Debre Markos University

Debre Markos Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical and computer Engineering

Power system I
2. Basic Concepts in Electric Power system

Tiruwork A.
Email: [email protected]

1
 Power in single phase a.c. system
 The instantaneous power in watts absorbed by an electrical load is the
product of the instantaneous voltage across the load in volts and the
instantaneous current into the load in amperes
 Assuming the load voltage is
v(t )  Vmax cos t   

Purely resistive load

 For a purely resistive load, the current into the load is in phase with the
load voltage, I  VR , and the current into the resistive load is
iR (t )  I R max cos t    A
Vmax
where I R max 
R

2
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is
pR (t )  v (t )iR (t )  Vmax I R max cos 2 t   


1
2

Vmax I R max 1  cos  2 t     

 VI R 1  cos  2 t     W 

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor has an

average value
V2
PR  VI R   IR2 R W
R
Plus a double frequency term VI R cos  2 t    

1
Note : cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x 
2
3
Purely inductive loads
 For a purely inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90 degree,
V
IL  , and
jX L

iL (t )  I L max cos t    90o  A

Vmax is the inductive reactance
where I L max  , and X L   L
XL

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is

pL (t )  v (t )iL (t )  Vmax I L max cos t    cos t    900 

1
 Vmax I L max cos  2 t     900 
2
 VI L sin  2 t     W
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is a double-frequency
sinusoid with zero average value 1
Note : cos x cos y  cos  x  y   cos  x  y  
2
4 cos  x  900   sin x
 General RLC Load
 For a general load composed of RLC elements under sinusoidal-steady-
state excitation, the load current is of the form
i (t )  imax cos t    A

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the load is then

p(t )  v(t )i (t )  Vmax I max cos t    cos t   
1

 Vmax I max cos      cos  2 t         
2

 VI cos      VI cos     cos  2 t      VI sin     sin 2 t     W

 
p (t )  VI cos     1  cos  2 t      VI sin     sin  2 t    
Letting I cos      I R and I sin      I X gives

 
p (t )  VI R 1  cos  2 t      VI X sin  2 t    
pR ( t ) pX (t )

5 Note : cos( x  /  y)  cos x cos y  /  sin x sin y

  the instantaneous power absorbed by the load has two components:
 One can be associated with the power PR(t) absorbed by the resistive
component of the load (Real power), and
 the other can be associated with the power PX(t) absorbed by the
reactive (inductive or capacitive) component of the load (Reactive
Power).

6
 Complex Power
 The Active power is the power that is dissipated in the resistance
of the load.
 It uses the same formula used for DC (V & I are the magnitudes,
not the phasors):
2
V
P  I 2R  [watts, W]
R
 The reactive power is the power that is exchanged between
reactive components (inductors and capacitors)
 The formulas look similar to those used by the active power, but
use reactance instead of resistances.

2
V
Q  I2X  [VAR]
7 X
 For circuits operating in sinusoidal-steady-state, real and reactive power
are conveniently calculated from complex power, defined below.
 Let the voltage across a circuit element be V  , and the current into
the element be I  . Then the complex power S is the product of the
voltage and the conjugate of the current:

S  VI *  V   I    VI     
*

VI cos      jVI sin    

P Q

where     is the angle b/n the voltage and current

So S is recognized as
S  P  jQ

 P = real power
 Q= reactive power and
 cos     Power factor
8
 The magnitude S  VI of the complex power S is called the apparent power, it
signifies the rating of equipments (generators,Transformers, etc)

Relationships between real, reactive and complex power

P  S cos 
Q  S sin 

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
  -cos 1 0.85  31.8
100kW
S   117.6 kVA
0.85
Q  117.6sin( 31.8)  62.0 kVar

9
 Power Triangle

 From these complex power expressions, the following can be

stated:
V2
 A resistor absorbs (positive) real power, PR  W, and zero
R
reactive power, QR  0 var.
 An inductor absorbs
2
zero real power, PL  0 W, and positive reactive
V
power, Q  X var.
L
L

 A capacitor absorbs zero real power, PC  0 W, and negative reactive

2
power, Q   V var.
C
X
 Alternatively, a capacitor delivers positive reactive power,  V
C 2

X
. C

10
 Direction of Power Flow
 Consider the current and voltage of figure (a) where a dc current I
is flowing through a battery.
 If the voltmeter and ammeter both read upscale to show E=100 V
and I=10 A, the battery is being charged (absorbing energy) at the
rate given by the product EI= 1000 W.
 On the other hand , if the ammeter connections have to be reversed in
order that it reads upscale with the current arrow still in the direction
shown , then I =-10 A and the product EI = -1000 W, the battery is
discharging (delivering energy)

11
The same considerations applied to the ac circuit relationships.
 Figure (b) shows an ac system with an ideal voltage source with polarity
marks to indicate the terminals which is positive during the half cycle of
instantaneous voltage.
 Similarly the arrow indicates the direction of current I into the box
during the positive half cycle of the current.
 By definition the power absorbed inside the box is

S = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝗅𝑉𝗅 𝗅𝐼𝗅 cos 𝛉 + 𝑗 𝗅𝑉𝗅 𝗅𝐼𝗅 sin 𝛉

Where 𝛉 is the phase by which I lags V.
If P = 𝗅𝑉𝗅 𝗅𝐼𝗅 cos 𝛉 is positive real power is absorbed by E.
If P = 𝗅𝑉𝗅 𝗅𝐼𝗅 cos 𝛉 is negative real power is supplied by E.
12
 Generally , we can determine the P and Q absorbed or supplied by any ckt
as enclosed in a box with entering current I and voltage V having polarity as
shown in the figure given below.

If P> 𝟎, circuit absorbs real power

If P< 𝟎, circuit supplies real power
If Q> 𝟎, circuit absorbs reactive
power (I lags V)
If Q< 𝟎, circuit supplies reactive
power (I leads V)

13
 Balanced three phase system
•Three sources connected to 3
loads using four-wire system
•Sources have EQUAL frequency
but DIFFFERENT phases

Balanced three phase voltages:

 same magnitude (VM )
 120 phase shift
a
Van
+
 van (t )  VM cos t
vbn (t )  VM cost  120
n
Vcn

Vbn b vcn (t )  VM cost  120

14 c
 Balanced three phase currents:
 same magnitude (IM )
 120 phase shift
ia (t )  I M cos t   
ib (t )  I M cos t    120
ic (t )  I M cos t    240 

15
 Positive (abc) Sequence Negative (acb) Sequence

Van  VM 0 Van  VM 0

Vbn  VM   120  Vbn  VM   120 
Vcn  VM   120  Vcn  VM   120 
16
 The solution of a three phase network under balanced conditions is easily
carried out by solving the single phase network corresponding to the
reference phase.
 Figure 2.1 shows a simple, balanced three phase network
 The generator and load neutrals are therefore at the same potential, so that
In  0

Figure 2.1

17
  The neutral impedance zn does not affect network behavior
 For the reference phase a
Ea  ( zG  zL ) I a .............(2.1)
 The current and the voltage in the other phases have the same magnitude
but progressively shifted by 1200
 Equation 2.1 corresponds to the single phase network of figure 2.2 below
 The solution of fig. 2.2 completely determines the solution of the three
phase network

Figure 2.2

18
  Consider the case where a three phase transformer forms part of a three
phase power system
 If the transformer is Y/Y connected as shown in fig. 2.3a, in the single
phase equivalent of the three phase circuit it can be obviously represented
by a single phase transformer (as in fig. 2.3b) with primary and secondary
pertaining to phase a of the three phase transformer

Figure 2.3

19
 If the transformer is Y/∆ connected as in figure 2.4a below, the delta side
has to be replaced by an equivalent star connection as shown doted so as to
obtain the single phase equivalent of fig. 2.4b

 When the load is balanced, the impedance of each leg of the Y is one third
the impedance of each leg of the ∆

 The circuit is modeled by the single phase equivalent circuit

 Since both phase voltage and line current shift through the same phase
angle from star to delta side, the transformer per phase impedance and
power flow are preserved in the single phase equivalent.

20
 Figure 2.4

 It may be noted here that irrespective of the type of connection, the

transformation ratio of the single phase equivalent of a three phase
transformer is the same as the line-to-line transformation ratio
21
  Delta-Wye Transformation

 To simplify analysis of balanced 3 systems:

 ∆- connected loads can be replaced by

1
 Y – connected loads with ZY  Z 
3
 ∆ - connected sources can be replaced by
VLine
 Y – connected sources with V phase 
3300

22
 Power in balanced three phase system
 If the magnitude of the voltages to neutral 𝑉𝑝 for a Y-connected load is
𝗅𝑉𝑝 𝗅=𝗅𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝗅=𝗅𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝗅=𝗅𝑉𝑐𝑛 𝗅
and if the magnitude of the phase current 𝐼𝑝 for a Y-connected load is
𝗅𝐼𝑝 𝗅=𝗅𝐼𝑎𝑛 𝗅=𝗅𝐼𝑏𝑛 𝗅=𝗅𝐼𝑐𝑛 𝗅
then, the total three phase power and the total three phase var is,
P=3 𝗅𝑉𝑝 𝗅𝗅𝐼𝑝 𝗅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛉𝑝 Q=3 𝗅𝑉𝑝 𝗅𝗅𝐼𝑝 𝗅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛉𝑝

Where 𝛉𝑝 is the angle by which phase current lags the phase voltage.
• If the magnitudes of line-to-line voltage 𝑉𝐿 and line current 𝐼𝐿 are 𝗅𝑉𝐿 𝗅
and 𝗅𝐼𝐿 𝗅, respectively,
P= 3 𝗅𝑉𝐿 𝗅𝗅𝐼𝐿 𝗅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛉𝑝 Q= 3 𝗅𝑉𝐿 𝗅𝗅𝐼𝐿 𝗅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛉𝑝
The total volt-amperes of the load is
𝗅S𝗅 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 = 3𝗅𝑉𝐿 𝗅𝗅𝐼𝐿 𝗅
23
 Reading Assignment
 Unbalanced three phase system
 Voltage and current in unbalanced three phase system
 Power in unbalanced three phase system

24
PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION
 Computations for a power system having two or more voltage levels
become very cumbersome when it is necessary to convert currents to a
different voltage level wherever they flow through a transformer (the
change in current being inversely proportional to the transformer turns
ratio).
 In an alternative and simpler system, a set of base values, or base
quantities, is assumed for each voltage class, and each parameter is
expressed as a decimal fraction of its respective base.
 For instance, suppose a base voltage of 345 kv has been chosen, and under
certain operating conditions the actual system voltage is 334 kV: then the
ratio of actual to base voltage is 0.97.
 The actual voltage may then be expressed as 0.97 per-unit. In an equally
common practice, per-unit quantities are multiplied by 100 to obtain
percent quantities: our example voltage would then be expressed as 97
percent.
 Per-unit and percent quantities and their bases exhibit the same
relationships and obey the same laws (such as Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s
laws) as do quantities in other systems of units.
25
 A minimum of four base quantities is required to completely define a per-
unit system: these are voltage, current, power, and impedance (or
admittance). If two of them are set arbitrarily, then the other two become
fixed.
 Base values can be determined by three ways
 Taking the largest value
 Taking the total sum
 Any arbitrary
 The per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any
units to the chosen base quantity of the same dimensions expressed as a
decimal.
Actual value in any units
Per unit quantity 
Base or reference value in the same unit
 In power systems the basic quantities of importance are voltage, current,
impedance and power. For all per unit calculations a base KVA or MVA
and a base KV are to be chosen.
 Once the base values or reference values are chosen, the other quantities
can be obtained as follows:
26
  Where base KVA and base MVA are the total or three phase values.
 If phase values are used

 Base current in amperes =

base voltage
 Base impedance in ohm =
base current

(base K V) 2 / 1000

base K V A per phase

 Base Impedance in ohm =

 In all the above relations the power factor is assumed unity, so that

 Base power K W = base K VA

(actual impedance in ohm) x MVA
 Now, Per unit impedance=
(base K V) 2

27
 Selecting the total or 3-phase KVA as base KVA, for a 3-phase system

 Base current in amperes =

base (KV Iine-to-line) 2 /1000

 Base Impedance In ohms =
3 [(base KVA)/ 3]

(base KV (line-to-line) 2
 Base Impedance in ohms = base MVA

(actual impedance in ohm) x MVA

 Now, Per unit impedance = (base K V) 2

28
 Some times, it may be required to use the relation
 actual Impedance in ohm = (Per unit impedance in ohms) (base KV) 2
(base MVA)

 Very often the values are in different base values. In order to convert the
per unit impedance from given base to another base, the following relation
can be derived easily.
 Per unit impedance on new base

 base kVold   base kVA new 

2

Z(pu) new  Z ( pu )old X  x  

 base kVnew   base kVA given 

29
  In general :
 Base current = base volt amperes/base voltage (in amperes)
 Base impedance = base voltage/ base current (in ohms)
 Per-unit voltage = actual voltage / base voltage (per unit, or pu)
 Per-unit current = actual current / base current (per unit, or pu)
 Per-unit impedance = actual impedance /base impedance (per unit. or
pu)
 The impedances of transmission lines are expressed in ohms, but can be
easily converted to pu values on a given voltampere base using above
expressions.

30
 Advantages of Per Unit System
1. While performing calculations, referring quantities from one side of
the transformer to the other side serious errors may be committed. This
can be avoided by using per unit system.
2. The p.u systems are ideal for the computerized analysis and
simulation of complex power system problems.
3. Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in per unit do not
change when they are referred from one side of transformer to the
other side. This is a great advantage'.
4. Per unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar type usually
lie within a narrow range, when the equipment ratings are used as base
values.
5. Transformer connections do not affect the per unit values.
6. Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and
transformers in per unit or percent of name plate ratings.

31
 Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and load power in the
circuit shown below using per unit analysis with an SB of
100 MVA, and voltage bases of 8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
 8kV 2
Z BLeft   0.64
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle   64
100 MVA
16kV 2
Z BRight   2.56
100 MVA

Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
 1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8  
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00  0.2230.8  30.8p.u.
To convert back to actual values just multiply the per unit
values by their per unit base

V LActual  0.859  30.8  16 kV  13.7  30.8 kV

SLActual
 0.1890  100 MVA  18.90 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8  100 MVA  22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B   1250 Amps
80 kV
Middle  0.22  30.8  Amps  275  30.8
I Actual