Newton's laws of motion Everybody continues to be ee in its state of rest or oF init cd Rok uniform motion in straight line unless compelled by Ball in Motion some external force to act. —————— —_ d d The rate of change of Fa a =F= ka, (mv) =F momentum of a body is nde directly proportional to the -_. = Wj =ma applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts. To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. Fi. = —Fay Recoil of Gun The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved. P'at+P's =PatPe‘The word Physics appears as shown in the diagram under a magnifying lens, Phy). Which of the following tight phenomena explains the situation? A Reflection B_ Refraction C Total intemal reflection D Diffraction oi ‘The magnifying lens magnifies an object when it is placed at a distance less than the focal length. The Tefraction of light due to the lens causes the magnification of the image. A light ray enters water from air as shown in the diagram. What is the refractive index of waler? A 07S B 133 : C 138 Identify the angle of incidence and angle of refraction first before applying the Snell's Law. Solutic Angle of incidence, Angle of refraction, r = 29° Applying Snell's Law ini Answer B 1 The figure shows a ray of light travelling from medium | to medium 2. Which medium is optically denser? Give an explanation for your answer. 2. The figure shows a ray of light passing trom a glass. into aliquid which has, the same refractive index as glass. ‘What will happen to. the incident ray when it enters the iquid? Direction of ravel: Speed of light: 3 Figures (a) and (b) show two coins placed at the bottom of two liquids of different refractive indices, where n, >n,. Le Ce fa) >) Which coin will appear closer to the surface of the liqud? 4 The figure shows Jackson dass GI sandy neside ofa swimming pool where the depth of water is 1.2 m. Jackson seems to be shorter than he actually is, ‘What is the apparent depth of the pool, given that the refractive index of water is 1.337 5 The figure shows a ray of ight passing from airintoa transparent 30" ac medium. What isthe refractive wr index of the medium? 6 The figure shows a ray of light passing from the air into a transparent material. The ray is refracted. 351" transparent book Calculate the refractive index of the material. cnaprer1 Stars twink! 2 The mov ght in aight tine © Figure 5.38 Setting sun appears tobe oval-shaped refraction has occured and as 8 teal, the lower partof the suris raised more than the upper past making it appear oval. Figure 5.39 Je because we view them through thick layers of turbulent (moving) air in the Earth's atmosphere. If an observer is ia outer spac. he does not see the stars twinkle. wement of air changes the densities Or the refractive indicesof the layers ofthe almosphere: een an iv enuers the regions of different e SS 4 The rays of ight from ae ; ee the sun travel in straight lines. _* After the rays of light have entered seer at beat cheat ova sae eae oust, pat of light becomes 3 curve. This is knownas refraction. + ‘When an observer sees tbe sun touch ‘whole sun has actually already sct. eet + “The rays from the sun rave! = they reach ts op of fe: era atte + ‘They then curve downwards until observer's yes. eyes ee 4 By thes the line of vision isabove the horizon. The ‘sun thus appears tz be above the horizon. ae Note: By the same reasoning, refraction also causes early sunrise. in effect, day timeis leagthened. “d. The fluctuation of the local air densities changes the path of light rapidly. S Thus the starlight entets the and docs not at another. 6 This constant but random twinkling of stars. 4. The moon and planets donot twinkle becae their apparent sizes arc not affected by the Small changes in atmospheric refraction which does not alter the amount of light that enters the eyes. This is one way of distinguishing stars eyes for one moment shifting resolts in the star twinkles more tan an from the former iravels fore it reaches the 8 A_ horizontal overhead star as the fight through more layers of air bel eves of an observer.@ (ii) (a) Side view ofa pencil in a glass of water (b) Top view of the submerged portion of the pencil and its image] Figure 5.37= =) The depth of a pool is 2 m, What is the apparent depth if the refractive index of wateris ds Solution Bs Real depth, D Refractiveindex. m = [> rene depih.d 4-2 30d 222 d=2xt =15m The apparent depth of the pool is 1.5 m. ‘When viewed from above, the coin appears to raised up 10 a distance equal to one-third the depth the liquid. What is the refractive index of the liquid? A coin rests af the bottom of a liquid in a aot 2 =2p 3 Refractiveinder,n = 2 =P =15 3? ‘The refractive index of the liquid és 1.5. Archer fish applies Physics! Concept: Light does not refractor bend when it cosses a boundary of two mediums perpendiculaly ‘The law of Physics is applied when an archer fish shoots a powerful jet of water to knockits prey off the branch where itis resting. When the preys in is ine of vision, it shoots at the prey. (a) Thereis an occurrence of refraction. (b) Thereis no refraction. (2) Shoot! This is not the right position io shoot from. This the right position. ‘The prey is not at the place where it seems Ready. tobe. A diving instructor is teaching his students the art of pearing fish inthe sea, - “You should throw your spear at the position below the fish you see. What you see is the image of the fish at its apparent depth. The fish is in realty, below this position, theinctuctor explains. However, what must the instructor do if he wishes to shoot a fish with a laser pistol? Solution Shoot at the fish as seen. A laser tay will refract at the ‘surface of the water and travel in the same direction as ‘the actual position of the fish.The distance of the object from the surface of the water (or the boundary between the two mediums involved). 5. The refractive index, n of a material can also be expressed in terms of the real depth and apparent depth as follows: 6 This formula is true only if the observer's line of view is from the air and perpendicular to the medium-air boundary. Apparent depth and real depth (Hypothesis. ‘The greater the real depth. the greater the apparent depth. ‘Alm To investigate the relationship between the apparent depth and the real depth (Variables (a) Manipulated: real depth, D (b) Responding : apparent depth. (c) Fixed 3 water (refractive index) (Notes ‘The real depth is the depth of the water. The apparent depth is the distance from the position of the pin, P (where there is no parallax between the pin and the image of the pin, P,) to the surface of the water. (Apparatue/Materials Tall beaker, cork, 2 long pins, metre rule and retort stand with clamp. “Arrangement of apparatus (Procedure 1 A long pin, P, is placed in a tall beaker. Higher 0 4 slower tee of speed more bending (ti a apparent depth denon cere) 2 Another pin, P is mounted an a piece of cork and clamped toa retort stand. 3 The beaker is filled with water to a height of [Link] (real depth, D =[Link]). Pin P is adjusted until it coincides with the image of pin P, by using the non-parallax method. The apparent depth. d of image of pin P, below the water surface is recorded, 6 The experiment is repeated using D = 10.0 em, 12.0cm, 14.0cmand 16.0cm. ‘Tabulation of data - ten) Figure 5.35 (Condusion The graph of d against D shows that the apparent depth increases as the real depth increases. The hypothesis is valid.Dispersion Dispesion s the separetion of white light into its component colous by a prism. The seven colours are: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Volet. When a narow beam of white light passes through 2 ass prism, the seven colours are refracted et different angles Amongst the seven colours, the red with the: bighest velocity in glass is the least deviated or refracted while the violet with the lowest velociy is the most deviated. As a result the refractive index of volet light is greater than the refractive index of red light. The seven colours fal on a white screen to form a ‘continuous spectrum. a Figure 5.32 A Une SouHSE UF Gonmenteens ee eat we Snell's law, you would have noticed that the incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray, i., Liz La. ‘The effect of the whole glass slab on the incident ray is that the incident ray is moved aside but its direction of travel is still maintained. Reflection occurs on both the top and bottom: boundaries where the intensity of the reflected ray is weak. w D> Real Depth and Apparent Depth 1 The refraction of light gives us a false impression of depth. Water in a deep pool appears shallower than it really is () Refraction makes a swimming pool look shallower than it realy is Figures.33 Figure 5.33 shows two rays of light, OA and OB ing a point at the bottom of the pool. The rays are refracted away from the normal at the waterair boundary before entering the observer's eye. 3 To the observer, the emergent rays seem to originate from a point, J which is above the object O. As a tesull, the bottom of the pool appears closer to the surface of the water. fom Fue 5.33, the following terms are (@) Apparent depth, d ‘The distance of the image from the Surface of the water (or the bor betwen thet matin bans. ee n »Example ©) Figure 5.31 shows aray of Light travelling from air to water at an angle of incidence of 60°, Figure 5.31 Calculate {a) the angle of refraction, r, (b) the speed of light in water. [Refractive index of water = 1.33] = 226x 10 ms" The speed of light in water is 2.26 x 10% ms. RSG) A ray of light passes from a medium to air as shown in the figure, Calculate the refractive index of the medium, X lncomect / sini _ sin36° _ snr = sin 55 Comet / Reminder: (1) The value of n must be greater than 1. (2) n= 32+ is tue for light passing from air into 0.5878 a o8192 =0.72 the medium, so the direction of travel of the light ray must be reversed. Refractive Index and Bending Abiity of y tar) 1 The refractive index is an indication of h« the ray of light bends when it enters the to ofa medium from the air. A material with a higher refractive index has greater bending effect on light because i slows down the light more and it bends the raj of light more towards the normal. It causes larger angle of deviation of the ray of light. ~ 4.0, angle of deviation 1 (glass) >n (water) 0,>8, 1. A ray of ght bends more in glass than in water because n (glass) > (wates). ie. greater n > greater refraction —+ light bends moreCea ‘Hypothesis (i) The greater the angle of incidence, i, the greater the angle of refraction, r. 4Gi) The sine of the angle of incidence, proportional to th s directly ne of the angle of refraction, ¥. The value of is constant, which is the in value of the refractive index... of the glass. (Alm (i) To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. (ii) To determine the refractive index of glass. {Variables (2) Manipulated : angle of incidence. # (b) Responding ; angle of refraction, + (©) Fixed ype of glass (refractive index) ‘Apparatus/Materials Ray box, glass slab, white paper, and protractor. (Arrangement of apparatus Figure 5.29 (Procedure 1 The outline of the glass slab is traced onto a sheet of white paper and labelled as PORS, 2 The glass slabis removed. Paint O is marked on the side PQsuch that OP = 4Pe: 3 A protractor is used to draw and mark the normal, MAN, through point O, and lines forming angles of incidence of 20°, 30°, 40°, 50° andl 60° with the normal. stanad banal 0 an tha Refraction of light iN 5 A ray of light from the ray box is directed along the 20° line, The emerging ray from the side RS is drawn. Step 5is repeated with other angles of incidence. The glass slab is removed. The refracted rays ae drawn by joining the points of incidence to the corresponding points of cmergence of the rays of light. A protractor is used to measure the respective angles of refraction. aa eo The values of sin i, sin r, and = (which is the refractive index of the glass, n) are calculated and \abulated. The average value of ~~ is oblained. © A graph of r against i and a graph of sin / against sin rare plotted. (Tabulation of data ane @ (b) Figure 5.30 (Discussion From the formula: n= nr sin? = ning Compare it with the equation of a straight line, yam ns (= gradient) ‘The refractive index of glass can be determined from2 The following table shows the comparison between Snell's law and the refractive index of amedium. ‘When light travels from air to a medium, its speed is decreased by 25%. What is the refractive index of the medium? Solution siné Speed of light in the medium, v = 75%c coma be Ev + True for any two + ‘Truc only when 4 mediums vacuum or air is Refractive index.n = : wolved é + True when light “True only when light = travels from medium 1 | travels from vacuum a to medium 2 or (6r air) to the medium 2133 vice versa concerned medium 1 i=angle in vacuumv/air rangle in medium Figure 5.27 1 There are two laws of refraction, 2 When a ray of light travels from one medium to another, (a) the incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence, and all three lie on the a Figure 5.28 shows a ray of light passing from air oa medium with a refractive index, 7. same plane. (b) the value of S94 is a constant, where é is - the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, This second law of refraction is also known as Snell's Law. Figure 5.28 Calculate the value of r, Snell's Law and Refractive index _ 1 When a ray of light travels from vacuum (or Solution air) at an angle of incidence, i and refracted into a medium at an angle of refraction, r, it can be shown that the refractive index of the medium is given by: sin i (angle in air) 1 = sin r (angle in medium)1 Light travels at a speed of 3 10’ ms" in a vacuum. 2 This is the highest possible speed of light. 3 When a ray of light passes from a vacuum into a transparent material or medium, its speed is reduced. 4 The refractive index, n of the medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. De Speed of lightin vacuum _¢ Speed of lightin the medium ~ v > dIncec>¥, M>1 tor atimeaiums 6 A refractive index has no unit as it is a comparison of two speeds. 7 Sincen = £, nat¢ = constant). Therefore. refractive index, n (or optical density) is inversely proportional to the speed of light in the medium. The higher the value of n of a medium, the slower the speed of light in the medium and vice versa. The following table shows the refractive indices of various types of materials and their corresponding speeds of light. Medium Refractive index,n | Speed of light, v (ems) ‘Vacuum 1.00 3x10 =e (highest speed of light) Air = 1.0003 = 1.0 2.999 x 10° refractive Tee 13 7 1 2.29 x 10" or Water i3-4 22610" optical fal density Perspex 149 2.01 x 10° increases 3 t “ L Crown glass 152= 3 | 1.97x10* ‘speed of t— — $< light Light flint glass 138 1.90 x 10* Dense flint glass 1.66 181 x10" Diamond 242 | 1.24 10" | Rutile 291 | 1.03 10° Gallium phosphide 350 | 0.86 x 10* (highest optical density) GED > Vforatinedims ee * Optical density and physical density, p [p= MASS) se ait ( volume ) ferent parameters. 2A material with @ Greater optical i water does not imply i haya gente gy density than water. 3 For example, paraffin is optically denser than an water asa liquid, water but is less dense th. ‘The refractive index of paraffins 1.44, ‘What isthe speed of light in paraffin? Solution nsf v 3x10 v= 208 x 10% mstHe ) Refraction of Light 1 Whena slab of glass. is held in. front of apen, as shown in Figure 5.24, it would appear 28 ifthe Figure 5.24, Theglassblockrctrats light vernal penis broken. 2 Phe broken pen illusion occurs because light OY ca in bem by the glass. This bending effect is Ee - (woes eam (| (Opecalty called refraction of light. 3 Refraction of lights the change indirection ox bending of the light as it enters from onc e medium to another. ‘Retraction =| en coats ay ot Te ig crosses itis caused by the change in the velocity of [orleaapenlf light as it propagates from one medium 10 mecuums and another of different optical deasities. ean So * Amediumin which the velocity of light is Ray of fight travels Jomeris an optically denser medium. @ stones lower is nop Figure 5.25 Iwo as tocar flight Bend + No refraction occurs, so the ray does not bend. + However the speed of inecwtgcnsge nme + im 0% ord r=The diagram shows the positions of a gid and a in front of a plane mirror. i 3 What is the distance between the flower pot and the image of the gif? P cers ef sie ine Draw on the above diagram to show the position and appearance of the image as seen by the observer’ eve. The diagram below shows a gil looking at a plane mirror. A white board is behind her. Draw and show the image observed by the girl, Auiz stands at a distance of 6 m from a large plane ‘mirror. What is the distance that he has to walk to be ata distance of 3 m from his image? The figure shows two plane mirrors placed at an angle of 100°. A ray of light is directed onto one of the minors at i = 60". Find the angle of reflection, 0 ‘on the second mirror. uf = A ° ‘The figure shows a ray of light directed onto a plane mirror at_an angle of incidence of GO" When the mitror is rotated 19° anticlockwise at poirt O, the reflected ray O8 is tumed to position OB. ‘What is the value of £8087 x Albee flies in a direction perpendicular to @ plane mirror at a speed of 0.8 ms", What is the distance travelled by the bee towards its image in 5 seconds? The figure shows a point light source positioned at the focal point, A of a concave mirror, ‘What must be done so that the light reflected by the concave minor can converge to point B? The radius of curvature of a concave mirror is 20 cm. At what distance must an object be placed to produce (a) animage at infinity? (0) an image of the same size? A ladybird flies horizontally in front of a concave mirror at a distance beyond the centre of curvature, ©. The path of the ladybird is parallel to the plane of the mirror. The ladybird travels from the nort to the south. Explain the movement of the image on the concave minor. A dentist is examining Brenda's teeth, The form of the apparatus used is mirror. The figure shows the formation of an image. f on a screen of an object, © positioned in front of a concave mirror. Pp Q [-- t oF ‘prnepal ans ‘screen! concave mirror \What happens to the image if acardis used (2) to cover the upper half of the object (at position Be (b) to cover the upper half of the mirror (at position aysrry ene reno weno ay weg sannves meen py = oe SIT BE” visions widened. 1 Figures 5.16(a) and (b) show the fields of For this reason. convex . 3 i vision of an observer who is looking through a Fes sata, Soe ion ne ie plane mirror and a convex mirror of the sane : size respectively. er tela of vision , (a) Plane mirror (b) Convex mirror Figure 5.16 » Application and Construction of Apparatus Which Utlise Concave Mirrors and Convex Mirror i? rae Make-up Mirror 1 Concave parabolic mirrors are used as reflectors: 1 For this purpose, a in torchtights and cur ts = Say) eer in torchlight tne Magnifying Mirror secwsnleral 1 Concave mirror in with a large radius of | dentist's mirror curvaturcis used. | magnifies the image - so that the dentist ‘can geta closer look at the teeth. Figure 5.20 of puaratiel | a poe 2 The user must be Beers positioned between 2 The light bulbs fixed in position atthe focal point the focal point and of the concave mirror to produce a beam ing of the | parallel Light rays so that the light rays will Figure5.19 ir inaintain a uniform intcasity for a greater distance. 3 In os mi ite 3. Other applications of this principle are the slide image fo | virtual, upelgbt and jectors and telescopes. vet magnified. | {a} Slide projector {b) Telescope Figure 5.18{a) Objea ata point {b) Object ata point where u>f wherew2p) Image. f is between Cand F © diminished in size Object al infinity (u>2/) Image, fis at Fv =f) © real + inverted inished in size Application: reflecting telescope(a) Concave mirror () Convex mirror Figure 5.14 “Atany point on the reflecting surface (say M), the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. In both cases, itean be shown that Focal length, f= } Radius of curvature + Relavonship f= +r or r=2f the Position and Characteristics of an Image with a Ray Diagram ray dlageam can be used to determine the position and characteristics of an image for vatious * oauoas ofan abject. 2 Thece are three important rays to be drawn a ray diagram as shown in the following table. ® Ary parallel tothe principal @ Aray through F is reflected @ Aray through C is reflected axisis reflected to pass through F. | _parallet tothe principal axis. along its own path. - . © Aray paralict othe principal axis. | @ A my towards Fis reflected ® Array towards Cis reflected is reflectedas if it came from F. parallel to the principal axis. along its own path. 3 Any two of the rays ©, @ or ®can be used to determine the position and the size of the image. 4 Take note that FP = hop U- tx radius of curvature, r). ‘Therefore, always mark the positions of C and F on the principal axis with F in between Cand P. 5 (a) Areal image is formed at the intersection of two real rays originating from a point on the object (refer part C on page 260). (b) A virtual image is formed at the point where (i) two virwal extended rays intersect (refer pan A on page 260), F111 one real and one virtual extended ravs imtersect (see Figure 5.58 on page 289),BN creer © Centreafcurvature,C | ‘The geometric centre of a spibee of which the concave Or cam¥eX m mirroris apart. © Pole of mirror, P ‘The centre point on the spherical mirror. © Principal axis A line which passes through the centre of curvature, C and the pale of a spherical mirror, P. © Radius of curvature,r | Distance between the pole, P and the centre of curvature, C. (=CPy © Focal point, F ‘A point to which all rays parallel to the principal axis converge or appear to diverge from, alter reflection by the mirror © Focal length, f ‘The distance between the foeal point. Fand the poe ofthe spherical miror. P. © Apertureof mirror | The portion of the surface ofthe miror that reflects light © Object distance, w Distance of object from the pote ofthe miror.?. © Image distance, v Distance of image from the pole of the mirror, P. “a Sa Concave mirror ‘Convex mirror + Rays parallel 10 the principal axis converge toa © Rays parallel to the principal axis appear (o point, called the real focal point, on the diverge from a point behind the mirror. This principal axis. point which lies on the principal axis is called the virtual foca! point. * PF = Focal length. f * PF =Focal length. f = Distance between the real focal point and = Distance between the virtual focal point: the pole of the mirror and the pole of the mirror Example: f= 420m Example: f=—2em* A plane mirror is used in optical testing because the objects can be laterally inverted. Jetors are in correct ‘enantasion and orcer onthe and appear ata desiance wall two mes tre catance botween the man and De marer Figure 5.9 © The images of the illuminated letters cam be read correctly in the mirror and appear far behind the mirror than they really are. «© This characteristic reduces the space or size of room needed. a aegis & © Figure 5.10 shows an ammeter with a strip of plane mirror behind the pointer. The mirror acts as an antl-parallax mirror. Figure 5.10 A parallax error occurs when the eye sees both the pointer and its image. + The correct reading is obtained by making sure that the eye is vertically above the pointer, so that the image of the pointer is hidden behind it in the mirror. nace oni Donn - v 4 (a) Wrage teonon —@) Images (e)_ mage seenon treet ude at Nakneenind “ wenghiade mmeparieris) = fhapaniar (7) fe pater) Figure 5.11 Correct way totake reading) 7 RENECUON OF LIgnt On Curved MurTOrs: (2) Convex mirror reflecting surface buiges outwards Figure S.12 1 The most common type of curved mirrors is a spherical mirror. 2. Spherical mirrors are formed when the shell of a hollow sphere with the centre C is cut as shown in Figure 5.12(a) 3. If the inside or concave surface of the cut-off pant ‘of the sphere is reflecting, the mirtor is concave. 4. If the outside of convex surface of the cut-off part of the sphere is reflecting. the mirror is convex. 5. If both sides are reflecting, for example, a shiny steel spoon, then it behaves as a convex mirror if the object is facing the outer surface and a concave mirror if the abject is facing the inner surface. inner surtace {concave micron) \ ‘owner eutace (convex miroe) Figure 5.13 6 In a laboratory, convex and concave mirrors ae made of glass coated with reflecting ntaterial such as mercury.© A mirror periscope is used to view objects in an elevated position from behind an abstruction, + Itcan be built by mounting two plane mirrors in a cardboard tube as shown in Figure 5.7. © The two mitrors are set parallel and facing each other so that the angle of incidence at each mittor is 45° ‘The rays of light are O1 mye oin comin treen from the object are relocted by the uppar mirror. | are subsequently l | rellacted by the | lower micror. Figure §.7 Mirror periscope © The periscopes used in submarines have glass prisms instead of mirrors but they operate on the same principle. cz 1 © A kaleidoscope is a simple optical device with coloured glass chips that form designs and patterns. © Itconsists of two pans: (a) A-viewing tube with an eyepiece at one end. {b) An object box at the opposite end of the tube. This box has coloured chips of glass sandwiched between two glass discs. The outer disc allows light to enter. cxjecttox @ Look through the ‘The tumbling of colowed chips eyepiece al this end. presents the viewer with varying beautiful symmetrical patlarh because of the reflections in the mirrors. + It the angle be:woen the two mimars is 60°, hen on looking down the tube, five images are formed. eh rs ough ioe rellecting off re + The object end tive images axis one tbe | form a symmetrical pattem ol 6 coloured chips act soctors.Exam a) ay A dancer stands at a distance, ¢, in from of a plane mirror, What is the distance ‘travelled’ by the image if (a) the dancer moves 2 m towards the mirror’? (b) the plane mirror is moved 2m towards the dancer? Sedation ‘This question is best solved by means: of diagrams. @ . tby 1 In general: Stationary | Observer Image also mirror moves byam | _movesby am Stationary Mirror moves Image moves observer | byam by 2am 2 By the same reasoning (a) if the dancer runs at a speed of 2 ms‘! towards the mirtor, her image is also runningat 2m s*, (b) ifthe mirror is moved towards the dancer ata speed of 2 ms", her image is moving, Ame! The figure (a) shows 2 tay of light reflected by a plane mirror. What 1 the angle of deviation of the reflected ray in figure (b), if the minor is rotated 10° clockwise about paint O7 X ineorrect / Students give the answer a5 10°, ie, the angle of rotation of the mirror. ov Conect_ / Before rotation: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection = 30° 2 £POQ = 60" Alter rotation of 10°: Angle of incidence = 40° | ~2xonge ot «1 Angle of reflection = 40° | gation of Now, 2POQ’ = BO" bated Rahimah and Johan are standing wt distance of 2 from a big plane mirror, Rahimah is at a distance of 3 m from Johan. What is the distance between Johan and Rahimah's image? Sotution Applying Pythagoras’ theorem: as Vad Sm + The distance between Johan and: Rahimab’s image is § rm.——_ ‘Draw a perpendicular line from Oto the mirror through A. Mark tN’ Oto loeste the image, | broken |—ptane miror sll How to draw two rays of light from an object, O to the observer's eye in the above figure to show the formation of the image, J Note: * Drawing the rays from the object, O first would result inan inaccurate diagram, + If the position of the image, / is given, start from the rage, “tothe eye. step@- The figure shows Nicolas who is 1.8 m tall standing in from of a mitror which is as high as he is. He can see his full ength image in the mor. What is the shortest length of mittor that will still show his, full length if we know that his eyes are [Link] from the top of his head? Solution The problem can be solved i 2 diagram is drawn, Assuring MN is the shortest length of mirror used, AM and NB can be aut off. MN= 180 - (6 + 84)=90em Conclusion 1. The shortest length of the mirror can be haif of the height of a pesson. 2. The bottom edge of the mirror must be placed at a position half way between the eyes and the feet.QMarewersuts UF as mege rureu a Plane Mirror ee Figure 5.3 shows how a plane mirror forms an image of a light bulb. Figure 5.3 object are reflected by the plane mirror before entering the abserver's eyes. 4 ‘The reflected rays, when extended backwards: behind the mirror appear to intersect at P” which forms the corresponding image of P. This happens to all the points of the object and a complete virtual image is then formed. 4 : Characteristic of image ina plane mirror: (ay The image is virtual. {by The image is upright tut laterally Inverted. {e) The size of the Image is the same as the object. (a) The distance betwee sarne as distance between abject = © and O from point Pof the | =e “a image and mirror is the and mirror. Jn Figure 5.3. t can be seen that the image df the light bulb appears 10 be behind the mirror. no image is projected on the seen. 3 An image, which cannot be formed on a sereen, is called a virtual image. 4 Avirwal image is produced at the place where the reflected rays appear to intersect. Lateral inversion of an image 1 In Figure 5.4, the woman is brushing her hair with a brush in her eght hand in front of a plane mirror but she appears to be using her eft hand if you look at her image in the mirros. FigureS.4 ‘This phenomenon is called lateral inversion (aleft-right reversal). However, the image is still upright (no top- bottom vertical reversal). Figure 5.5 shows how the lecier ‘Fis reversed in the virtual image. w Figure Lateral inversion of a case with the letter “F Besides the orientation, the order of letters is also reversed ina visual image. Figure 5.6 shows @ fire engine with the word ‘AMON. The letters are placed in this way so that drivers in front can see the eters in the right ordes Le, ‘BOMBA and the correct orientation in their rear-view mirrors. w Figure 5.6 Bomba ght«arr UNGErsiae-p -——— D Reflection of Light mirtor is a flat smooth st ished copper surface and surface which reflects most of the tight falling on it. 1 Aplae water surface are also mirrors. 2 Awell pol Figures.1 Plane ireor 3 How theseftecion offight works is described under the taws of refleetion, 3 Thane laws ae applicable tall types of reflecting surfaces at the potas of incidence. 2. ‘\ ‘The angle of incidence is equal co the angle of reflection, i.c.,/ =r. Oia: the reflected ray. end | the normal alllic inthe same plait. 7 Exam ‘Aray of ight is directed onto a plane miror as shown The path of a say of Hight deviates trom ine ov 2 i ol iging in Figure $.2. Calculate the angled. direction of the ray when the ray is reftected. What j the angie of deviation? Sebetion =ypr—sse <——{ Angeatretiecson = adage ofnccence | 2. Angle of deviation = 35435" = 70°j we fav =-féd a a Equipotential > v,-¥2-]88 ps —1 HF inalong the increasing direction off at The patential of a poonl TO jew Following figures sow tial afew in the sat ve = Evan charge 28d 3 Joag charged wire Aven under E - x curve gives negatree of change ut tial Rani ofstope of =x curve eS the electric field af that paint — == TRAIM your BRAIK> nara 2; eae Portes charge Sphencal coquipotential surfaces i}. aaxi+ i Blectric field isnecumi sample 21: The electric potential ini region isepecscated Fe Sate 3y--. Obaain expression or the cevaric field sarong a Wel £= fi, je] te Le = (Cylindrical exqanposcrsead surface ava Keven su face in electric field in which aterery pontt diteeson Of Here, 5a ge edy ala? Fleet field is normal to the surdace cap be regarded as . equpotential surfare OV, Diree sy-z)23 ~— 8 | ni2 t Sa sptie y-z]e-l «= i te Reais sith —_—— QUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES at | _—_ Lsshowsn in figure ifa charge is shifted from a point A to B eta 7 7° nifie, M schich is perpendect to the dotection of elertrse | ! Schl he work donc in shifting will obviously, te zeroas eet id Ma mice (s powmal (thed section of duplaccercnt? Figute shows twe-equipotemiat surfaces an 3 unifinrm etectric Gage Urwe wach to find the potential difference bevect (0 .s nawerk isdone in moving fan A ta fh we can sayihar A and nd sare at sime potential or we can say that all he points ef surface ets aed Oa gestae ye atc a Javeatsamepeterdia ax bere necal! aw tage Mavcquipotential poses ie. give aS ar ce. V-V Fa == ee Pm eee Sevier Marna FEE-XOTgv dpe wine “Tne potent r i ofa powet charge 55 sing the reall kQ ave sa oe steelectrc potential st peUmE pron be giver a tke ye [ave J ae KO, grt = AY. uh) = Pont -T «of ; pacer due to 2 Chareed Rink far find pexcntit ig which is Elecoic Case Atiteeralre Fe fad pitas neveare’ HUE NE T Wa eene dus oan clemensal RBS dg 0 rin given as ‘Keg wert ‘Fetal potential atC is vefav . pene? RoR Asall dq’s af the ring ate sittated at some distance R storm ine ace sey th i tall sadaed VEE roar rant, we can dicey say that she eles at Ke ringecnine 2 exe wecan absostatethateven ifcharge sos -unsfrenly destrbuted on ring. che eles potential ai C wo remain samme. Case: Ata Point on Axb of Ring [rw wish o findshe cleetric posenvial at apart Pontheaxisol ring as shown, ww can dnectly slate the result as here ateo all mines of nngare at sume diaanee Ve +R? frost the poss F, thusthe poteatial at Pecan be gisen as Graph: Electric Pocendial due to 9 Uniformly Charged Disc Figure shows 3 uniforetly charpeddiscofradius with surface charge dense To find prceritiad at pM Powe an clensemal F108 of rads y ond width ds on this elemental ring FS dque. tay dy Due wothes rine. ne ctceiric potent at pont ican be giver as Keg (Gp). J ve given ct eecic pte a iat P due 1 whee dis 2m Pe o eel Ziel casera t —=7RAIN YOUR BRAI cee theme need nel ther potential ucpoint Aand B (a) E.>E, = E> E, LQ 1 V>V, von, ‘Sol, Fines are mare dense al A so E, > E, tn the ditestion of Electtic field potential decreases 0, > V, Eaample 16: facharge i¢reteased in electric fick, wilt follow lines of force? Sol Casel: fcldy: lines of force are parallel (in uniform electric tn thistype of field, iCa charge tsreleased, force on walt be [Link] willbe akong 2 Sothecharge will ‘move [Link] line ,alongthe lines of force: (Case IL: Iflines of ore are curved (in nonmiform electric: ‘The charge will not follow lines of force ELECTRIC POTENTIAL Electric potential isa scalas property of every point inthe region of electric field Ata point in electric Field, cect potential is defined as ihe interaction energy of a unit positive charge fat 8 poi in cleciris field a charge q, has potential energy U. then electric potential at that pomt can be given as v Ve Gg, snulefcoutam As potential energy of a charge im electric field is defined as \workdone in bringing the charge from infinity lo the given pot tn cdevitic field Similarly we can define clocric potential as “work ‘done in bringing a unit positive charge fram infinity othe gicen Point against the electric forces * Properties: 1@ Potential tsa Scalar quantity, its valve may be positive, negativeor ze10 i) S.A. Unit of potential is volt = ME ana ing dimensional forruta [LTT Fitemeeevner = sey soma ammonite NO EE YOINE Ne BALE ‘ofthe work done by the electric field in taking the point char ge finn reference point {i.e infinity) lo that point (5) Electric potential due 10 9 pasitive chaige is aliays Positive and due to negative charge tts alnays negative ‘exceptat nfinaty (taking V, =0) (54 Potential decreases in the direction of electte field Electric Potential due to a Point Charge Weknow the region surrounding a chargciselectic field. Pus we can also define etccitic potential in the surrounding of a Pont charge The potential al» point Pat adistance» tram the charge q can be given as Where ts the potemtial energy of charg«.ifplaced at point P, which can be given as. pe Ba, x ‘Ths potential st point Pis, v, =a x The shove fesull is valid only for electic potential in the ‘surrounding of 3 point charge If we wish to find electric potential smthe surrounding ofa charged extended body, we Sst find the Potential due to an elements’ charge dq on body by using the above result and then integrate the expressian for the Whole body Electric Potential due to a Charge Rod Fequreshows a charged tod of engi L_ uniformly charged with ‘scharge ©. Due tothis wevall find clestric potential a a poss IY ata distance: from aneend ofthe tod shawn in figure shown a —__» .——= P For Uns we consider an efement of width data distance x from the point P Chatge or this element is o. = a a410: A charge Q is placed at the centre of denreie ur Hae hot val fethe work doe in aking chatgeq from A ups. zt a 10 diametrically opposite point B ? Sal. Potential encrgy of q al A {for 6 pairs afeharges) 1 ag Work donee by field is 2U2F : a? Tre Lat avi) ye eAU 2 U2 Ue = PE of g 18 weed aU Up ee we "Re #} -u-ao Example 13: Two —vereharge. cach ofimagnituce q are stat tae at 2 distance apant. A (+ ve) charge q is lying at the cent at Madore y= Nye tetuipen them, ‘The polemial energy: of the systern és U, 10 Example Hi: Thucecharges@, tqand tqare placa al the Vets yo nexvest charges are mutually inzerchanged and the potent af right angled soseeles triangle as shown inthe figure. The a, nel electrostatic enetpy of the configuration is #era. If Q ts — then 7) willbe squad tar 3 Gol. Net electrostatic energy Og , ky hag ae Esample 14: For the given figure charge 9, = 2 = 10“ and 1) 8 @,7-G-4* (OAC Achargey, of02 + 10'C istaken alongarcof = Ma a) a circle from C to D then potentiat energy of chrargeq, is decreased by ____ percent V2+1 = Uso Sol. pre ora Ca, = (4) ( 2 ) CU peso oe =-q|/——= ¢ 20cm a Be shee Esample 12: What iswork donc by the electrastatic field when a se pul Ure four charges together, as shown in the figure: Each A D ideo the square has length a Initially charges were.n infinity: adem ge 4 3 . hay ke EPFofg,et Deg, A4L 4 8a: : eRe ( ox 02 4 ; ~ of EPE at C and Dave 5.78 10" Pan 0.9 10" sal, Fis e ‘Ye decrement = FH xr00 =T6% here charges are led by infinite di i sepaaled by infinite distance] (idirensen 7604} Ao——__. uiHine wwe aes: eneagy will bonegoave as ve S8ch Fotentiat Energy for 2 System of Charged Particles: When more than to charged panicles afc Here tS cgstem, the interaction «ergy cat be given by sum of aeration energy ofallthe paxtsof particles For example fa system of tiéce particles having charges q,. 4; 2994, js given as shoun in Rguie The Low! interachan enctgy of this system can be given as y= Baas. Sad, Bade 5 & § Derfvation for a System of Point Charges {0 Keep all the charges al infinity: Now brag the charges: ‘ane by one to its corresponding position and Find work requited PE ef the syscr is algctree sum ofall the weeks Let W,=Wwork done in bringing first charge W,= worksdone in Winging second charge against feice duets I* charge W, + work done in bringing third charge ogamst force due to I* and 2~ chasge. FE = W, + 8) +, + (This wall comin, (n= sO Le srms) Method afealeulation (to be used in problems} Us sum of the interaction energics of the charges i} U4 FUP Uy yt AUD + +U, + Ud (ith) Method of calculation useful fr symmetrical porn) charge systems Find PE of each charge due to rest of the charges IU, = PE of firsicharge duc toall caher charges. =iU,2U,*-— +0) U, = PE af second charges due toall other charges. *W,4U,+ 40) U= PE ofthesystem = hay Example 8: Find out spond of particies when separation betwect them ist, ayy By Momentum conservation {as E Fis actiorreaction pait) (o] : metm, 20S k Solving (1) (2). we get. 37 4 [fe E =2/— ©" Vee Example 5: A proton moves from a farge destance with a speed u ‘peoton otiginally at rest. Find the m/s. directly towards 3 free distance of closest appraach for the two protons in terms of mass of proton mand is. charge ¢. Sol. As here the particle ot rest is free ta move, when one roaches the other, due to electrasiatic repulsion ‘other will also start moving and so the vclocly of fest particle will decrease while of other will increast and ot closest approach both will prove with same velocity. So if] ¥ is the common velocity of each particle at slosest approach, then by ‘conservation of momentum’ of the 1.0 Prowns system 1 ie, V=5U 2 mu=my+ my And by conservation ef energy Weta | ar € sreCharged Sheet: To find the electric field strength at a potrt P Mffont of the charged shect we consider 9 cyHindlical Gaussian rurface as shown in figure of face aiea SIT we apply Gauss ta or this surface, we have GE oe og [Ashereq__,=c8] 7 la thiscae JES =0 4 asthe lateral surface of cylinder is parallel to thedirection ‘oF efectrie field strength, no flux is corieg out from the lateral surface, Renee sie have feass fras= 28 1 a & © ise 28 © [Asctoctrie field istnifoem on both sides) we ECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY ja) Elertrastaiit Potential Energy: Potential energy ofa system of particles is defined cntly és conservative fields. Asclecbic fell ts also conservative, we define potentin! ‘energy in it. Before proceeding farther, we should keep in mind the following points, which are useful in understanding potential enet jy in electric fields. (Doing work impties supply oenergy di) Energy can neither be wansferred nor be wansformed into any other form without doing work (wi) Kinetic cncrgy implies utilization af energy where as potential energy implies storage of energy ar. “roreeeg ee sein ee eemis Onn apTEFY AN URRIHES, I Aupplied energy’ to the system is cither used tn form of KE of its particles or it will be stored in the system in some form, increasing the potential ettergy of system When all particles ofa system ate separated far apart by infinite distance there will be no interaction between them. This state we take as reference of zero potentia| energy Now potential cnergy of a system of particles we define as the [Link] dane in assem bling the system in given configuration against the interaction forces ofpatticles + Rhertrostaiie potential energy bs defined in emo ways, (Interaction energy of charged particles af a system (1) Selenergy ofa charged abjeed (Hil) be discussed later) (b) Electrostatic Interaction Energy: Electrosiatic interaction energy of a system of charged paructes is defined as the external work required to assemble the partictes from infinity tea given configuration. When some charged particfes are at infinite separation, 1s taken as zero as there is na interaction between them. When these charges are brought close to. given configuration, external seork is Fequited ifthe force between these patticles is topulsive ‘and eneygy is supplied tosbe 9 stem trees final potential energy of system will be positive Ifthe force between the partiches as ateractive work will be done by thesystem. sand final potential energy of system will be negative Let us take some illustrations (understand this concept indetal (co tmteraction Energy of » System of Two Charged Particles: —<— «—_____, Figure shows two +ve charges q, and g, separaied by a distance ¢. The electrasiztic interaction energy of this system ean be given as work done in bringing 4, fears finity to the given separation fram q,. It can be caleulated a $<) kaa weft Be -[ Say J+ve sign shows that x is decreasing We ae =U Jinicroction encey|