoon systems .

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DESERT VEGETATION

● Sparse and Specialized Growth : Vegetation is sparse due to extreme aridity . Only
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drought-resistant plants can survive, and they are generally spread out to minimize competition
for scarce water resources .
● Xerophytic Adaptations : Many desert plants are xerophytes , which have adaptations like
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waxy or leathery leaves , reduced leaf area , and deep root systems to minimize water loss and
maximize water absorption .
● Succulents and Cacti : Plants like cacti store water in their fleshy stems and leaves .
Succulents often have thick skins to reduce water loss and spines instead of leaves , which also
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help in reducing transpiration .

● Taproots and Deep Roots : Many plants have deep root systems to access groundwater far
below the surface , making them resilient in arid conditions .
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● Salt Tolerance : In some deserts , plants like saltbushes can grow in salty soils , which are
common in arid regions due to high evaporation rates leaving behind salt deposits .
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● Examples of Desert Vegetation : Common desert plants include cacti ( BULBOUS CACTI ),
scattered dwarf acacias , mesquite , long rooted wiry grasses , sagebrush and creosote bush .

LIFE IN THE DESERTS

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Deserts are among the harshest environments on Earth, yet human and animal life has adapted to
survive in these extreme conditions .

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1. HUMAN ADAPTATIONS AND COMMUNITIES :
● Nomadic Lifestyle : Many desert inhabitants , such as the Bedouins in the Arabian Desert
and Tuareg in the Sahara, are traditionally nomadic , moving with their livestock to find water
and pasture. This lifestyle minimizes dependence on local resources and allows them to

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respond to the sparse and unpredictable rainfall .
● Settled Communities : In areas where water is available , often near oases or riverbeds,

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people settle and develop agriculture, using irrigation to grow crops. In North Africa,
settlements around oases support date farming and small-scale agriculture .

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● Mining Settlers : The lure of mineral wealth has attracted many immigrants into the desert .
Mining camps and isolated settlements have sprung up following the discovery of certain

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mineral deposits . For example : Gold brought immigrants scrambling into the Great Australian
Desert . In the Kalahari Desert , the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought many to

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the ‘ Thirstland ’ as it is called .
● Housing Adaptations : To combat the intense heat , desert dwellings are often constructed
with thick walls, small windows and roofs designed to retain cooler temperatures . Some are
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even partially underground or built with local materials like adobe , which helps to insulate
against the heat .
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2. WATER CONSERVATION AND SOURCES :

● Water Conservation : Deserts have scarce water sources, so communities practice
conservation through careful water management, cisterns and underground canals like the
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qanat system in Iran .

● Oases and Wells : In some deserts, oases provide a crucial water source for drinking,
irrigation and supporting biodiversity. Wells are also dug, reaching groundwater, but
over-extraction can lead to depletion .
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3. AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMY :

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● Irrigated Farming : In regions with water access , crops such as dates , millet , barley and
wheat are cultivated. In some places , innovative irrigation systems like drip irrigation are used
to maximize water efficiency .
● Livestock Rearing : Desert communities rely on animals such as camels , goats and sheep,
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which are well adapted to the arid environment. Camels, for instance , can go days without
water and serve as transportation .

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 ● Trade and Commerce : Historically , deserts were part of important trade routes , like the Silk
Road and Trans-Saharan trade routes . Even today, desert cities are hubs for trade,
particularly where mineral resources like oil , copper and salt are extracted .

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4. WILDLIFE ADAPTATIONS :
● Unique Species : Desert wildlife includes a wide range of specially adapted species like

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camels , foxes , rattlesnakes and scorpions . Many animals are nocturnal , avoiding the
daytime heat .

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CHALLENGES IN THE DESERT LIFE

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1. SCARCITY OF WATER :

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● Water is the most critical resource in deserts and its scarcity limits drinking water , sanitation,
agriculture and livestock . Deserts receive less than 250 mm of rainfall annually , leading to
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heavy dependence on groundwater , oases or seasonal rain .

2. TEMPERATURE EXTREMES :
● Deserts experience high temperatures during the day , often exceeding 40°C and can drop to
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near-freezing at night . This drastic fluctuation challenges human and animal physiology,
shelter design and daily activities .
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3. LIMITED VEGETATION :
● Sparse vegetation restricts available food sources for both humans and animals , making
subsistence farming difficult and increasing reliance on external food supplies .
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4. POOR SOIL FERTILITY :

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● Desert soils are often sandy , with low nutrient content and poor water retention , making
agriculture challenging . Soil erosion from winds also worsens fertility over time .

5. ECONOMIC FERTILITY :
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● Economic opportunities in deserts are limited , with dependence on resource extraction,

tourism or livestock . Lack of employment diversity often leads to seasonal or unstable
incomes .

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6. HEALTH RISKS :
● High temperatures increase the risk of dehydration , heat stroke and related health issues.
Poor sanitation due to water scarcity can lead to hygiene - related diseases .

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7. ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE REQUIREMENTS :
● Desert life requires constant adaptation to the environment’s demands , including innovative

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water management , climate-resistant agriculture and cultural resilience , which can be
resource - intensive and costly .

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 WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN ( MEDITERRANEAN ) CLIMATE

The Mediterranean climate, also known as the warm temperate western margin climate, is
characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons , with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers . This

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climate is primarily found on the western margins of continents between 30° and 45° latitude,

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including regions around the Mediterranean Sea , parts of California , central Chile , southwestern
Australia and the Cape Town area in South Africa . The climate is influenced by shifting atmospheric
pressure belts , especially the subtropical high-pressure belt in summer , which brings dry conditions,

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and the westerlies in winter , which bring moisture and precipitation .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● Typically situated on the western coasts of continents between 30° and 45° latitude .
● Mediterranean Basin and Nearby Regions : This climate is primarily found around the
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Mediterranean Sea, extending across Southern Europe , parts of North Africa and Southwest
Asia.
● Western Coastal Regions Outside the Mediterranean : Similar climate conditions are seen in
California (USA) , central Chile , southwestern Australia and southwestern South Africa , all
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located on the western coastal margins between 30° and 45° latitude .

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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● Hot, Dry Summers : Summers are hot and dry, with average temperatures between 25–30°C .
Inland areas experience higher summer temperatures compared to coastal regions due to lesser
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ocean influence .
● Mild, Wet Winters : Winters are generally mild , with temperatures averaging around 10–15°C .
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Winter in this region is distinct for its relatively mild temperatures and increased rainfall due to the
influence of prevailing westerlies and mid-latitude cyclones. Due to the influence of moist
westerlies during winter months , freezing temperatures are rare , especially near the coast .
● Temperature Variation by Season : There is a notable seasonal temperature range , though less
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extreme than in continental climates. Coastal regions have more moderate temperatures due to
the influence of the nearby sea .

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● Diurnal Range : Inland regions often have a higher diurnal (day-to-night) temperature range due
to limited oceanic influence , while coastal areas enjoy more stable temperatures .

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PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
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● Moderate to Low Annual Rainfall : Annual precipitation ranges from 30 to 90 cm , with coastal
areas typically receiving more rain than inland areas due to proximity to moist air currents from the
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sea .
● Dry Summers : Summers are exceptionally dry , with little to no rainfall. This dryness is caused
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by high-pressure systems that dominate during the warmer months , pushing moist air away .
● Winter Rainfall Dominance : Most precipitation occurs during the winter months , influenced by
the westerlies bringing moist air . This seasonal rainfall is critical for the region’s vegetation and
agriculture .
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● Occasional Intense Winter Showers : Rain often falls as intense , short-duration showers in
winter , sometimes leading to temporary flooding in lower areas .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 35
INFLUENCE OF EASTERLIES & WESTERLIES

➢ OFF - SHORE EASTERLIES :

○ During summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer , the belt of Westerlies

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shifts poleward , reducing their influence over Mediterranean regions. As a result , the

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rain-bearing winds do not reach these areas. The prevailing trade winds are offshore,
leading to a dry season with little to no rainfall. The air remains dry, temperatures are
intensely high, and relative humidity is low. Days are extremely hot and prolonged droughts

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are common, especially in interior regions. At night, temperatures drop rapidly due to
intense radiation , though frosts are rare .

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➢ ON - SHORE WESTERLIES :

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○ The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the Westerlies
shift equatorwards . In the northern hemisphere , the prevailing on - shore Westerlies bring
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much cyclonic rain from the Atlantic to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea .
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MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION

● Evergreen and Deciduous Mix : The region supports a mix of evergreen trees that keep their
leaves year-round and deciduous trees , adapted to mild winter temperatures .

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● Herbaceous Plants and Wildflowers : In the spring , the climate supports a bloom of colorful

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wildflowers and herbs that benefit from winter rainfall before the summer dry period .
● Mediterranean Scrublands : Dense shrubs and low-growing plants dominate , forming
scrublands that are resilient to summer drought and occasional fires , which are common in the

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Mediterranean climate .
● Drought-Resistant Species : Vegetation includes drought-resistant trees such as olive , cork oak

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and certain pine varieties , which are well-suited for the minimal summer rainfall .
● Sclerophyllous Vegetation : Plants here have hard, waxy leaves (sclerophyllous) to reduce

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water loss , helping them survive long, dry summers. Examples include shrubs like maquis and
chaparral .
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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDITERRANEAN REGIONS
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● AGRICULTURE : The Mediterranean climate supports specialty crops such as grapes , olives ,
citrus fruits, almonds and figs. Irrigation is often used to support agriculture during the hot , dry
summer months. Vineyards and olive orchards thrive here , enabling significant wine and olive oil
industries.
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○ Orchard Farming : Ideal for growing fruits like olives , oranges and figs , which are staple
Mediterranean crops .
○ Wine Production : Vineyards thrive in the hot, dry summer conditions , making wine
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production a significant agricultural industry .

○ Crop Cultivation : Wheat and barley are commonly grown , benefiting from the region's
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winter rainfall and moderate climate, supporting cereal production for local and export
markets .
● FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY : Forests in this region, such as pine, oak and cork trees ,
are valuable for timber and other products, including cork from cork oaks. Sustainable agroforestry
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practices blend agriculture with forestry , which supports soil conservation and provides income .

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● HORTICULTURE : The climate is ideal for floriculture and horticulture , supporting a range of
flowering plants, ornamental shrubs and fruit trees. This helps generate income from both local
sales and exports .
● FISHING : The coastal nature of Mediterranean climate regions supports fisheries , which form an

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essential part of the economy . Fisheries near coastal waters provide fresh seafood , contributing
to the local diet and economy .

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● TOURISM : The warm and sunny summers , coupled with scenic coastlines , attract tourism,
making it a vital part of the economy. Regions with this climate , like the Mediterranean Basin,

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southern California, and parts of Australia , see a large influx of tourists for beaches , cultural sites
and recreational activities .

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● RENEWABLE ENERGY : With abundant sunshine , these regions are increasingly investing in
solar energy production , supporting both local energy needs and sustainable development .

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 TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL ( STEPPE ) CLIMATE

The Temperate Continental, or Steppe climate represents a transitional climatic zone found primarily
in the interior regions of continents , situated between desert and humid areas . The climate is

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marked by moderate rainfall, which is insufficient for dense forest growth but enough to support

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grasslands, hence the term "steppe" used for these vast grasslands . Located mainly in mid-latitude
areas , this climate experiences significant temperature variations between summer and winter due to
its distance from oceanic influences . The Steppe Climate is also a vital agricultural zone , especially

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for crops and grazing , given its extensive grasslands and relatively stable growing seasons .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● North America : Found extensively in the Great Plains region , including parts of the United
States and Canada. This area stretches from the eastern Rocky Mountains to the central plains .
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● Eurasia : The largest steppe region called the Eurasian Steppe , spans from Eastern Europe
through Russia and Central Asia , extending into Mongolia and parts of northern China .
● South America : The Pampas region in Argentina represents the steppe climate in the Southern
Hemisphere , marked by expansive grasslands .
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● Australia : Limited steppes are found in southeastern and southwestern regions , in areas such
as the Murray-Darling Basin .
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TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS

● Wide Temperature Range : The annual temperature range is high due to the continental location,
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where temperatures can fluctuate between extremes , sometimes with a difference of over 40°C
between summer and winter .
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● Diurnal Variation : There is also a considerable difference between daytime and nighttime
temperatures , as the lack of vegetation and moisture results in rapid cooling at night .
● Hot Summers : Summers can be warm to hot , with average temperatures ranging between 20°C
to 27°C . The high sun angle and lack of moisture contribute to the intense summer heat .
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● Cold Winters : Winters are cold , often with temperatures dropping well below freezing ,
especially in Northern Hemisphere regions like the Eurasian steppe . Average winter temperatures
may range from -15°C to -1°C , with severe frost in some areas .
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR
“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 39
PRECIPITATION PATTERNS

The precipitation patterns in the Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate are characterized by the
following features :

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● Low to Moderate Rainfall : The annual precipitation is relatively low, typically ranging from 25 cm

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to 50 cm annually. It is insufficient to support dense forests but enough to sustain grasslands .
● Seasonal Variability : Rainfall is more concentrated during the summer months, coinciding with

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the growing season. This is due to the influence of the summer monsoon or westerlies , which
bring moisture to the region .

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● Winter Dryness : Precipitation during the winter months is minimal , with dry conditions
prevailing. In some regions , snowfall may occur , but it is not significant enough to accumulate for

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long periods .
● Localized Rainfall : Thunderstorms and localized rain showers are common during the warm
months, contributing to sudden bursts of rainfall . However , these are often brief and sporadic .
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● Rain Shadow Effect : In some areas , the precipitation is further reduced by the rain shadow
effect , particularly in regions surrounded by mountains that block moist air masses .
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

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STEPPE VEGETATION

The Steppe vegetation in the Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate is adapted to survive in
conditions of limited precipitation and significant temperature variation . The key features of steppe

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vegetation in this climate are :

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● GRASSES AND SHRUBS : The dominant vegetation is grass , particularly species like
bluegrass and buffalo grass . These grasses are drought-resistant and are adapted to survive

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with seasonal rainfall. Shrubs such as sagebrush and juniper are also common , especially in
the more arid areas .

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● SPARSE TREE COVER : Trees are generally absent or found only near rivers or lakes where
water is more accessible . In some areas , small groves of willows and cottonwoods may grow

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along watercourses .
● ADAPTATION TO DROUGHT : Plants are adapted to conserve water and can go through periods
of dormancy during the driest seasons. Their growth is often rapid during the rainy season and
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they conserve energy in the dry months .
● Temperate grasslands in steppe climates vary with the seasons in terms of their vegetation
characteristics :
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○ SPRING : Low precipitation stimulates the growth of grasses and herbaceous plants.
Many perennial grasses begin to regenerate and the vegetation is lush and green in
response to the increasing sunlight and moisture .
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○ SUMMER : As the temperature increases , many plants enter a state of dormancy and their
colors may turn yellow or brown due to the heat and lack of rain . The vegetation in the
summer can appear dry and brown , especially in regions with low precipitation .
○ AUTUMN : As temperatures cool , plants start to prepare for the cold winter months. Many
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grasses and plants complete their life cycles and die off , leaving behind the roots and
seeds alive for the next growing season .
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○ WINTER : During the winter months , much of the vegetation in temperate grasslands
becomes dormant or remains brown and dry . In regions where winter temperatures drop
significantly , a layer of snow may cover the ground , insulating the soil and plants. This
prevents further growth until the spring .
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 41
ECONOMY OF STEPPE REGION

The economy of regions with a Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate is heavily influenced by
the climate's characteristics , particularly the seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation .

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The key economic features of this climate type are :

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1. AGRICULTURE :
● Wheat and Barley : The fertile soils in steppe regions , especially in areas with moderate

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precipitation , support the cultivation of wheat , barley and oats . These crops are well-suited
to the climate's seasonal rainfall patterns and temperature extremes .

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● Livestock Farming : In drier parts of the steppe , livestock farming , especially cattle , sheep
and goats is common. These animals are well-adapted to the harsh climate , relying on the

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region's vast grasslands for grazing .
● Sunflower and Corn : In areas with more rainfall , crops like sunflowers and corn may also
be grown .
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2. NOMADIC HERDING :
● In some regions with drier conditions , nomadic herding is still practiced. This involves
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moving livestock from one grazing area to another , which is a traditional way of life for many
steppe communities . This is particularly common in Central Asia , parts of Mongolia and
Kazakhstan .
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3. DAIRY PRODUCTION :
● Due to the availability of large pasture lands , dairy farming is an important part of the
economy. Dairy products such as milk , cheese and yogurt are produced in many steppe
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regions .
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 42
 WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN CLIMATE

The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate, also known as the Subtropical Eastern Margin
Climate , is characterized by mild, moderate temperatures and significant seasonal variation in

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rainfall. This climate type is typically found along the eastern coasts of continents , usually between

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30° and 40° latitudes, such as the southeastern United States , parts of China , Japan and parts of
South America. The climate is influenced by the prevailing subtropical high-pressure belts and the
cooling effects of ocean currents , leading to warm summers and mild winters. It experiences

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relatively evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year , with a slight peak during the warmer months,
influenced by the monsoon and oceanic influences .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● The climate is primarily found along the eastern coasts of continents in the mid-latitudes , typically
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between 30° and 40° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres .
● Southeastern United States : Particularly along the southeastern coast , including parts of
Florida , Georgia , Alabama and the Carolinas .
● East Asia : Coastal areas of eastern China , southern Korea, and Japan experience this climate,
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especially on the eastern sides of the continents .

● Australia : The southeastern coast of Australia, particularly in regions like New South Wales and
parts of Victoria has this climate .
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● South America : Coastal regions of southeastern Brazil , Uruguay and parts of Argentina also fall
under this climate type .
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TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
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● WARM AND MOIST SUMMERS : Summers are warm , with average temperatures ranging from
20°C to 27°C , but they are not excessively hot due to the cooling effect of the nearby oceans .
● MILD WINTERS : Winters are generally mild , with temperatures rarely falling below freezing. The
influence of warm ocean currents ( like the Gulf Stream in the Northern Hemisphere ) keeps the
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winter temperatures relatively moderate .

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● MODERATE ANNUAL RANGE : The annual temperature range is relatively small compared to
continental climates . This is because the proximity to large bodies of water ( such as the Pacific
or Atlantic Oceans ) helps regulate temperature fluctuations .

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GENERAL PRECIPITATION PATTERNS

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The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is characterized by a variety of precipitation patterns
influenced by both oceanic and continental factors . Here are the general precipitation patterns for

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this climate :

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SEASONAL VARIATION

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● SUMMER : Precipitation is typically highest during the summer months , driven by the seasonal
shift in wind patterns and the influence of monsoons or tropical storms .
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○ Monsoonal Rains : In regions like China and Japan , the summer monsoons bring heavy
rainfall. The moisture-laden winds from the oceans (like the Kuroshio Current) result in
considerable precipitation during this season .
○ Tropical Storms : In some areas, such as the Gulf type , the summer months also see
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frequent tropical storms or hurricanes , adding to the rainfall .

● WINTER :
○ Precipitation decreases in winter , but it does not stop entirely . Winters are often mild , with
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rain occurring as light to moderate showers .

○ Cyclonic and Frontal Rainfall in Winter : During winter , the equatorward shift of the
mid-latitude westerlies brings cyclonic disturbances to the region. These disturbances,
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combined with the interaction of cold continental air and warm maritime air , result in light to
moderate frontal rainfall , especially in coastal areas .
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○ Maritime Influence : Proximity to the oceans ensures occasional moisture inflow , despite
the dominance of dry continental winds , causing intermittent winter rains that are less
intense than the summer monsoon .
○ The precipitation is generally more evenly distributed throughout the year in Natal Type
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climates (e.g. parts of South Africa) , but China and Gulf Types tend to experience a drier
winter .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 44
YEAR - ROUND VARIATION

● China Type (Cfa) : Even though there is a peak in summer , precipitation is relatively evenly
distributed throughout the year . However , the summer months receive more intense rainfall,

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especially due to the summer monsoon .

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● Gulf Type (Cfa) : The pattern is similar to the China Type , with rainfall peaking in the summer
months due to the influence of the tropical cyclone season , while winter remains dry with milder
temperatures .

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● Natal Type (Cfb) : The rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year , with slightly
higher rainfall during the warmer months , although there is still some precipitation during winter .

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WARM TEMPERATE ( EASTERN MARGIN ) TYPES

The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is divided into three sub-types :
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1. CHINA TYPE :
● It is found in the eastern coast of China , including southern Japan .

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 ● Temperature : Warm summers and mild winters , with average summer temperatures around
25°C and winter temperatures above 0°C .
● Precipitation : Rainfall is abundant and evenly distributed throughout the year , with
occasional peaks during summer due to monsoon activity and tropical cyclones .

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● Weather Hazards : Vulnerable to typhoons or hurricanes , especially during the late summer
and early autumn .

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2. GULF TYPE :

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● The Gulf Type Eastern Margin Climate in the U.S. , named after its association with the Gulf
of Mexico region. This climate , shaped by the warm Gulf of Mexico and nearby Atlantic

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waters, is distinct for its high humidity , abundant rainfall and frequent weather disturbances .
● Temperature : Summers are hot and humid , with average temperatures ranging from

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27-30°C, while winters are mild, typically between 10-15°C , with occasional frost inland .
● Precipitation : Rainfall is abundant and distributed throughout the year . Summer experiences
frequent thunderstorms , while winter sees rain from cyclonic systems .
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● Hurricanes : The region is highly vulnerable to tropical cyclones and hurricanes , especially
from late summer to early autumn .
● Agriculture : The fertile soil supports crops like cotton , sugarcane and rice , as well as fruit
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farming , especially citrus in Florida .

3. NATAL TYPE :
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● It is found along the eastern coasts of continents in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly in
Natal in South Africa , southeastern Brazil and eastern Australia .
● Temperature : Warm summers with average temperatures around 24 - 27°C and mild winters
averaging 10-15°C , with no risk of frost .
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● Precipitation : Rainfall is well-distributed throughout the year , with peaks in summer due to
convectional rains and thunderstorms. Coastal regions may also experience rain from onshore
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winds .
● Weather Hazards : Rarely affected by extreme weather , but heavy summer rains or violent
storms can occasionally lead to flooding .
● Agriculture : Fertile soils allow for diverse agriculture , including sugarcane , citrus fruits,
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coffee and subtropical fruits like bananas .

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VEGETATION

The vegetation in the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is diverse , ranging from deciduous
and mixed forests to evergreen trees and grasslands . It is influenced by the warm , humid

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summers and mild winters, making it a zone of both rich natural biodiversity and significant

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agricultural activity .

1. CHINA ( SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA ) :

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● Mixed Forests : Dominated by deciduous species like oak and evergreen species such as
camphor and magnolia .

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● Bamboo Groves : Common in wetter areas .
● Economic Crops : Regions are interspersed with agricultural crops like rice and tea .

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2. SOUTH-EASTERN USA :
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● Evergreen Forests : Includes live oaks, magnolias, and laurel .
● Pine Forests : Particularly in drier or sandy soils .
● Agricultural Crops : Cotton , tobacco and sugarcane often grow in cleared areas .
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3. EASTERN AUSTRALIA :
● Eucalyptus Forests : Characteristic vegetation adapted to moderate rainfall and dry spells .
● Rainforests : Found in regions with higher rainfall , particularly coastal areas .
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4. SOUTH-EASTERN BRAZIL :
● Tropical and Subtropical Forests : Dense vegetation with mixed evergreen and deciduous
species .
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● Coffee and Citrus Plantations : Common in cleared or cultivated areas due to fertile soils .
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● Grasslands : Transition zones between forested areas and drier interiors .

ECONOMY
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The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate supports diverse and thriving economic activities
due to its fertile soils , abundant rainfall and moderate temperatures .

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1. AGRICULTURE :
● Crop Diversity : Supports the cultivation of rice , wheat , maize and sugarcane due to fertile
alluvial soils and adequate rainfall .
● Cash Crops : Tea , coffee , cotton and tobacco are prominent in regions like southeastern

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USA and eastern Asia .
● Subtropical Fruits : Citrus fruits , including oranges , lemons and grapefruits , thrive in areas

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with mild winters .
● Rice Farming : Dominates in low-lying areas of southeastern China and Japan due to heavy

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rainfall and irrigation systems .

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2. FORESTRY :
● Mixed Forests : Rich forests provide timber, fuelwood and raw materials for paper and

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furniture industries .
● Commercial Forestry : Pine and eucalyptus plantations contribute to the lumber and paper
industries in regions like southeastern USA and Australia .
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3. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT :
● Agro-Based Industries : Processing of agricultural products, such as tea , sugar and cotton,
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is common .
● Timber and Paper Industries : Developed due to the availability of forest resources .
● Textile and Clothing : Flourish due to the production of cotton and wool .
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4. LIVESTOCK REARING :
● Dairy Farming : Thrives in areas with cooler climates, such as eastern Australia and southern
USA .
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● Cattle and Poultry : Large-scale livestock farming supports meat and egg production for
domestic and export markets .
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

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 COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN (BRITISH TYPE) CLIMATE

The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate is characterized by its maritime
influence, owing to its proximity to oceans . Found mainly on the western coasts of continents in the

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cool temperate latitudes , this climate experiences mild winters and cool summers , with rainfall

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spread evenly throughout the year . The climate is shaped by prevailing westerlies and warm ocean
currents , such as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic . These regions are known for their overcast skies,
frequent drizzle and high humidity , supporting lush vegetation and diverse ecosystems .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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● The British type is found on the western coasts of continents in the cool temperate latitudes

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between 40° and 65° .
● The prominent regions include Northwestern Europe (e.g. the British Isles, France, Belgium),
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Northwestern North America (e.g. coastal areas of British Columbia and Alaska) and parts of
the Southern Hemisphere like New Zealand and southeastern Australia .
● These regions are strongly influenced by proximity to oceans , especially where warm currents
like the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift prevail , moderating temperatures .
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TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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● Warm Summers : Summers are mildly warm and not excessively hot , with temperatures typically
between 15°C to 20°C providing a balanced climate .
● Mild Winters : Winters are not severe due to the moderating effect of nearby warm ocean
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currents , with temperatures generally ranging between 4°C to 10°C .

● Small Annual Range : The annual temperature range is narrow compared to inland regions due
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to the maritime influence .

● Frequent Temperature Variations : Rapid weather changes occur due to the frequent passage
of cyclonic systems .
● Frost - Free Period : In many areas , frost is rare or mild , promoting year-round vegetation
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growth.

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TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS

● MODERATE AND WELL - DISTRIBUTED : Annual precipitation ranges between 50 to 150 cm ,

evenly distributed throughout the year .

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● CYCLONIC RAINFALL : Rainfall is primarily caused by cyclonic activity and frontal systems due

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to the meeting of warm and cold air masses .
● Frequent light rain or drizzle is common , especially in winter , resulting in cloudy , damp
conditions .

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● SEASONAL VARIATION : Winter months experience slightly higher rainfall due to intensified
cyclonic activity , while summers remain relatively drier but humid .

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VEGETATION OF BRITISH - TYPE CLIMATE

● The region is dominated by deciduous forests , including trees like oak , ash , elm and beech,
which shed their leaves in winter .

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● Grasslands and heathlands , with plants like heather and gorse , thrive in areas with poor ,

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acidic soils or where human activity has cleared the land .
● Woodlands with scattered trees are common, often interspersed with pastures supporting
livestock farming , especially for sheep and cattle .

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ECONOMY OF BRITISH - TYPE CLIMATE

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1. AGRICULTURE :
● Crop Cultivation : The mild climate and fertile soils support the cultivation of temperate crops
such as wheat , barley , oats , potatoes and vegetables .
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● Fruit Farming : Apples, cherries and other temperate fruits grow well in this climate ,
especially in regions with higher rainfall .
● Vineyards : Wine production thrives in regions like parts of France (Bordeaux), Spain and
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parts of California due to the moderate temperatures .

2. FORESTRY :
● Timber Production : Mixed forests of hardwood and softwood trees provide timber for
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construction , paper and furniture industries .

● Deciduous trees supply hardwood for furniture , while coniferous trees provide softwood for
paper and construction .
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● Forestry : The availability of natural forests supports a thriving wood-based industry,

particularly in countries like Canada and the United Kingdom .
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3. LIVESTOCK REARING :
● Dairy Farming : The cool climate is conducive to dairy farming , especially in regions like the
UK , Ireland and parts of New Zealand .
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● Sheep and Cattle Rearing : Grazing lands support sheep farming (for wool and meat) and
cattle farming , with beef being an important agricultural product .

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4. FISHING INDUSTRY AND MARINE RESOURCES :
● Fishing : The coastal regions benefit from a strong fishing industry due to the proximity to rich
fishing grounds .
● Aquaculture : In countries like Norway, fish farming (salmon) is a significant industry .

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 COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL (SIBERIAN) CLIMATE

The Cool Temperate Continental Climate , also known as the Siberian Climate , is characterized by
its location in the interior regions of continents , predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere. This

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climate is found between approximately 50° and 70° northern hemisphere latitude , extending across

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vast areas of Eurasia and North America . It experiences extreme temperature variations between
summer and winter due to its continentality , with long , harsh winters and short , warm summers .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is mainly found in the interior regions of large
continents, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere . The primary regions where this climate is found

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include :
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● North America : In North America , the climate is found in parts of Canada , especially in the
central and northern regions , extending into the northern United States .
● Scandinavia : Some parts of Sweden , Finland and Norway , particularly in their interior also
experience this climate .
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● Central Asia : Areas such as Kazakhstan , parts of Mongolia and the northern parts of China
experience this climate .
● Eastern Europe : Much of Russia , particularly the vast Siberian region , is covered by this
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climate , extending from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean .

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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There is a significant contrast between summer and winter temperatures , with large seasonal
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variations in the Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate .

● Short Warm Summers : Summers are brief but can be warm , with average temperatures ranging
from 10°C to 20°C , but occasional heat waves can push temperatures above 30°C .
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● Cold Winters : Winters are long , harsh and extremely cold , with average temperatures often
dropping below – 20°C (in northern areas) and can reach as low as – 40°C or lower in the interior
of Siberia .
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PRECIPITATION PATTERN

● Summer Precipitation : Most of the precipitation occurs during the warmer summer months,
often in the form of thunderstorms , which bring short but intense rainfall . They occur from the

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convectional rain when the continental interiors are greatly heated .

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● Winter Dryness : Winters are relatively dry , with little precipitation , mostly in the form of snow.
Snowfall can be heavy in some areas , especially in Siberia , but it is not frequent .
● There is no month without some form of moisture . In a region where overall temperature is low ,

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evaporation is not rapid and the relative humidity is high , this small amount of precipitation is
adequate for tree growth .

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VEGETATION IN SIBERIAN REGION

The natural vegetation in the Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is primarily characterized
by :

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● Taiga Forests (Boreal Forests) : The dominant vegetation is coniferous forests , also known as
taiga, which include species like spruce , pine and fir. These trees are well-adapted to cold
temperatures and long winters .

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● Sparse Underbrush : Due to the harsh winters and short growing seasons , the forest floor has
limited vegetation , with some mosses , lichens and low shrubs .

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● In the extreme northern parts of this climate zone , the vegetation transitions into tundra,
dominated by grasses , mosses and small shrubs due to the permafrost and cold conditions .

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● In more temperate regions of the Siberian climate zone , there may be a mix of coniferous and
deciduous trees such as birch , aspen and willow .
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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SIBERIAN REGION
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The economy in the Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is shaped by its harsh climate
and geographic location, with key aspects including :

● AGRICULTURE : Agriculture is limited due to short growing seasons and cold winters . Crops
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such as wheat, barley, oats and rye are grown in the warmer months , while winter wheat is
common in milder regions .
● FORESTRY : Extensive forests , especially coniferous forests , support a significant timber
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industry. Logging is a key sector , supplying wood for construction and paper production .
● LIVESTOCK FARMING : Livestock such as cattle, sheep and reindeer are raised , particularly in
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the southern and more temperate regions. In the north, reindeer herding is vital for the indigenous
populations .
● FISHERIES : In some coastal areas , fishing, particularly of salmon and other cold-water species,
supports local economies .
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● LUMBERING : is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of Climate supporting
economic development due to the reserves of the coniferous forests . Lumbering provides
direct employment in logging , transportation and sawmill operations .

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 ○ TIMBER PRODUCTION : The vast coniferous forests provide high-quality softwood (e.g.
pine, spruce, fir) used for construction, paper and furniture industries .
○ ​Siberia is one of the world's largest suppliers of timber , fueling domestic industries and
export markets .

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○ PAPER AND PULP INDUSTRY : Coniferous trees are ideal for producing paper pulp due
to their long fibers, which make strong paper products .

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○ ENERGY PRODUCTION : In some areas, wood is used as a biofuel , contributing to local
energy needs and reducing reliance on fossil fuels .

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 COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN ( LAURENTIAN ) CLIMATE

The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate , found along the eastern coasts of
continents in the Northern Hemisphere , is influenced by both the proximity to oceans and the

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moderating effects of ocean currents . This climate typically experiences moderate temperatures

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with relatively mild winters and cool summers . The climate is found along the eastern edges of large
landmasses, such as the northeastern parts of North America (especially parts of Canada and the
northern United States) and parts of northern Europe . The oceanic influence helps in reducing the

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extremes in temperature that are found in more continental climates , allowing for a more balanced
seasonal temperature variation .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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The geographical distribution of the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate is as
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follows :

● Northeastern North America : USA (New England) and southeastern Canada .

● East Asia : Eastern parts of China , Korea and Japan .
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NOTE : In the southern hemisphere , this climatic type is absent because only a small section of the southern
continents lies beyond the latitude of 400 S . Additionally , the presence of natural barriers in these regions
prevents the Westerlies from reaching the eastern margins of the continents (for ex : Patagonian region in the
east of Andes ) .
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TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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● Summer Warmth and Winter Severity : Summers are short but warm, occasionally exceeding
25°C , while winters are characterized by frost , snow and extended periods of cold .
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● Moderate Annual Mean Temperature : The annual mean temperature ranges from 5 – 10°C,
influenced by both continental and maritime factors .
● Coastal Moderation : Coastal regions experience milder temperatures due to the moderating
effects of warm ocean currents like the Gulf Stream (North America) and Kuroshio Current (East
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Asia) .

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 57
PRECIPITATION PATTERN

1. North America Region (Laurentian) :

● Year-Round Precipitation : Moderate and evenly distributed throughout the year , with an

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annual total ranging from 75 – 150 cm .
● Summer Dominance : Summer rainfall is more pronounced due to convectional activity

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from the heating of land masses . Thunderstorms are common .
● Winter Precipitation : Comes mostly from cyclonic systems brought by the Westerlies.

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Snowfall is significant in the northern regions .

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2. East Asia Region :
● Summer Monsoonal Rains : Heavy rainfall in summer is due to the East Asian monsoon,

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driven by moist onshore winds from the Pacific Ocean .
● Winter Dryness : Winters are relatively dry as the winds reverse direction , becoming cold
and offshore , carrying little moisture .
AN
SH
AR
D
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©

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 58
VEGETATION IN LAURENTIAN TYPE

The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest . The heavy
rainfall , the warm summers and the damp air from the fogs , all favor the growth of trees . The natural

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vegetation in general are as follows :

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● Coniferous Trees (Mixed Forests) :
○ In colder regions and areas with harsher winters ( north of 500 N parallel of latitude ),

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coniferous trees such as pine , spruce and fir mix with deciduous species, creating a
mixed forest biome .

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○ These trees are evergreen and adapted to withstand freezing conditions .

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● Deciduous Forests :
○ Dominant vegetation type , characterized by trees that shed their leaves during the cold
winters to conserve moisture ( south of latitude 500 N ) .
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○ Common species include oak , maple , beech , elm , hickory and birch .

● Seasonal Adaptations :
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○ Vegetation is well-adapted to the marked seasonal variations .

○ Deciduous trees grow rapidly in summer , while conifers remain green year-round to
photosynthesize even during colder months .
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● Rich Undergrowth :
○ Forest floors are covered with shrubs , mosses , ferns and herbs , thriving during the
warmer months .
D

○ Flowers like bluebells and violets are common in spring .

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1. AGRICULTURE :
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● Crop Cultivation : The climate supports the growth of crops like wheat , barley and oats . In
regions with milder temperatures , corn and soybeans are also grown .

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 59
 ● Dairy Farming : The fertile soils and moderate rainfall make it suitable for dairy farming,
especially in areas like parts of Eastern Canada and the Northeastern United States .
● Fruit Farming : Regions with warmer summers, such as the Niagara Peninsula , are known
for orchard farming , producing fruits like apples , peaches and grapes .

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2. FORESTRY AND LUMBERING :

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● Abundant Forests : The natural vegetation , particularly deciduous and coniferous forests,
provides a significant source of timber for the lumber industry .

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● Pulp and Paper Industry : Areas with large forest cover , such as Canada, contribute
significantly to the global pulp and paper industry .

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3. FISHING ACTIVITY :

G
● Coastal areas benefit from the fishing industry , especially in places like the North Atlantic,
which supports large-scale fishing activities .
● Ports and harbors are developed for shipping and international trade .
AN
SH
AR
D
SU
©

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 60
 ARCTIC OR POLAR CLIMATE

The Polar Climate is characterized by extreme cold , with temperatures rarely exceeding 10°C even
in the warmest months. Found in high-latitude regions near the poles , such as Antarctica , Greenland

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and parts of the Arctic, it is divided into the Tundra (ET) and Ice Cap (EF) subtypes. Precipitation is

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minimal, often in the form of snow , earning these regions the nickname "cold deserts" . Vegetation is
sparse, with only hardy species like mosses, lichens and dwarf shrubs surviving the short growing
season. Human activity is limited to indigenous subsistence practices , resource extraction , scientific

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research and eco-tourism , all of which are increasingly impacted by climate change .

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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The Polar Climate is characterized by extremely cold conditions and is divided into two subtypes :
ET (Tundra) and EF (Ice Cap) .
AN
● TUNDRA CLIMATE (ET) :
○ It is found in coastal Arctic regions (northern Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Siberia, Iceland
and Scandinavia) .
SH

○ Occurs in high-altitude areas of sub-Arctic and sub-Antarctic zones .

○ Exists on sub-Antarctic islands like South Georgia and Kerguelen Islands .
AR

● ICE CAP CLIMATE (EF) :

○ Covers Antarctica (most extensive region) and the Greenland Ice Sheet .
○ It is found in the high - altitude regions where the ground is permanently snow-covered .
D

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
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● Extremely Cold Year-Round : Temperatures remain below 10°C even in the warmest month .
● Short and Cool Summers (ET) : In Tundra regions , summer months barely exceed 0°C to 10°C,
allowing minimal thawing .
● No True Summer (EF) : In Ice Cap regions, temperatures stay below 0°C throughout the year .
©

● Influence of Polar Day/Night : Polar regions experience continuous sunlight (midnight sun) in
summer and complete darkness (polar night) in winter , impacting temperature fluctuations .

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● Ground remains frozen for most of the year (permafrost) , except for a thin surface layer in
summer .

PRECIPITATION PATTERN

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Polar climates are characterized by extreme cold throughout the year , with minimal seasonal
variation .

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● The cold air holds very little moisture , limiting cloud formation and precipitation .
● Both Tundra and Ice Cap climates receive very little precipitation , typically less than 25 cm

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annually . Mostly occurs as snow due to extremely low temperatures .
● Slightly higher precipitation in summer months , especially in Tundra regions , due to increased

G
atmospheric activity .
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SH
AR
D
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©

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 62
TUNDRA VEGETATION

● VEGETATION TYPES : Includes mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges and dwarf shrubs .
● ADAPTATIONS :

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○ Plants are adapted to grow close to the ground for protection against cold and wind .
○ Shallow roots to cope with permafrost and limited soil depth .

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● GROWING SEASON : Very short , typically lasting only 50–60 days during the brief summer .
● NUTRIENT POOR-SOIL : Thin and nutrient-deficient soils limit plant diversity and growth .

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES

U
G
1. LOW POPULATION DENSITY : Harsh climate and inhospitable conditions limit human
settlement.
2. TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS : Indigenous communities rely on hunting, fishing, and herding
AN
(like reindeer herding) .
3. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH : Establishment of research stations in Antarctica and the Arctic for
climate , biology and geology studies .
SH

4. RESOURCE EXTRACTION : Exploitation of oil, natural gas and minerals (e.g. in Arctic regions
like Alaska and Siberia) .
5. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES : Activities like mining, drilling and increasing tourism pose
threats to the fragile ecosystem, compounded by climate change impacts .
AR
D
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©

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 63
 PRELIMS POINTERS

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JA
R
U
G
AN
SH
AR
D
SU
©

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 64
 PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

UPSC PYQs

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1. [ 1996 , 2003 ] Given below are two statements one labeled as Assertion (A) and the

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other labeled as Reason ( R )
Assertion ( A ) : Areas lying within five to eight degree latitude on either side of
the equator receives rainfall throughout the year .
Reason ( R ) : High temperature and high humidity cause convectional rainfall

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mostly in the noon near the equator .
By using the codes given below , select the correct answer :

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A. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )
B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )

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C. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false
D. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true
AN
2. [ 2002 ] Consider the following statements :
1) In Equatorial regions , the year is divided into four main seasons .
2) In the Mediterranean region , summer receives more rain .
3) In China type climates , rainfall occurs throughout the year .
SH

4) Tropical highlands exhibit vertical zonation of different climates .

Which of these statements are correct ?
A. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4
B. 1 , 2 and 3
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C. 1 , 2 and 4
D. 3 and 4

3. [ 2002 ] For short - term climatic predictions , which one of the following events ,
detected in the last decade , is associated with occasional weak monsoon rains in the
D

Indian subcontinent ?
A. La Nina
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B. Movement of Jet Streams

C. El-Nino and Southern Oscillations
D. Greenhouse effect on a global level

4. [ 2003 ] Assertion ( A ) : Unlike temperate forests , the tropical rainforests , if cleared ,

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can yield productive farmland that can support intensive agriculture for several years
even without chemical fertilizers .

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 65
 Reason ( R ) : The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high compared
to that of temperate forests .
Code :
A. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )
B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )

R
C. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false
D. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true

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5. [ 2007 ] Which type of forests are found near the equator :
A. Deciduous forests

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B. Coniferous forests
C. Meadows forests

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D. Tropical forest

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6. [ 2010 ] If this geographic area were to have a natural forest , which one of the following
would it most likely be ?
A. Moist temperate coniferous forest
B. Mountain subtropical forest
AN
C. Temperate forest
D. Tropical rainforest

7. [ 2010 ] A geographic region has the following distinct characteristics :

SH

1) Warm and dry climate

2) Mild and wet winter
3) Evergreen oak trees
The above features are the distinct characteristics of which one of the following
AR

regions?
A. Mediterranean
B. Eastern China
C. Central Asia
D

D. Atlantic coast of North America

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8. [ 2012 ] Which one of the following is the characteristic climate of the Tropical Savanna
Region ?
A. Rainfall throughout the year
B. Rainfall in winter only
C. An extremely short dry season
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D. A definite dry and wet season

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 66
9. [ 2013 ] The annual range of temperature in the interior of the continents is high as
compared to coastal areas . What is / are the reason / reasons ?
1) Thermal difference between land and water
2) Variation in altitude between continents and oceans
3) Presence of strong winds in the interior

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4) Heavy rains in the interior as compared to coasts
Select the correct answer using the code given below :

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A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only

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D. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4

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10. [ 2013 ] “ Climate is extreme , rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic
herders .” The above statement best describes which of the following regions ?

G
A. African Savanna
B. Central Asian Steppe
C. North American Prairie
D. Siberian Tundra
AN
11. [ 2015 ] “ Each day is more or less the same , the morning is clear and bright with a sea
breeze; as the Sun climbs high in the sky , heat mounts up , dark clouds form , then the
rain comes with thunder and lightning . But the rain is soon over .”
SH

Which of the following regions is described in the above passage ?

A. Savanna
B. Equatorial
C. Monsoon
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D. Mediterranean

12. [ 2018 ] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit
water loss ?
D

1) Hard and waxy leaves

2) Tiny leaves
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3) Thorns instead of leaves

Select the correct answer using the code given below :
A. 2 and 3
B. 2 only
C. 3 only
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D. 1 , 2 and 3

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 67
1. A 2. D 3. C 4. D

5. D 6. D 7. A 8. D

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9. A 10. B 11. B 12. D

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STATE PSC REPETITIVE PYQs ( U.P. , BIHAR , UTTARAKHAND , M.P. , RAJASTHAN )

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1. The main factor which determines the climate of any area is :

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A. Altitude
B. Latitude

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C. Types of vegetation
D. Proximity to the sea
AN
2. Which of the following continents has all types of climatic zones ?
A. South America
B. North America
C. Australia
SH

D. Asia

3. Which among the following countries doesn’t come under the category of Equatorial
Climate ?
AR

A. Congo
B. Ethiopia
C. Gabon
D. Zaire
D

4. Assertion ( A ) : The environment of the equatorial regions is conducive for plants , not
for humans .
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Reason ( R ) : The average annual temperature difference is very low in equatorial

regions .
By using the code given below , select the correct answer :
A. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )
B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )
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C. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false

D. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 68
5. The evergreen rainforests are found in :
A. Australia
B. Brazil
C. Canada
D. France

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6. The Mediterranean climate is not found in which among the following towns ?

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A. Los Angeles
B. Rome
C. Cape Town

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D. New York

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7. Which of the following pair matchings is correct ?
A. Mediterranean Sea Zone - Summer Rain

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B. Equatorial Zone - Rain with thunder in the noon
C. Monsoon Zone - Heavy rain throughout the year
D. Desert Zone - Winter rain
AN
8. In which among the following countries , rainfall occurs in the winter season ?
A. China
B. Norway
C. Brazil
SH

D. Nigeria

9. Given below are two statements one labeled as Assertion (A) and the other labeled as
Reason ( R )
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Assertion ( A ) : Rainfall occurs in the winter season in Mediterranean climate .

Reason ( R ) : In summer , these regions remain under the influence of dry
terrestrial winds .
By using the codes given below , select the correct answer :
D

A. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false

B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )
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C. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true

D. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )

10. Which one of the following is correctly matched ?

A. Wet winter dry summer – Italy
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B. Wet throughout the year – Sudan

C. Wet summer dry winter – Iran
D. Dry throughout the year – Chile

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 69
11. Assertion ( A ) : The Mediterranean regions have rainy winters .
Reason ( R ) : During winter they lie in the belt of the Westerlies .
By using the code given below , select the correct answer :
A. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )

R
B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )
C. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false

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D. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true

12. The world’s wettest place :

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A. Cherrapunji
B. Mawsynram

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C. Singapore
D. Waialeale

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13. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer using the codes given below :
AN List - I List - II
( REGION ) ( TYPE OF CLIMATE )

A. California 1. Mediterranean
SH

B. West Australia 2. Tropical Monsoon

C. Bangladesh 3. Cold Temperate

D. Siberia 4. Hot Desert

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Code :
A. A - 1 , B - 2 , C - 3 , D - 4
B. A - 1 , B - 4 , C - 2 , D - 3
C. A - 2 , B - 3 , C - 4 , D - 1
D

D. A - 2 , B - 4 , C - 1 , D - 3
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14. Match correctly :

A. The hottest 1. Chile

B. The coldest 2. Cherrapunji

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C. The wettest 3. Antarctica

D. The driest 4. Sahara

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR

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 A. A-1,B-2,C-3,D-4
B. A-4,B-3,C-2,D-1
C. A-2,B-3,C-1,D-4
D. A-3,B-2,C-4,D-1

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15. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of the climatic regions while going

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from Zaire to the Netherlands ?
1) Equatorial Climate
2) Mediterranean Climate

R
3) Hot Desert Climate
4) West European Climate

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Code :
A. 1 , 3 , 2 , 4

G
B. 1 , 4 , 2 , 3
C. 2 , 3 , 4 , 1
D. 3 , 2 , 1 , 4
AN
16. Which one of the following climates are associated with shifting of the pressure belts ?
Select the correct answer from the code given below :
1) Equatorial Climate
2) Mediterranean Climate
SH

3) Monsoon Climate
4) Western European Climate
Code :
A. 1 and 2
AR

B. 1 and 3
C. 2 and 3
D. 2 and 4
D

17. Assertion ( A ) : The ports of north west Europe are open throughout the year .
Reason ( R ) : The south - westerly winds blow over north - west Europe throughout the
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year .

By using the code given below , select the correct answer :

A. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is the correct explanation of ( A )
B. Both ( A ) and ( R ) are true , and ( R ) is not the correct explanation of ( A )
©

C. ( A ) is true , but ( R ) is false

D. ( A ) is false , but ( R) is true

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“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 71
18. Hekistotherms are plants growing in :
A. Bright light
B. High temperature
C. Very low temperature
D. Very low light

R
19. ‘ Vegetation is the true index of climate ’ . This statement is associated with :

JA
A. Thornthwaite
B. Koppen
C. Trewartha

R
D. Stamp

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20. In which of the following areas , Mediterranean climate does not prevail ?
A. Central Chile

G
B. Cape Town
C. Adelaide
D. Pampas
E. None of the above / more than one of the above
AN
21. Which one of the following is notes for extensive tropical rain forests ?
A. Congo Basin
B. Ganga Basin
SH

C. Hwang Ho Basin
D. Murray - Darling Basin

22. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer using the codes given below :
AR

List - I List - II
( VEGETATION TYPE ) ( REGION )
D

A. Maquis 1. California

B. Fynbos 2. Mediterranean Sea

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C. Chaparral 3. South Africa

D. Matorral 4. Chile
Code :
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A. A - 2 , B - 3 , C - 1 , D - 4
B. A - 4 , B - 3 , C - 2 , D - 1
C. A - 3 , B - 4 , C - 1 , D - 2
D. A - 4 , B - 2 , C - 3 , D - 1
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : © BY SUDARSHAN GURJAR
“ WORLD’S CLIMATIC PATTERN ” 72
 23. Dense forests on the earth are mostly found –
A. Nearby Equator
B. Nearby Tropic of Cancer
C. Nearby Tropic of Capricorn

R
D. Nearby Poles

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24. Which of the following countries has a constitutional provision for maintaining 70 % of
its geographical area under forest ?
A. Maldives

R
B. Nepal
C. Bhutan

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D. Afghanistan

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25. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer using the codes given below :

List - I List - II
AN ( NATURAL ( REGION )
VEGETATION )

A. Epiphytes 1. Mediterranean

B. Acacia 2. Equatorial
SH

C. Baobab 3. Sahara

D. Cedars 4. Savanna
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Code :
A. A - 2 , B - 3 , C - 4 , D - 1
B. A - 2 , B - 3 , C - 1 , D - 4
C. A - 2 , B - 4 , C - 3 , D - 1
D

D. A - 2 , B - 4 , C - 1 , D - 3
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1. B 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. B

6. D 7. B 8. B 9. D 10. A

11. A 12. B 13. B 14. B 15. A

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16. C 17. B 18. C 19. B 20. D

21. A 22. A 23. A 24. C 25. A

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