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Chapter 5 STAIRS
A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to the other. It is provided to afford the means of ascent and
descent between various floors of a building. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is

located is known as stair-case. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway. It should be
suitably located in a building. In a domestic building the stairs should be centrally located to provide easy

access to all the rooms. In public buildings, stairs should be located near the entrance. Stairs may be
constructed of timber, bricks, stone, steel or reinforced cement concrete.

Elements of stairs
1. Step: It is a portion of stair which permits ascent or descent. It is comprised of a tread and a riser. A stair is
composed of a set of steps.
2. Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the foot is placed while ascending or
descending.
3. Riser: It is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.
4. Flight: This is defined as an unbroken series of steps between landings.
5. Landing: It is the level platform at the top or bottom, of a flight between the floors. A landing facilitates
change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking rest during the use of the stair.
6. Rise: It is the vertical distance between two successive tread faces.
7. Going: It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.
8. Nosing: It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. It is usually rounded off from
architectural considerations.
9. Scotia: It is a moulding provided under the nosing to improve the elevation of the step, and to provide
strength to nosing.
10. Soffit: It is the underside of a stair.
11. Line of nosings: It is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential to the nosings. It is useful in the
construction of hand rails, giving the line with which the under-surface of the hand rail should coincide. 12.
Pitch or slope: It is the angle which the line of nosing of the stair makes with the horizontal.
13. Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members which support the steps in a stair. They run along the
slope of the stair.
14. Newel post: Newel post is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect the ends of
strings and hand rail.
15. Baluster: It is vertical member of wood or metal, supporting the hand rail.
16. Balustrade: It consists of a row of balusters surmounted by a hand rail, to provide protection for the users
of the stair.
17. Hand rail: It is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following generally the contour of the
nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters.
18. Head room: It is the minimum clear vertical distance between the tread and overhead structure (i.e.,
ceiling, etc.).
19. Run: It is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landings.
20. Header: It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or landings.
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Requirements of good stairs

1. Location:
(i) It should be so located as to provide easy access to the occupants of the building.
(ii) It should be so located that it is well lighted and ventilated directly from the exterior.
(iii) It should be so located as to have approaches convenient and spacious.
2. Width of stair:
It should be wide enough to carry the user without much crowd or inconvenience.
In a domestic building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public building, 1.5 to 1.8 m width may be
required.
3. Length of flight:
From comfort point view, the number of steps are not more than 12 and not less than 3.
4. Pitch of stair:
The pitch of the stairs should match with the French theory: ‘the labour of moving vertically is about twice
that of moving horizontally’ if the average human stride is taken as 23 inches. If the rise and going are
measured in inch units, the best pitch of the stairs is that inclination which by doubling the rise and adding the
going equals 23. Pitch should however, be limited to 30° to 45°.
5. Head room :
The clear distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it should not be less than 2.1
to 2.3 m, so that even a tall person can use the stair with some luggage on its head.
6. Balustrade:
Open well stair should always be provided with balustrade, to provide safety to the users. Wide stair should
have hand rail to both the sides.
7. Step dimensions:
The rise and going should be of such dimensions as to provide comfort to the users. Their proportion should
also be such as to provide desirable pitch of the stair. The going should not be less than 25 cm, though 30 cm
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going is quite comfortable. The rise should be between 10 cm (for

hospitals, etc.) to 15 cm. The width of landing should not be less
than the width of stair.
8. Materials of construction:
The material used for the construction of stair should be such as to
provide (i) sufficient strength, and (ii) fire resistance.
Types of Stairs
1. STRAIGHT STAIRS
In this type, this stair runs straight between the two floors. It
is used for small houses where there are restrictions in
available width. The stair may consist of either one single
flight or more than one flight (usually two) with a landing, as shown in Fig. 14.3.
2. TURNING STAIRS
(i) Quarter Turn Stairs
A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the left or to the right, the turn
being affected either by introducing a quarter space landing [Fig. 14.4(a)] or by providing winders [Fig.
14.4(b)]
Quarter turn stairs are of two types:
(a) Newel quarter turn stairs (b) Geometrical quarter turn stairs.

(a) Newel
quarter turn
stairs These
stairs have the
conspicuous
newel posts at
the beginning
and end of each
flight. At the
quarter turn,
there may
either be
quarter space
landing or there
may be winders. Two forms of this type are shown in Fig. 14.4.
(b) Geometrical quarter turn stairs In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the hand rail is
continuous, with no newel post at the landing. Two forms are shown in Fig. 14.5.
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(ii) Half Turn Stairs

Half turn stair is the one
which has its direction reversed, or changed for 180°. Such stairs are quite common.
These may be of three types:
(a) Dog-legged or newel half turn stairs
(b) Open newel half turn stairs
(c) Geometrical half turn stairs.

(a) Dog-legged stairs : This name is given because of its

appearance in sectional elevation. It comes under the
category of newel (or solid newel) stairs in which newel
posts are provided at the beginning and end of each flight.
These may be of two forms: (i) with half space landing,
and (ii) with quarter space landing and winders. Generally,
the former type (i.e., without winders) is more common,
as shown in Fig. 14.6. There is no space between the

outer strings of the two flights.

(b) Open newel half turn stairs
Open well or open newel half turn stair has a space or well
between the outer strings. This is the only aspect in which it
differs from the dog-legged stair. The additional width is
required between the two flights; the space between the
two strings may vary from 15 cm (min) to 100 cm. When the
space left is more, a small flight containing two to four steps
may be introduced at the turn, between the two quarter
space landing, as shown in Fig. 14.7(b). Otherwise, for small width well, a half space landing may be

provided as shown in Fig. 14.7(a).

(c) Geometrical half turn stairs
The essential features of such stairs are that the stringers and the hand rails are continuous,
without any intervening newel post. These may be either with half-space landing [Fig. 14.8(a)] or

without landing [Fig. 14.8(b)].

(iii) Three Quarter Turn Stairs
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A three quarter turn stairs has its direction changed three times with its upper flight crossing the
bottom one. It may either be newel type or open newel type. Such type of stair is used when the
length of the stair room is limited and when the
vertical distance between the two floors is quite
large.
(iv) Bifurcated Stairs
This type of stair is commonly used in public buildings
at their entrance hall. The stair has a wider flight at
the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower
flights, one turning to the left and the other to the
right, at the landing. It may be either of newel type
with a newel post as shown in Fig. 14.9 (left side) or
of geometrical type, as shown in the right portion of

Fig. 14.9 with continuous stringer and handrails.

(v) Continuous Stairs
Continuous stairs are those which do neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post.
They are, therefore, geometrical in shape.
Continuous stairs may be of the following types:
(i) Circular stairs, (ii) Spiral stairs, and (iii) Helical stairs.
Circular stairs are shown in Fig. 14.5(b) and Fig. 14.8(b). Spiral stair is shown in Fig.
14.10. Such a stair is usually made either of R.C.C. or metal, and is employed at a
location where there are space limitations. These are also used as emergency stairs, and
are provided at the back side of a building. All the steps are winders. The stair is,
therefore, not comfortable. A helical stair, shown in Fig. 14.11, looks very fine but its
structural design and construction is very complicated. It is made of R.C.C. in which a

large portion of steel is required to resist bending, shear and torsion.

Example 1. Plan a dog legged stair for a building in which the vertical distance between the floors is 3.6 m. The
stair hall measures 2.5 m × 5 m.
Solution.
Figure shows the plan of the stair hall.
Let the rise be 15 cm and tread be 25 cm. Let us keep width of each
flight = 1.2 m.
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Width of landing = Width of stairs = 1.2 m.

Height of each flight = 3.6/2 = 1.8 m.
No. of risers required = 180 15 = 12 in each flight.
No. of treads in each flight = 12 – 1 = 11
Space occupied by treads = 11 × 25 = 275 cm.
Space left for passage = 5 – 1.2 – 2.75 = 1.05 m.

Example 2. Figure 14.26 shows the plan of a stair hall of a

public building, which measures 4.25 m × 5.25 m. The
vertical distance between the floors is 3.9 m. Design a
suitable stair for the building.
Solution.
Since it is a public building, let us fix the width of stairs = 1.5
m. Since the width of room is 4.25 m, space left between the
two flights = 4.25 – 2 × 1.5 = 1.25 m. This suggests that we
can provide an open well-type stairs.
Let the height of risers be 15 cm. Keeping two flights, no. of riser in each flight = ½*3.9*100/15 = 13
No. of treads in each flight = 13 – 1 = 12
Keeping width of tread = 25 cm, and width of landing = 1.5 m,
Horizontal distance required to accommodate these = (25 ×
12) + 150 = 450 cm = 4.5 m.
This will leave width of passage = 5.25 – 4.5 = 0.75 m only
which is not sufficient.
Also, in public buildings, maximum number of treads in each
flight is limited to 9. Hence let us provide 6 treads in the
landing portion, which can be easily accommodated in a
width = 5 × 25 = 125 cm, which is equal to the width of well.
Provide 9 treads in each flight. Thus there will be a total of 9
+ 9 + 5 = 23 treads.
The stairs will be of quarter landing type. Total number of risers to accommodate 23 treads in three flights will
be = 23 + 3 = 26. Height of riser = 3.9*100/26 = 15 cm.
Thus the steps will have risers of 15 cm and treads of 25 cm. Horizontal space required for 9 treads = 25 × 9 =
225 cm = 2.25 m.
∴ Width of passage left = 5.25 – (1.5 + 2.25) = 1.50
The plan of the stairs is shown in Fig. 14.26
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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1. Ladder:

 Function: Provides temporary access to higher or lower

areas.
 Design: Made from wood, aluminum, or fiberglass, with
steps or rungs.
 Types:
o Step ladder: Self-supporting with steps on both
sides.
o Extension ladder: Can be extended to reach higher
places.
o Folding ladder: Compact and portable.
 Use: Ideal for small heights or areas with limited space.
 Limitations: Not suitable for large heights or people with
mobility issues.

2. Ramp:

 Function: Provides a smooth, inclined surface to transition

between levels.
 Design: Sloped structure, can be made from concrete, wood,
metal, or rubber.
 Types:
o Permanent ramps: Built into buildings (e.g., wheelchair ramps).
o Portable ramps: Used for temporary setups (e.g., loading ramps for trucks).
 Use: Ideal for transporting goods, wheelchairs, strollers, or bikes between levels.
 Limitations: Requires more space compared to stairs or
elevators.

3. Lift (Elevator):

 Function: Vertical transport system for people and goods.

 Design: Enclosed platform or cabin that moves up and down
within a shaft.
 Types:
o Passenger elevators: For people in buildings like offices,
malls, or hotels.
o Freight elevators: For transporting heavy goods.
o Hydraulic elevators: Use fluid pressure to move the
platform.
o Traction elevators: Use ropes and pulleys for movement.
 Use: Ideal for multi-story buildings, especially where stairs are
impractical.
 Limitations: Requires more space, power supply, and regular
maintenance.

4. Escalator:

 Function: A moving staircase that continuously moves in a loop.

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 Design: Step-like structure with an endless belt system that moves vertically.
 Types:
o Parallel escalators: Used in pairs, moving people in opposite directions.
o Spiral escalators: Curved escalators, often found in more specialized locations.
 Use: Common in high-traffic areas like shopping malls, airports, subway stations.
 Limitations: Limited to certain heights and cannot carry heavy objects like a lift.
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Chapter 8 TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION

Scaffolding
When the height of wall or column or other structural member of a building exceeds about 1.5 m, temporary
structures are needed to support the platform over which the workmen can sit and carry on the constructions.
These temporary structures, constructed very close to the wall, is in the form of timber or steel framework,
commonly called scaffolding. The scaffolding should be stable and should be strong enough to support
workmen and other construction material placed on the platform supported by the scaffolding. The height of
the scaffolding goes on increasing as the height of construction increases.
Component parts
Scaffolding has the following components: (Refer Fig. 18.8).
(i) Standards. These are the vertical members of the framework, supported on the ground or drums, or
embedded into the ground.
(ii) Ledgers. These are horizontal members, running parallel to the wall.
(iii) Braces. These are diagonal members fixed on standards.
(iv) Putlogs. These are transverse members, placed at right angles to the wall with one end supported on
ledgers and other end on the wall.
(v) Transoms. These are those putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers.
(vi) Bridle. This is a member used to bridge a wall opening; supports one end of putlog at the opening.
(vii) Boarding. These are horizontal platform to support workmen and material; these are supported on the
putlogs.
(viii) Guard rail. This is a rail, provided like a ledger, at the working level.
(ix) Toe board. These are boards, placed parallel to ledgers, and supported on putlogs, to give protection at
the level of working platform. Various components or members of the scaffolding are secured by means of
ropelashings, nails bolts etc.

Types of scaffolding
1. Single scaffolding (Brick-layer’s scaffolding)
This consists of a single framework of standards, ledgers, putlogs
etc., constructed parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.20
metres. The standards are placed at 2 to 2.5 m interval. Ledgers
connect the standards, and are provided at a vertical interval of 1.2
to 1.5 m. Putlogs are placed with one end on the ledgers and other
end in the hole left in the wall, at an interval of 1.2 to 1.5 m.
Guards, boarding and other members are placed as shown in Fig.
18.8. Such a scaffoldings is commonly used for bricklaying, and is

also called putlog scaffolding.

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2. Double or mason’s scaffolding

In stone masonry, it is very difficult to provide holes in the wall to support putlogs. In that case, a more strong
scaffolding is used consisting of two rows of scaffolding. Each row thus forms a separate vertical framework.
The first row is placed at 20 to 30 cm away from the wall, while the other framework is placed at 1 m distance
from the first one. Putlogs are then supported on both the frames. Rakers and cross braces are provided to

make the scaffolding

more strong and stable.
Such a scaffolding is
also called ‘independent

scaffolding’.

3. Cantilever or needle scaffolding

Cantilever scaffolding is used under the
following circumstances:
(i) Ground is weak to support standards.
(ii) Construction of upper part of the wall is
to be carried out
(iii) It is required to keep the ground, near
wall, free for traffic etc
The scaffolding may be single type (putlog
scaffolding), as shown in Fig. 18.10(a) or
double type (independent scaffolding), as
shown in Fig. 19.10(b). In the former type,
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the standards are supported on series of needles taken out through opening or through holes in the wall. In

the second type, the needles or projecting beams are strutted inside the floors, through the openings.

4. Suspended scaffolding
This is a light weight scaffolding used for repair works such as pointing, painting etc. The working platform is
suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains etc. The platform can be raised or lowered at any
desired level.
5. Trestle scaffolding
Such type of scaffolding is used for painting and repair works inside the room, up to a height of 5 m. The
working platform is supported on the top of movable contrivances such as tripods, ladders etc., mounted on
wheels.
6. Steel scaffolding
A steel scaffolding is practically similar to timber scaffolding except that wooden members are replaced by
steel tubes and rope lashings are replaced by steel couplets or fittings. Such a scaffolding can be erected and
dismantled rapidly. It has greater strength, greater durability and higher fire resistance. Though its initial cost
is more but its salvage value is higher. It
is extensively used these days.
Figure 18.11 shows steel scaffolding
both for brick wall as well as stone

wall.

7. Patented scaffolding
Many patented scaffolding, made
of steel, are available in the market.
These scaffoldings are equipped with
special couplings, frames etc. The
working platform is supported on
brackets which can be adjusted at any
suitable height.
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UNDERPINNING
The process of placing a new foundation under an existing one or strengthening an existing foundation is
called underpinning of foundations.
Underpinning may be required to serve the following purposes:
(i) To strengthen the shallow foundation of existing building when a building with deep foundation is to be
constructed adjoining it.
(ii) To strengthen existing foundation which has settled and caused cracks in the wall.
(iii) To deepen the existing foundation (resting on poor strata) so as to rest it on deeper soil strata of higher
bearing power.
(iv) To construct a basement in the existing building.
Underpinning can be carried but by the following methods:
1. Pit method 2. Pile method
1. Pit method
In this method, the entire length of the foundation to be underpinned is divided into sections of 1.2 to 1.5 m
lengths. One section is taken up at a time. For each section, a hole is made in the wall, above the plinth level,
and needle is inserted in the hole. Needles may be either of stout, timber or steel section. Bearing plates are
placed above the needle to support the masonry above it. Needle is supported on either side of the wall on
crib supports (wooden blocks) and screw jacks. The foundation pit is then excavated up to the desired level
and new foundation is laid. When the work of one section is over, work on next to next section is taken up,
i.e., alternate sections are underpinned in the first round, and then the remaining sections are taken up.
Figure 18.5 shows the section. If the wall to be underpinned is weak, raking shores may be provided. Similarly,
the floors may also be supposed, if required.
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If an interior strong column exists, or if the foundation is to be extended only to one side, cantilever needle
beams may be used in the place of central needle beam, as shown in Fig. 18.6. Jack is placed between the
column and the wall.

The following points are note-worthy in the pit method:

1. Alternate sections are taken up in the first round. The remaining intermediate sections are then taken up.
Only one section should be taken at a time.
2. If the wall is long, the work is started from the middle, and is extended in both the directions.
3. If the new foundation is deeper, proper timbering of the foundation trench may be done.
4. The needle beams etc. should be removed only when the new foundation has gained strength.
5. It is desirable to do the new foundation work in concrete.
6. The needle holes etc. should be closed in masonry using cement
mortar.
2. Pile method
In this method, piles are driven at regular interval along both the
sides of the wall. Generally, bore hole piles on under- reamed
piles may be used. The piles are connected by concrete or steel
needles, penetrating through the wall. These beams
incidentally act as pile caps also. This method is very much useful in
clayey soils, and also in water-logged areas. The existing

foundation is very much relieved of the load.

SHORING
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Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure.

These render lateral support to walls and are used under the following circumstances:
(i) When a wall shows signs of bulging out due to bad workmanship.
(ii) When a wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation, and the cracked wall needs repairs.
(iii) When an adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
(iv) When openings are to be made or enlarged in the wall.
Shores may be of the following types:
1. Raking Shores
2.Flying Shores
3.Dead Shores

1. Raking Shores
In this method, inclined members, called rakers are used to give lateral support to the wall, as shown in Fig.
18.1. A raking shore consists of the following components:
(i) rakers or inclined members,
(ii) wall plate,
(iii) needles,
(iv) cleats,
(v) bracing, and
(vi) sole plate.
The wall plate, about 20 to 25 cm wide and 5 to 7.5 cm thick is
placed vertically along the face of the wall and is secured by
means of needles of 10 cm × 7.5 cm section. These needles
penetrate the wall by about 10 cm. In order that the needles
do not get sheared off due the thrust of the raker, the needles
are further strengthened by means of cleats which are nailed
directly to the wall plate. Rakers about against the needles in
such a way that the centre line of the raker and the wall meet
at the floor level. Thus, there will be one raker corresponding
to each floor. These rakers are inter-connected by struts, to
prevent their buckling. The feet of rakers are connected to an
inclined sole plate, embedded into the ground by means of
iron dogs. The feet of rakers are further stiffened near the sole
plate by means of hoop iron. The wall plate distribute the
pressure to the wall uniformly.
The following points are note worthy:
1. Rakers should be inclined to the ground by 45°, to make
them more effective. However, in practice, the angle may vary
from 45° to 75°. The top raker should not be inclined steeper
than 75°.
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2. For tall buildings, the length of raker can be reduced by introducing rider raker.

3. Rakers should be properly braced at intervals.

4. The size of the rakers should be decided on the basis of anticipated thrust from the wall.

5. The centre line of a raker and the wall should meet at floor level.

6. If longer length of the wall needs support, shoring may be spaced at 3 to 4.5 m spacing, depending upon the
requirements.

7. The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground, at an inclination, and should be of proper
section. The size of the sole plate should be such that it accommodates all the rakers, and a cleat provided
along the outer edge.

8. Wedges should not be used on sole plates since they are likely to give was under vibrations which are likely
to occur.
2. Flying or Horizontal Shores

Such shores are used to give horizontal support to two adjacent, parallel party walls which have become
unsafe due to removal or collapse of the intermediate building. All types of arrangements of supporting the
unsafe structure in which the shores do not reach the ground fall under this category. If the walls are quite
near to each other (distance up to 9 m), single flying shore (Fig. 18.2) can be constructed. It consists of well
plates, needles, cleats, struts, horizontal shore straining pieces and folding wedges. When the distance
between the walls is more, a compound or double flying shore (Fig. 18.3) may be provided. Flying shores have
the advantage that building operations of the ground are not obstructed.

The following points should be kept in mind while erecting the flying shores:

1. The centre lines of flying shore and struts and those of the walls should meet at floor levels of the two
buildings. If the floor levels are different, the horizontal shore should be placed either mid-way between the
levels of the two floor of equal strength, or it should be placed at the level of weaker floor.
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2. The struts should preferably be incline at 45°. In no case should this inclination exceed 60°.

3. Single shores should be used only up to 9 m distance between walls. For greater distance, double shores
should be provided. In that case, both the horizontal shores should be symmetrically placed with respect to
the floor levels.

4. The flying shores should be spaced at 3 to 4.5 m centres, along the two walls; and horizontal braces should
be introduced between adjacent shores.

5. Large factor of safety should be used for determining sections of various members of the shoring, since it is
very difficult to assess the actual loads.

6. Flying shores are

inserted when the old
building is being removed,
and should be kept in
position till the new unit is
constructed.

3. Dead or Vertical
Shores

Such type of shoring

consists of vertical
members known as dead
shores supporting horizontal members known as needles. The needles transfer the load of the wall etc., to the
dead shores. Such shoring is provided to serve the following purposes:
1. To rebuild the defective lower part of the wall.
2. To rebuild or deepen the existing foundation.
3. To make large opening in the existing wall at lower level.
Holes are made in the wall at suitable height. Needles, which are made of thick wooden sections or of steel,
are inserted in the holes. Each needle is supported at its two ends by vertical posts or dead shores. The dead
shores stand away from the walls so that repair work is not obstructed. The shores are supported on sole
plates and folding wedges.
 P a g e | 17

The following points are note worthy:

1. The section of needle and dead shores should be adequate to transfer the load, which can estimated with
fair degree of accuracy.
2. The needles are spaced at 1 to 2 metres. A minimum of three needles should be used for and opening.

3. The needles should be suitably braced.

4. If the opening is made in an external wall, the length of outer dead shores will be greater than the inner
ones.

5. The dead shores are supported on sole plates. Folding wedges should be inserted between the two. It is
preferable to use one single sole plate between dead shores in a raw.

6. The floors should be suitably supported from inside.

7. If the external wall is weak, raking shores may be provided, in addition to the dead shores.

8. Shores should be removed only when the new work has gained sufficient strength, but in no case earlier
than
7 days of the completion of new work. The new work should have proper strutting.

9. The sequence of removal should be (i) needles, (ii) strutting from opening, (iii) floorstrutting inside, and (iv)

raking shore if any. An interval of 2 days should be allowed between each one of these removal operations.
 P a g e | 18

FORMWORK
The form work or shuttering is a temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the structure, in which
concrete is placed and in which it hardens and matures.

REQUIREMENTS
A good form work should satisfy the followings requirements:

(i) The material of the form work should be cheap and it should be suitable for reuse several times.
(ii) It should be practically water proof so that it does not absorb water from concrete. Also, its shrinkage and
swelling should be minimum.
(iii) It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it, such as dead load of concrete and live load
during its pouring, compaction and curing.
(iv) It should be stiff enough so that deflection is minimum.
(v) It should be as be light as possible.
(vi) The surface of the form work should be smooth, and it should afford easy stripping.
(vii) All joints of the form work should be stiff so that lateral deformation under loads is minimum. Also, these
joints should be leak proof.
(viii) The form work should rest on non-yielding supports.

FORMWORK FOR RCC STRUCTURES:

SHUTTERING FOR COLUMNS
Shuttering for a column is probably the simplest. It consists of the following main components:
(i) sheeting all round the column periphery,
(ii) side yokes and end yokes,
(iii) wedges, and
(iv) bolts with washers.
Figure 26.1 shows the form work for a square column. The side yokes
and end yokes consist of two numbers each, and are suitably spaced
along the height of the column .The two-side yokes are comparatively
of heavier section, and are connected together by two long bolts of
16 mm dia. Four wedges, one at each corner, are inserted between the bolts and the end yokes. The sheathing
is nailed to the yokes. Figure 26.2 shows shutterings for octagonal and round columns.
 P a g e | 19

SHUTTERING FOR BEAM AND SLAB FLOOR

Figure 26.3 shows the form work for beam and slab floor. The slab is continuous over a number of beams. The
slab is supported on 2.5 cm thick sheathing laid parallel to the main beams. The sheathing is supported on
wooden battens which are laid between the beams, at some suitable spacing. In order to reduce to deflection,
the battens may be propped at middle of the span through joists. The side forms of the beam consist of 3 cm
thick sheathing. The bottom sheathing of the beam form may be 5 to 7 cm thick. The ends of the battens are
supported on the ledger which is fixed to the cleats throughout the length. Cleats 10 cm × 2 cm to 3 cm are
fixed to the side forms at the same spacing as that of battens, so that battens may be fixed to them. The beam
form is supported on a head tree. The shore or post is connected to head tree through cleats. At the bottom of

share, two wedges of hard wood are provided over a sole piece.
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FORMWORK FOR STAIRS

Figure 26.4 shows the form work for a stairs. The sheathing or decking for the deck slabs is carried on cross-
joists which are in turn supported on raking ledgers. The ledger is generally of 7.5 cm × 10 cm size. The cross-
joists may be of 5 cm × 10 cm size, suitably spaced. The risers planks are 4 to 5 cm thick, and equal to the
height of riser. These planks are bevelled at the bottom to permit the whole of the tread faced to be
trowelled. The riser planks are placed only after the reinforcement has been fixed in position. The outer ends
of the risers are carried by a cut-string made of 5 cm thick plank. The cut string is strutted to the cross-joists by
5 cm × 10 cm struts. The wall ends of the riser planks are carried by 5 cm × 10 cm hangers secured to a 5 cm
thick board fixed to or strutted against the wall. The treads are left open to permit concreting and thorough
vibration. A stiffener joist of size 5 cm × 10 cm is placed along the middle of the riser planks. The stiffener is

wired to cross-
joists
through

decking.

SHUTTERING FOR WALLS

Figure 26.5 shows fixed form for walls. The boarding may
be 4 to 5 cm thick for walls upto 3 to 4 m high. The boards
are fixed to 5 cm × 10 cm posts, known as studs or soldiers,
spaced at about 0.8 m apart. Horizontal walings of size 7.5
cm × 10 cm are fixed to the posts at suitable interval. The
whole assembly is then strutted as shown, using 7.5 cm 10
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cm struts. The two shutters are kept apart equal to the thickness of the wall, by providing a 5 cm high concrete
kicker at the bottom and by 2.5 cm × 5 cm spacers nailed to the posts.

Figure 26.6 shows moving form for wall. In these the forms are made up in panel size of 0.6 m × 1.8 m so that
handling and stripping is easier. A 15 mm plywood is commonly used instead of boarding. The panels are
erected in such a way that the lower panels can be removed when concrete is hard and used higher up the
wall. Framing of size 5 cm × 10 cm is used to ply shutter. The panels are fixed to a central and two end studs.
Each stud consists of two pieces of timbers, 5 cm × 15 cm, blocked apart. The end strut of each panel secures
adjacent panel. Boards are reversed for Ist lift; for succeeding lifts, bolts pass through holes formed to
previous lift.For rapid construction of a constant thickness wall, continuously rising form, commonly known as
sliding shutter is used. The
shutter may rise at the rate of
15 to 30 cm per hour
depending upon the rate
of hardening of concrete.
Either a hydraulic Jack
or a manually operated
screw jack may be used for
raising the form.