General Physics (Phys 1011) Lecture Notes 2016 E.

C
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Module For General Physics Phys (1011)

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 General Physics (Phys 1011) Lecture Notes 2016 E.C
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Chapter One v Those quantities are called Basic Physical

Quantities, and obviously the other deriva-
PRELIMINARIES tives are called Derived Physical Quanti-
ties.
v The word physics comes from the Greek word 1.1.1. Physical quantities
meaning ”nature”. Today physics is treated
as the base for science and have various ap- A. Basic Physical Quantities:
plications for the ease of life.
v Physics deals with matter in relation to en- - Basic quantities are the quantities which can-
ergy and the accurate measurement of natu- not be expressed in terms of any other phys-
ral phenomenon. Thus physics is inherently ical quantity.
a science of measurement. Example: length, mass and time.
v The fundamentals of physics form the basis B. Derived Physical Quantities:
for the study and the development of engi-
neering and technology. - Derived quantities are quantities that can be
expressed in terms of fundamental quantities.
v Measurement consists of the comparison of Examples: area, volume, density.
an unknown quantity with a known fixed
quantity. The quantity used as the standard v Giving numerical values for physical quan-
of measurement is called ’unit’. For example, tities and equations for physical principles
a vegetable vendor weighs the vegetables in allows us to understand nature much more
terms of units like kilogram. deeply than qualitative descriptions alone.
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement v To comprehend these vast ranges, we must
also have accepted units in which to express
them.
v We shall find that even in the potentially
Self Diagnostic Test: mundane discussion of meters, kilograms,
* Why do we need measurement in physics and seconds, a profound simplicity of nature
and our day-to-day lives? appears: all physical quantities can be ex-
pressed as combinations of only seven basic
* Give the names and abbreviations for the physical quantities.
basic physical quantities and their
corresponding SI units. v We define a physical quantity either by spec-
* What do you mean by a unit? ifying how it is measured or by stating how
it is calculated from other measurements.
- For example, we might define distance and
v Physical quantity is a quantifiable or time by specifying methods for measuring
assignable property ascribed to a particular them, such as using a meter stick and a stop-
phenomenon or body, for instance the length watch.
of a rod or the mass of a body.
v Then, we could define average speed by stat-
v Measurement is the act of comparing a phys- ing that it is calculated as the total distance
ical quantity with a certain standard. traveled divided by time of travel.
v Scientists can even make up a completely new v Measurements of physical quantities are ex-
physical quantity that has not been known if pressed in terms of units, which are standard-
necessary. ized values.
v However, there is a set of limited number v For example, the length of a race, which is a
of physical quantities of fundamental impor- physical quantity, can be expressed in units of
tance from which all other possible quantities meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for dis-
can be derived. tance runners).

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v Without standardized units, it would be ex- _ Measurements of physical quantities are ex-
tremely difficult for scientists to express and pressed in terms of units, which are standard-
compare measured values in a meaningful ized values.
way.
_ To convert a quantity from one unit to an-
1.1.2. SI Units: Basic and Derived Units other, multiply by conversions factors in such
a way that you cancel the units you want to
_ SI unit is the abbreviation for International get rid of and introduce the units you want
System of Units and is the modern form of to end up with. Below is the table for com-
metric system finally agreed up on at the monly used unit conversions (see Table 1.3).
eleventh International conference of weight Table 1.3: Unit conversion of basic
sand measures,1960.
quantities
_ This system of units is now being adopted
throughout the world and will remain the pri-
mary system of units of measurement.
_ SI system possesses features that make it log-
ically superior to any other system and it is
built upon 7 basic quantities and their asso-
ciated units (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Basic quantities and their SI
units

Examples:
¶ . Length 0.02in can be converted into SI
unit in meters using table 1.3 as follow:
Solution: 0.02in= 0.02 x0.0254m = 0.000508m
= 5.08 x10-4m = 0.503 mm or 508m.
· . Honda Fit weighs about 2,500 lb. It is
equivalent to 2500 x0.4536kg = 1134.0kg.
Table 1.2: Derived quantities, their SI
units and dimensions
Activities:
¶ .A common Ethiopian cities speed limit is
30km/hr. What is this speed in miles per
hours?
· .How many cubic meters are in 250,000
cubic centimeters?
¸ .The average body temperature of a house
cat is 101.5o F . What is this temperature in
Celsius?
1.1.3. Conversion of Units

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1.2. Uncertainty in Measurement and · . Random Errors - errors resulting in

Significant Digits the fluctuation of measurements of the same
quantity about the average.
` Measurements are always uncertain, but it . The measurements are equally probable of
was always hoped that by designing a better being too large or too small.
and better experiment we can improve the
uncertainty without limits. It turned out not . These errors generally result from the fine-
to be the case. ness of scale division of a measuring device.
` No measurement of a physical quantity can ` Physics is an empirical science associated
be entirely accurate. It is important to know, with a lot of measurements and calcula-
therefore, just how much the measured value tions. These calculations involve measure-
is likely to deviate from the unknown, true, ments with uncertainties and thus it is essen-
value of the quantity. tial for science students to learn how to an-
alyze these uncertainties (errors) in any cal-
` The art of estimating these deviations should culation.
probably be called uncertainty analy- ` Systematic errors are generally ”simple” to
sis,but for historical reasons is referred to as analyze but random errors require a more
error analysis. careful analysis and thus it will be our focus.
` This document contains brief discussions ` There is a statistical method for calculating
about how errors are reported, the kinds of random uncertainties in measurements.
errors that can occur, how to estimate ran-
dom errors, and how to carry error estimates ` The following general rules of thumb are of-
into calculated results. ten used to determine the uncertainty in a
single measurement when using a scale or dig-
` Uncertainty gives the range of possible val- ital measuring device.
ues of the measure and, which covers the true
value of the measure and. Thus uncertainty ¶ Uncertainty in a scale measuring device is
characterizes the spread of measurement re- equal to the smallest increment divided by
sults. 2.
smallest increament
` The interval of possible values of measure σx =
and is commonly accompanied with the con- 2
fidence level. Example: Meter Stick (scale device)
` Therefore, the uncertainty also indicates a 1mm
doubt about how well the result of the mea- σx = = 0.5mm = 0.05cm
surement presents the value of the quantity 2
being measured.
· Uncertainty in a digital measuring device is
` All measurements always have some uncer- equal to the smallest increment.
tainty. We refer to the uncertainty as the
error in the measurement. σx = smallest increament
Example: A reading from digital Balance
Errors fall into two categories:
(digital device) is 5.7513 kg, therefore
¶ . Systematic Error - errors resulting from
measuring devices being out of calibration. σx = 0.0001

. Such measurements will be consistently too ` When stating a measurement, the uncer-
small or too large. tainty should be stated explicitly so that
there is no question about it.
. These errors can be eliminated by pre-
calibrating against a known, trusted stan- ` However, if it is not stated explicitly, an un-
dard. certainty is still implied.

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. For example, if we measure a length of 5.7cm v Students frequently are confused about when
with a meter stick, this implies that the to count a zero as a significant figure.
length can be anywhere in the range 5.65 cm The rule is:
≤ L ≤ 5.75 cm. Thus, L =5 .7cm measured
with a meter stick implies an uncertainty of + If the zero has a non-zero digit anywhere to
0.05 cm. its left, then the zero is significant, otherwise
it is not.
` A common rule of thumb is to take one-half
the unit of the last decimal place in a mea- + For example 5.00 has 3 significant figures; the
surement to obtain the uncertainty. number 0.0005 has only one significant figure,
and 1.0005 has 5 significant figures.
` In general, any measurement can be stated
in the following preferred form: + A number like 300 is not well defined. Rather
one should write 3x102 , one significant figure,
or 3.00x102 , 3 significant figures.
measurment = Xbest ± σx
+ When writing numbers, zeros used ONLY to
Where, Xbest =best estimate of measurement, help in locating the decimal point are NOT
σx =uncertainty (error) in measurement. significant others are. See the following ex-
amples:
1.2.1. Significant digits
¶ ) 0.0062 cm has 2 significant figures
+ Whenever you make a measurement, the · ) 4.0500 cm has 5 significant figures
number of meaningful digits that you write
down implies the error in the measurement. Rules for significant digits:

+ For example if you say that the length of an Rule 1: When approximate numbers are
object is 0.428 m, you imply an uncertainty multiplied or divided, the number of signif-
of about 0.001 m. icant digits in the final answer is the same as
the number of significant digits in the least
+ To record this measurement as either 0.4 or accurate of the factors.
0.42819667 would imply that you only know
it to 0.1m in the first case or to 0.00000001 45N
m in the second. Example : = 6.97015N ?m2
(3.22m)(2.005m)
+ You should only report as many significant
figures as are consistent with the estimated Least significant factor (45) has only two (2)
error. digits so only two are justified in the answer.
+ The quantity 0.428m is said to have three sig- - The appropriate way to write the answer is
nificant digits, that is, three digits that make P = 7.0N/m2 .
sense in terms of the measurement. Notice
that this has nothing to do with the ”num- Rule 2: When approximate numbers are
ber of decimal places”. added or subtracted, the number of signifi-
cant digits should equal the smallest number
+ The same measurement in centimeters would of decimal places of any term in the sum or
be 42.8cm and still be a three significant fig- difference.
ure.
+ Example: 9.65 cm + 8.4 cm - 2.89 cm =
+ The accepted convention is that only one un- 15.16 cm Note that the least precise measure
certain digit is to be reported for a measure- is 8.4cm. Thus, answer must be to nearest
ment. tenth of cm even though it requires 3 signifi-
cant digits.
+ In the example if the estimated error is 0.02m
you would report a result of 0.43 ± 0.02 m, - The appropriate way to write the answer is
not 0.428 ± 0.02 m. 15.2cm.

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+ Example: Find the area of a metal plate that ç Zero vector is just a vector of zero length - a
is 8.71 cm by 3.2 cm. A = LW = (8.71 cm) point.
(3.2 cm) = 27.872cm2
ç Length of vectors is the magnitude of vectors.
In general to determine significant digits The longer the arrow the bigger the magni-
in a given number tude.
ç It is assumed that vectors can be parallel
¬ All non-zero numbers are significant. transported around. If you attach beginning
~ to end of another vectorB
of vector A ~ then
­ Zeros within a number are always significant. ~ ~
the vector A + B is a straight arrow from
® Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal begging of vector A~ to end of vector B.
~
point are not significant. Both 0.000098 and
0.98 contain two significant figures. b A vector changes if its magnitude or direction
or if both magnitude and direction change.
¯ Zeros that arent needed to hold the decimal
point are significant. For example, 4.00 has b We add, subtract or equate physical quanti-
three significant figures. ties of same units and same characters (all
the terms on both sides of an equation must
° Zeros that follow a number may be signifi- be either scalar or vector).
cant.
1.3 Vectors: composition and resolution b A vector may be multiplied by a pure number
or by a scalar.
b A scalar is a quantity that is completely b Multiplication by a pure number merely
specified by a number and unit. It has magni- changes the magnitude of the vector.
tude but no direction. Scalars obey the rules
of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass, time, b If the number is negative, the direction is re-
volume, speed, etc. versed.

b A vector is a quantity that is specified by b When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the

both a magnitude and direction in space. new vector also becomes a different physical
quantity. For example, when velocity, a vec-
b Vectors obey the laws of vector algebra. Ex- tor, is multiplied by time, a scalar, we obtain
amples are: displacement, velocity, accelera- a displacement.
tion, momentum, etc. 1.3.2. Vector Addition
1.3.1. Vector Representation
A. Algebraic Method b A single vector that is obtained by adding
two or more vectors is called resultant vec-
tor and it is obtained using the following two
b Vectors are represented algebraically by a let- methods
ter (or symbol) with an arrow over its head
(Example: velocity by ~v , momentum by p~) A. Graphical method of vector addition
and the magnitude of a vector is a positive
scalar and is written as either by |A| or A. b Graphically vectors can be added by joining
their head to tail and in any order their re-
B. Geometric Method sultant vector is the vector drawn from the
tail of the first vector to the head of the last
vector.
b When dealing with vectors it is often useful
to draw a picture (line with an arrow). Here b In Figure 1 graphical technique of vector ad-
is how it is done: dition is applied to add three vectors.
ç Vectors are nothing but straight arrows b The resultant vector R = A + B + C is
drawn from one point to another. the vector that completes the polygon.

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b In other words, R is the vector drawn from

the tail of the first vector to the tip of the
last vector

Figure 3: Components of vector A

* the x component of A
Ax
cosθ = ⇒ Ax = Acosθ
A
B. Parallelogram law of vector addition
* the y component of A
b The parallelogram law states that the resul- Ay
sinθ = ⇒ Ay = Asinθ
tant R of two vectors A and B is the diagonal A
of the parallelogram for which the two vectors
A and B becomes adjacent sides. * The components Ax and Ay can be added to
give back A as their resultant.
b All three vectors A, B and R are concurrent A = Ax + Ay
as shown in Figure 2. A and B are also called
the components of R. * Because Ax and Ay are perpendicular to each
other, the magnitude of their resultant vector
b The magnitude of the diagonal (resultant is obtained using Pythagoras theorem.
vector) is obtained using cosine law and di- q
rection (i.e. the angle that the diagonal vec- A = A2x + A2y
tor makes with the sides) is obtained using
the sine law. * Similarly, any three dimensional vector A can
be written as the sum of its x, y and z com-
b Applying cosine and sine laws for the triangle ponents.
formed by the two vectors: A = Ax + Ay + Az
* And its magnitude becomes
q
A = A2x + A2y + A2z
√
cosine law:R = A2 + B 2 − 2ABcosθ * The direction angles that this vector makes
with the three axes, is given by the direction
sinθ sinα sinβ of cosines.
sine law: = =
R A B

1.3.3. Components of Vector

b Considering Figure 3 below, components of

the given vector A are obtained by applying
the trigonometric functions of sine and co-
sine. Figure 4: Vector in three dimensional space

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ý Similarly, Ay ĵ is the y-component of vector

A and, Az k̂ is the z-component vector of A.
Ax −1 Ax
  Thus A can be expressed as:
Cosθx = ⇒ θx = cos
A A ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
A
Ay A 
y
Cosθy = ⇒ θy = cos−1 The vector A ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ is depicted
A A in the figure 4 above, along with the vectors
Az  Az  Ax î, Ay ĵ and Az k̂ drawn so that is clear that
Cosθz = ⇒ θz = cos−1
A A the three of them add up to A ~
1.4.1. Vector addition in Unit Vector Notation

1.4. Unit Vector ý Adding vectors that are expressed in unit vec-
tor notation is easy in that individual unit
vectors appearing in each of two or more
ý A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude terms can be factored out.
of one and it is dimensionless and its sole pur-
pose is to point a given vector in specified ý The concept is best illustrated by means of
direction. It is usually denoted with a ”hat”. an example.

A = Aû ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ and
ý Let A
~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B
ý There is a special set of three unit vectors ~ B~ = (Ax +Bx )î+(Ay +By )ĵ +(Az +Bz )k̂
that are exceptionally useful for problems in- A+
volving vectors, namely the Cartesian coor-
dinate axis unit vectors. ý We see that the sum of vectors that are ex-
pressed in unit vector notation is simply the
ý There is one of them for each positive coor- sum of the x components times î plus the sum
dinate axis direction. of the y components times ĵ plus the sum of
the z component times k̂
ý These unit vectors are so prevalent that
we give them special names. For a two- 1.4.2. Finding a Unit Vector
dimensional x-y coordinate system we have
the unit vector î pointing in the +x direc- ý Consider the vector ~r = xî+y ĵ +z k̂ The unit
tion, and, the unit vector ĵ pointing in the vector r̂ in the same direction as the vector ~r
+y direction. is simply the vector ~r divided by its magni-
tude r. Or
ý For a three-dimensional x-, y- and z- coor- ~r xî + y ĵ + z k̂ x y z
dinate system, we have those two, and one r̂ = = = î + ĵ + k̂
r r r r r
more, namely the unit vector k̂ pointing in
the +z direction. ý The result makes it clear that each compo-
nent of the unit vector is simply the corre-
ý Any vector can be expressed in terms of unit sponding component, of the original vector,
vectors. p
divided by the magnitude r = x + y 2 + z 2
2

of the original vector.

ý Consider, for instance, a vector A with com-
ponents Ax , Ay , and Az . The vector formed Chapter Summery
by the product Ax î has magnitude Ax in the
+x direction. This means that Ax î is the x- - Physical quantity is the property of an
component of vector A. object that can be quantified.

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- Measurement is the act of comparing a ­ .Given the displacement vectors A ~ = 3î−4ĵ+

physical quantity with its unit. ~ = 2î + 3ĵ − 7k̂. Find the magnitudes
4k̂, B
of the vectors a) A ~+B ~ b) 2A
~−B ~
- Basic quantities are the quantities which
cannot be expressed in terms of any other ~ = 6î−8ĵ, B
~ = −8î+3ĵ and C
~ = 26î+9ĵ.
physical quantity. Example: length, mass ® .If A
and time. ~ ~
Find a and b Such that aA + bB − C ~ =0

- Derived quantities are quantities that can ¯ .Find a unit vector in the direction of the
resultant of vectors A ~ = 2î − 3ĵ + k̂, B
~ =
be expressed in terms of fundamental quan-
tities. Example: area, volume, density. ~
î + ĵ + 2k̂ and C = 3î − 2ĵ + 4k̂

- Uncertainty gives the range of possible val-

ues of the measure and, which covers the true
value of the measure and thus uncertainty
characterizes the spread of measurement re-
sults.

- A scalar is a quantity that is completely

specified by a number and its unit. It has
magnitude but no direction. Scalars obey the
rules of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass,
time, volume,

- A vector is a quantity that is specified by

both a magnitude and direction in space.
Vector can be represented either by Algebraic
method or Geometric method.

- A single vector that is obtained by adding

two or more vectors is called resultant vec-
tor and it is obtained using the following two
methods

- Vectors can be added using the ways

Graphical method of vector addition or
Parallelogram law of vector addition.

- A unit vector is a vector that has magni-

tude of one and it is dimensionless and a sole
purpose of unit vector is to point-that is, to
specify a direction. It is usually denoted with
a ”hat”.
Chapter Review Questions and Problems

~ has magnitude of 8 units and makes

¬ .Vector A
an angle of 450 with the positive x-axis. Vec-
~ also has the same magnitude of 8 units
tor B
and directed along the negative x-axis. Find
a. The magnitude and direction of A ~+B ~
b. The magnitude and direction of A ~−B ~

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Chapter Two
Kinematics and Dynamics of Particles Learning Objectives:
After going through this unit students will be
able to:
^ Mechanics is the study of the physics of mo- * Understand the general feature of motion of a
tions and how it relates to the physical factors particle.
that affect them, like force, mass, momentum
and energy. * Know how particles interact with the action of
force.
^ Mechanics may be divided into two branches: * Explain the relationship between force and
Dynamics, which deals with the motion of work done.
objects with its cause force; and kinemat-
ics describes the possible motions of a body
or system of bodies without considering the
cause.
2.1. Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions
^ Alternatively, mechanics may be divided ac-
cording to the kind of system studied.

^ The simplest mechanical system is the parti-

cle, defined as a body so small that its shape
and internal structure are of no consequence Self Diagnostic Test:
in the given problem.
- What does kinematics deals about?
^ More complicated is the motion of a system - Can you state the kinematical quantities that
of two or more particles that exert forces on describe the motion of objects?
one another and possibly undergo forces ex- - Can you distinguish instantaneous and
erted by bodies outside of the system. average velocities? And accelerations?
^ The principles of mechanics have been ap-
plied to three general realms of phenomena.

^ The motions of such celestial bodies as stars, . A formal study of physics begins with kine-
planets, and satellites can be predicted with matics. The word ”kinematics” comes from a
great accuracy thousands of years before they Greek word ”kinesis” meaning motion, and is
occur. related to other English words such as ”cin-
ema” (movies) and ”kinesiolog” (the study of
^ As the second realm, ordinary objects on human motion).
Earth down to microscopic size (moving at
speeds much lower than that of light) are
properly described by mechanics without sig- . Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that
nificant corrections. describes the motion of objects without ref-
erence to the causes of motion (i.e., forces).
^ The engineer who designs bridges or aircraft Kinematics is concerned on analyzing kine-
may use the Newtonian laws of mechanics matical quantities used to describe motion
with confidence, even though the forces may such as velocity, acceleration, displacement,
be very complicated, and the calculations time, and trajectory. Objects are in motion
lack the beautiful simplicity of celestial me- all around us.
chanics.
^ The third realm of phenomena comprises the . Planets moving around the sun, car moving
behavior of matter and electromagnetic radi- along a road, blood flowing through veins,
ation on the atomic and subatomic scale. etc, are some examples of motion.

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Average velocity (~vave ):- is the total dis-

Objectives: placement divided by the total time.
At the end of this section you will be able to: ∆~r ~rf − ~ri
ä Define kinematic terms such as position, ~vave = = ...........................(2.1.2)
∆t tf − ti
displacement, velocity and acceleration
ä Identify the difference between average and Average Speed:- is the total distance trav-
instantaneous velocity eled by the object divided by the total
elapsed time.
ä Identify the difference between average and
instantaneous acceleration totaldistance(s)
ä Drive kinematic equations for motions with vave = ...........................(2.1.3)
constant acceleration totaltime(∆t)
ä Explain projectile motion and solve problems
related to it Average speed and average velocity of an
object do not provide the detail infor-
ä Solve problems related to the concepts mation of the entire motion. We may
discussed in this chapter need to know the velocity or speed of
the particle at a certain instant of time.
Instantaneous velocity(~vinst ):- is the lim-
2.1.1. Displacement, velocity and iting value of the ratio δ~r/∆ t as∆ t ap-
Acceleration in 1D and 2D proaches zero.
Definition: Kinematical Quantities ∆~r
~vinst = lim∆t → 0 ...........................(2.1.4)
∆t
Position:- The location of an object
with respect to a chosen reference point. The instantaneous speed:- It is the mag-
Displacement:-The change in position of nitude of the instantaneous velocity
an object with respect to a given reference
frame. Average and Instantaneous Accelerations:
For 1D (for one-dimensional motion)
If the velocity of a particle changes with time,
then the particle is said to be accelerating.
Average acceleration:-is the change in ve-
locity (∆~v ) of an object divided by the time
interval during which that change occurs.
∆~v ~vf − ~vi
~aave = = ...........................(2.1.5)
∆t tf − ti
For 2D
Instantaneous acceleration(~ainst ):- The
limit of average acceleration as∆ t ap-
proaches zero.
∆~v
~ainst = lim∆t → 0 ...........................(2.1.6)
∆t

Example 1
Distance (S):- The length of the path fol-
lowed by the object. A person walks first at a constant speed of
Average and Instantaneous Velocities: 5m/s along the straight line from point A to
point B, and then back along the same line

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from B to A at a constant speed of 3m/s Rearranging this equation gives

a) What is his average speed over the entire
trip ~vf = ~vi + ~at..........................(2.1.7)
b) What is his average velocity over the entire
trip For motion with constant acceleration, aver-
age velocity can be written as:
~vf + ~vi
~vave = ..........................(2.1.8)
2
By definition ~vave = ∆~r/∆tfor ti =0 ∆~r =
∆~v ∆t
1
~rf − ~ri = ~vi t + ~at2 ..........................(2.1.9)
a) By definition, average speed is 2
Again
totaldistance(s)
vave = vf2 = vi2 + 2a∆r..........................(2.1.10)
totaltime(∆t)
The total distance covered in the
entire trip is sAB + sBA = 2x

b) Average velocity over the entire trip Example 2

is zero, because for the entire trip A track covers 40m in 8.5s while smoothly
slowing down to a final speed of 2.8m/s. Find
a) Its original speed
b) b) its acceleration
Solution:

2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration (vf + vi ) 2S

S= ∆t ⇒ vi = − vf
2 t
For motion with constant acceleration,
2 ∗ 40m/s
b The velocity changes at the same rate vi = − 2.8m/s = 6.6m/s
8.5s
throughout the motion.
The magnitude of the acceleration is
b Average acceleration over any time interval
is equal to the instantaneous acceleration at vf − vi 2.8m/s − 6.6m/s
a= =| | = 0.447m/s2
any instant of time. t 8.5s

∆~v ~vf − ~vi Example 3

~a = = , assumingti = 0 A jet plane lands with a speed of 100m/s and
∆t t

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slows down at a rate of 5m/s2 as it comes to v The acceleration due to gravity varies with
rest. latitude, longitude and altitude on Earths
a) What is the time interval needed by the surface.
jet to come to rest?
b) Can this jet land on an airport where the v And it is greater at the poles than at the
runway is 0.8km long? equator and greater at sea level than a top
mountain.
Solution:
a) the magnitude of the acceleration is v There are also local variations that depend
upon geophysics. The value of 9.8 m/s2 , with
vf − vi vf − vi only two significant digits, is true for most
a= ⇒t= places on the surface of the Earth up to alti-
t a tudes of about 16 km.
0 − 100m/s Example
t= = 20s A girl throws a ball upwards, giving it an ini-
−5m/s2 tial speed u = 15 m/s. Neglect air resistance.
b. To determine whether the jet can land on (a) How long does the ball take to return to
the 0.8km runway, we need to calculate the the boys hand?
distance through which the jet moves as it (b) What will be its velocity then? Solution
comes to rest
(a) We choose the positive y upward with
(vf + vi ) (0 + 100m/s) its origin at the girls hand, i.e. yi = 0, see
S= t= 20m/s
2 2 the Fig. below. Then, the balls acceleration
is negative (downward) during the ascending
= 1000m = 1km and descending motions, i.e. a=-g=-9.8m/s2 .
The jet can’t land,Because the runway
(0.8km) is shorter than the distance the jet
requires to come to rest (1km).

Activity
¶ At t=0s, a particle moving in the x-y plane
with constant acceleration has a velocity of
~vi = (2î − 3ĵ) m/s, and is at the origin. At t=3s,
the particles velocity is ~vf = (9î + 7ĵ) m/s. Find
(a)the acceleration of the particle
(b) Its coordinates at t=3s
When the ball returns to the girls hand its
position y is zero. Since u=15m/s, yi = 0,
2.1.3. Free Fall Motion y=0, and a=-g, then we can find t from

v The motion of an object near the surface of

the Earth under the only control of the force
of gravity is called free fall.
v In the absence of air resistance, all objects
fall with constant acceleration, g, toward the
surface of the Earth. (b) We are given u =15m/s, yi =0, y =0, and
a =g= 9.8 m/s2 . To find v, we use
v On the surface of the Earth, the generally
accepted value is g = 9.8 m/s2 . v 2 = u2 − 2g(yf − yi ) ⇒ v 2 = u2 − 0

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⇒ v = ±u = ±15m/s * The free fall acceleration (g) is constant over

the range of motion and it is directed down-
We should select the negative sign, because ward.
the ball is moving downward just before re-
turning to the boys hand, i.e. v =-15 m/s. * The effect of air resistance is negligible.
2.1.4. Projectile Motion v With the above two basic assumption the
path of the projectile will be a down ward
v Projectile is any object thrown obliquely parabola.
into the space.
v The object which is given an initial velocity
and afterwards follows a path determined by
the gravitational force acting on it is called
projectile and the motion is called projec-
tile motion.
v A stone projected at an angle, a bomb re-
leased from an aero plane, a shot fired from
a gun, a shot put or javelin thrown by the
athlete are examples for the projectile.
v Consider a body projected from a point ’O’
with velocity ’u’. The point ’o’ is called
point of projection and ’u’ is called veloc- v For projectile motion ay = −g, ax = 0 (Be-
ity of projection. cause there is no force acting horizontally)
The horizontal position of the projectile after
some time t is:
1
∆x = ux t + ax t2
2
(xi , yi ) = (0, 0) if the projectile is initially
at the origin
1
xf = ucosθt + (0)t2
2
v Velocity of Projection (u): the velocity xf = ucosθt....................(2.1.11)
with which the body projected.
The vertical position of the projectile after
v Angle of Projection (θ): The angle be- some time t
tween the direction of projection and the hor-
izontal plane passing through the point of 1
∆y = uy t + ay t2
projection is called angle of projection. 2
v Trajectory (OAB): The path described by 1
the projectile from the point of projection yf = usinθt − gt2 ....................(2.1.12)
2
to the point where the projectile reaches the
horizontal plane passing through the point of The horizontal components of the velocity
projection is called trajectory. The trajectory
of the projectile is a parabola. vx = ux + ax t, But, ax = 0

v Basic assumptions in projectile motion vx = ux = ucosθ....................(2.1.13)

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The vertical components of the velocity A rocket is fired with an initial velocity of
100m/s at an angle of 550 above the hori-
vy = uy + ay t, But, ay = g zontal. It explodes on the mountain side 12s
after its firing. What is the x-and y- coordi-
vy = usinθ − gt....................(2.1.14) nates of the rocket relative to its firing point?

Horizontal Range and Maximum Height Solution

We are asked to find the horizontal posi-

- When the projectile reaches the maximum tion(x)
height (the peak),vy = 0

0 = usnθ − gt x(t) = ucosθt = (100m/s)cos55o (12s) = 688.3m

usinθ and the vertical position (y) of the rocket
⇒t= (time to reach maximum height)
g
At y=h,t=usinθ/g 1
y(t) = usinθt − gt2
2
usinθ 1 usinθ 2
h = usinθ( ) − g( ) 1
g 2 g = (100m/s)(sin55o )(12s)− (9.8m/s2 )(12s)2 = 277m
2
u2 sinθ
h= ........................(2.1.15)
2g Example 2

- The Range(R) is the horizontal displace- A plane drops a package to a party of ex-
ment of the projectile covered in a total time plorer. If the plane is traveling horizontally
of flight. at 40m/s and is 100m above the ground,
where does the package strike the ground rel-
usinθ ative to the point at which it is released?
ttot = 2t, W here, t =
g
2usinθ
ttot = ...........................(2.1.16)
g
When x=R,t=ttot = 2usinθ/g

2usinθ
R = (ucosθ)( ), But, 2usinθcosθ = sin2θ
g
us in2θ
R= ...........................(2.1.17)
g Solution

- The range (R) is maximum, when sin2θ = we are given that u = ux = 40m/s,
1 → 2θ = 90o → θ = 45o
* Since the vertical displacement is below the
u2 reference point y=-100m
Rmax =
g
* We are asked to find the horizontal displace-
Example 1 ment (x) x(t)=ucosθt but in this case u = ux
and θ=0 ,x(t) = vx t...............(1)

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* We can find t from equation for the vertical developed in order to account for the motion
displacement of the Planets around the Sun, which we dis-
cuss the problem in this part of the unit while
1 1 discussing Keplers laws of planetary motion.
y(t) = usinθt − gt2 = 0 − gt2
2 2
1 Objectives
−100m = − − (9.8m/s2 )t2 ⇒ t = 4.52s At the end of this section, you will be
2
able to:
Substituting this value of t in (1)
æ State the three Newtons laws of motion
x(t = 4.52s) = (40m/s)(4.52s) = 181m æ Explain the behavior of action-reaction
forces
æ Describe the nature and types of friction
Activities forces
¶ A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of æ Apply Newtons laws of motion in solving
some problems
~u = (10î + 15ĵ) m/s. When it reaches the top
of its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, æ Discuss how an object accelerates in
what is its a) velocity? b) Acceleration? uniform circular motion.
· An astronaut on a strange planet can jump æ State Keplers laws of planetary motion
a maximum horizontal distance of 15m if his
initial speed is 3m/s. What is the free fall
i Force: any interaction that changes the mo-
acceleration on the planet? tion an object. A force moves or tends to
move, stops or tends to stop the motion of
the object. The force can also change the di-
2.2. Particle Dynamics and Planetary Motion rection of motion of an object. It can also
change the shape or size of a body on which
it acts.
Self Diagnostic Test i Net force: is defined as the vector sum of
all the forces acting on the object. The ob-
u What do you think about the cause for the ject accelerates only if the net force (F~net )
change in the state of motion of an object? acting on it is not equal to zero.
u What makes planets to revolve around the The Concept of Force as A Measure of Interaction
sun keeping their trajectory?
i In physics, any of the four basic forces gravi-
In the previous section, we have described tational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and
motion in terms of displacement, velocity, weak forces govern how particles interact.
and acceleration without considering what
might cause that motion. Here we investi- i All other forces of nature can be traced to
gate what causes changes in the state of mo- these fundamental interactions.
tion. What cause particles to remain at rest
or accelerate? It is because of the mass of i The fundamental interactions are character-
the object and forces acting on it. Knowl- ized on the basis of the following four criteria:
edge of Newton’s laws and the ability to ap- + the types of particles that experience
ply them to various situations will allow us the force,
to explain much of the motion we observe
in the world around us. They are also very + the relative strength of the force,
important for analyzing things (like bridges) + the range over which the force is effec-
that don’t move much (a subject called Stat- tive, and
ics that’s important in some Engineering pro- + he nature of the particles that mediate
grams). Newtonian dynamics was initially the force.

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2.2.2. Types of Forces 3. Normal Force

^ When a book is lying on the table, even

Self diagnostic test though it seems that its stationary, its not.
æ List the types of forces you know and try to ^ An opposing force is still acting on the book
classify them as contact forces and field forces. wherein the force from gravity is pulling it to-
wards the Earth. This force is the ”normal
Forces are usually categorized as con- force”.
tact and non-contact. ^ They always act perpendicular to the surface.
Contact Force
4 Applied Force
^ It is a type of force that requires bodily con-
tact with another object. And it is further _ When you push a table across the room, you
divided into the following. apply a force that acts when it comes in con-
tact with another object. This is ”applied
1. Muscular Forces force”; i.e. a force that is applied to a person
or object.
^ Muscles function to produce a resulting force
which is known as ”muscular force”.
^ Muscular force exists only when it is in con-
tact with an object.
^ We apply muscular force during the basic day
to day work of our life such as breathing, di-
gestion, lifting a bucket, pulling or pushing
some object. Muscular force comes in handy
to simply our work.
2. Frictional Forces
[Link] Force
^ When an object changes its state of motion,
”frictional force” acts upon. ` Tension is the force applied by a fully
stretched cable or wire anchored on to an ob-
^ It can be defined as the resisting force that ject. This causes a ”tension force” that
exists when an object is moved or tries to pulls equally in both directions and exerts
move on a surface. equal pressure.
^ The frictional force acts as a point of contact
between two surfaces that is it arises due to
contact between two surfaces.
. Examples; lighting a matchstick or stopping
a moving ball come under frictional force.

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6. Spring Force b The types of forces exerted by all electrically

charged bodies on another charged bodies
in the universe are ”electrostatic forces”.
a Force exerted by a compressed or stretched These forces can be both attractive and re-
spring is ”spring force”. The force created pulsive in nature based on the type of charge
could be a push or pull depending on how the carried by the bodies.
spring is attached. 2.2.3. Newtons Laws of Motion and Applications

b Laws of motions are formulated for the first

time by English physicist Sir Isaac Newton in
1687.
b Newton developed the three laws of motion
in order to explain why the orbits of the plan-
ets are ellipses rather than circles, at which
he succeeded.
[Link] Resisting Force
b Newtons laws continue to give an accurate ac-
count of nature, except for very small bodies
b Air resisting forces are types of forces wherein such as electrons or for bodies moving close
objects experience a frictional force when to the speed of light.
moving through the air. These forces are re- Newtons First law of Motion:
sistive in nature.
Non-Contact Force * Everybody continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces im-
c It is a type of force that does not require a pressed upon it.
physical contact with the other object. It
is further divided into the following types of * This is sometimes called the Law of Inertia.
forces: Essentially, it makes the following two points:
1. Gravitational Force
- An object that is not in motion will not
move until a force acting upon it.
b Gravitational force is an attractive force that - An object in constant motion will not
can be defined by Newtons law of gravity change its velocity until a force acts
which states that ”gravitational forces be- upon it.
tween two bodies are directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely b Another way of stating Newton’s First Law
proportional to the square of the distance be- of motion:
tween them” (more on this later).
b A body that is acted on by no net force moves
_ It is a force exerted by large bodies such as at a constant velocity (which may be zero)
planets and stars. Example: water droplets and zero acceleration. So with no net force,
falling down the object just keeps doing what it is doing.
2. Magnetic Force b It is important to note the words net force.
This means the vector sum of total forces act-
The types of forces exerted by a magnet on ing upon the object must add up to zero.
magnetic objects are magnetic forces. They b An object sitting on a floor has a gravita-
exist without any contact between two ob- tional force pulling it downward, but there is
jects. also a normal force pushing upward from the
3. Electrostatic Force floor, so the net force is zero. Therefore, it
doesnt move.

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Newton’s Second law of Motion: - The problems based on this law are literally
endless, using the formula to determine any
of the three values when you are given the
b The acceleration acquired by a point particle other two.
is directly proportional to the net force act-
ing on the particle and inversely proportional - As systems become more complex, you will
to its mass and the acceleration is always in learn to apply frictional forces, gravity, elec-
the direction of the net force. tromagnetic forces, and other applicable
forces to the same basic formulas.
b Mathematically, Example 2
X
F = ma........................................(2.2.1) A 3kg object undergoes an acceleration given
by ~a = (2î + 5ĵ)m/s2 . Find the magnitude
P of the resultant force.
Where F is the net force acting on the par- Solution:
ticle, m is the mass of the particle and a is
the acceleration of the particle.
b You’ll note that when the net forces on an F~ = ma = (3kg)(2î + 5ĵ)m/s2 = (6î + 15ĵ)N
object sum up to zero, we achieve the state
defined in Newton’s First Law: the net accel- The magnitude of the force is
eration must be zero. √
|F~ | = 62 + 152 = 16.15N
b We know this because all objects have mass
(in classical mechanics, at least).
Newton’s Third law of Motion
b If the object is already moving, it will con-
tinue to move at a constant velocity, but that States that ”For every action there is always
velocity will not change until a net force is an equal and opposite reaction”.
introduced. Obviously, an object at rest will v To understand this law, consider two bodies
not move at all without a net force. A and B that are interacting and let FBA is
the force applied on body A by body B, and
Example 1 FAB is the force applied on body B by body
A.
A box with a mass of 40 kg sits at rest on
a frictionless tile floor. With your foot, you v These forces will be equal in magnitude
apply a 20 N force in a horizontal direction. and opposite in direction. In mathematical
What is the acceleration of the box? terms, it is expressed as:
Solution: FBA = −FAB or FAB + FBA = 0
This is not the same thing as having a net
- The object is at rest, so there is no net force force is zero, however.
except for the force your foot is applying.
Friction is eliminated. Also, there’s only one v Action and reaction forces are not treated the
direction of force to worry about. same as the forces acting on stationary ob-
ject, normal force and weight of the object.
- So this problem is very straightforward. We Note that:
begin the problem by defining the coordi-
nate system. The mathematics is similarly + Action and reaction forces are always
straightforward: exist in pair
+ A single isolated force cannot exist
F 20N
F = ma ⇒ a = = = 0.5m/s2 + Action and reaction forces act on differ-
m 40kg ent objects

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Where the proportionality constant µ is the

Activities coefficient of friction
¬ .Find the force needed to accelerate a mass of
40kg from velocity ~vi = (4î − 5ĵ + 3k̂)m/s to
~vi = (8î + 3ĵ − 5k̂)m/s in 10s
­ .If a man weighs 900N on earth, what is his
weight on Jupiter where the accelerationvdue
to gravity is 25.9m/s2 ?

Forces of Friction h Forces of friction are very important in our

everyday lives. They allow us to walk or run
and are necessary for the motion of wheeled
vehicles.
Self Diagnostic Test
h Therefore, friction forces are categorized in
* .What makes you walk on the surface of the the following manner:
Earth without slipping?
* How can you express your interaction with a) Static friction: exists between two sta-
the surrounding air while you are walking or tionary objects in contact to each other.
running? Mathematically static friction is written as

fs = fs,max = µs N............................(2.2.3)
h Frictional force refers to the force generated
by two surfaces that are in contact and either where µs is the coefficient of static friction
at rest or slide against each other.
h These forces are mainly affected by the sur- b) Kinetic friction: arises when the object
face texture and amount of force impelling is in motion on the surface. The magnitude
them together. of the force of kinetic friction acting between
two surfaces is
h The angle and position of the object affect
the amount of frictional force. fk = µk N............................(2.2.4)
4 If an object is placed on a horizon-
tal surface against another object, then where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction
the frictional force will be equal to the
weight of the object. l The values ofµk and µs depend on the
4 If an object is pushed against the sur- nature of the surfaces, but µk is gener-
face, then the frictional force will be ally less than µs (µk < µk ). Typical
increased and becomes more than the values range from around 0.03 to 1.0.
weight of the object. l The direction of the friction force on
an object is parallel to the surface with
Generally friction force is always propor- which the object is in contact and oppo-
tional to the normal force between the two site to the actual motion (kinetic fric-
interacting surfaces. Mathematically
tion) or the impending motion (static
friction) of the object relative to the sur-
Ff rict ∝ Fnorm face.
l The coefficients of friction are nearly
independent of the area of contact be-
Ff = µFN .....................................(2.2.2) tween the surfaces.

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Example Ì Newton’s second law involves vectors,

and it is usually important to resolve
A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a hor- vectors into components. Choose an x
izontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N and y axis in a way that simplifies the
is required to set the block in motion. Af- calculation.
ter it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0
N is required to keep the block moving with Í For each body, Newton’s second law can
constant speed. Find the coefficients of static be applied to the x and y components
and kinetic friction from this information. separately. That is the x component of
the net force on that body will be re-
Solution lated to the x component of that body’s
acceleration: Fx = max , and similarly
for the y direction.
f s = µs N but N = mg
Î Solve the equation or equations for the
unknown(s).
fs 75N
µs = = = 0.31
mg (25kg)(9.8m/s62)
Example 1
f k = µk N but N = mg
fk 60N A bag of cement of weight 300 N hangs from
µk = = = 0.245 three ropes as shown in the figure below. Two
mg (25kg)(9.8m/s62) of the ropes make angles of θ1 = 53o and
θ2 = 37o with the horizontal. If the system is
Application of Newtons Laws of Motion in equilibrium, find the tensions T1 , T2 , and
T3 in the ropes.
^ In this section we apply Newtons laws to ob-
jects that are either in equilibrium (~a= 0) or
accelerating along a straight line under the
action of constant external forces.
^ Remember that when we apply Newtons laws
to an object, we are interested only in exter-
nal forces that act on the object. We assume
that the objects can be modeled as particles
so that we need not worry about rotational
motion. We usually neglect the mass of any
ropes, strings, or cables involved.
Solution
v The following procedure is recommended We can draw two free body dia-
when dealing with problems involving New- grams for the problem as follows
tons laws:
Ê Draw a sketch of the situation.
Ë Consider only one object (at a time),
and draw a free-body diagram for that
body, showing all the forces acting on
that body. Do not show any forces that
the body exerts on other bodies. If sev-
eral bodies are involved, draw a free-
body diagram for each body separately,
showing all the forces acting on that
body.

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a) If the inclined plane is frictionless, the only

forces acting on the block are the gravita-
tional force (mg) downward and the normal
force (N). Resolving mg into parallel and per-
pendicular to the direction of motion of mo-
tion
- Considering parallel component to be along
the x-axis
X
Fx = mgsinθ = ma

a = gsinθ
b) If the inclined plane has coefficient of ki-
netic friction , the forces acting on the block
T1 = 240N are shown in free body diagram (b)

T2 = 0.75T1 = 0.75(240N ) ⇒ T2 = 180N - From parallel component to the direction of

motion
X
Example 2 Fx = mgsinθ − fk = ma

A block of mass m slides down an inclined mgsinθ − µk N = ma

plane as shown in the figure below. Find the
expression for the acceleration of the block. From the perpendicular component to the
(a)If the inclined plane is frictionless didection of motion
(b)If the inclined plane has coefficient of ki- N − mgcosθ = 0 → N = mgcosθ
netic frictionµk
mgsinθ − µk cosθ = ma
a = g(sinθ − µk cosθ)
2.2.4 Uniform Circular Motion

Self Diagnostic Test

* Do you know that objects moving with
constant speed can have acceleration? When
does this occur?
Solution
The free body diagram for the problem is ¨ Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects
in a circular path with a constant speed. Ob-
jects moving in a circular path with a con-
stant speed can have acceleration.
∆~v
~a =
∆t
There are two ways in which the acceleration
can occur due to:
* change in magnitude of the velocity
* change in direction of the velocity

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¨ For objects moving in a circular path with

a constant speed, acceleration arises because Self Diagnostic Test
of the change in direction of the velocity.
* What do you think when the Earth is
Hence, in case of uniform circular motion: always revolving around the Sun without
slipping and leaving its line of revolution?
* Velocity is always tangent to the circu-
lar path and perpendicular to the radius
of the circular path. ¨ Gravity is the weakest of the four basic forces
* Acceleration is always perpendicular to found in nature, and in some ways the least
the circular path, and points towards understood.
the center of the circle. Such acceler-
ation is called the centripetal accel- ¨ Newton was the first scientist to precisely de-
eration. fine the gravitational force, and to show that
it could explain both falling bodies and as-
tronomical motions.
¨ But Newton was not the first person to sus-
pect that the same force caused both our
weight and the motion of planets.
¨ His forerunner Galileo Galilei had contended
that falling bodies and planetary motions had
the same cause.
¨ Some of Newtons contemporaries, such as
Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren, and Ed-
mund Halley, had also made some progress
toward understanding gravitation.
¨ But Newton was the first to propose an ex-
act mathematical form and to use that form
to show that the motion of heavenly bod-
ies should be conic sections; circles, ellipses,
v2 parabolas, and hyperbolas.
ac = (Centripetal acceleration)............(2.3.1)
r
¨ This theoretical prediction was a major tri-
Period (T):-Time required for one complete umph, it had been known for some time
revolution. For a particle moving in a circle that moons, planets, and comets follow such
of radius r with a constant speed paths, but no one had been able to propose a
mechanism that caused them to follow these
2πr 2πr paths and not others.
v= →T = ................................(2.3.2)
T v
¨ The gravitational force is always attractive,
and it depends only on the masses involved
Activity and the distance between them.
- An athlete rotates a discus along a circular ¨ Newtons universal law of gravitation
path of radius [Link] the maximum speed of states that every particle in the universe at-
the disc us is 20m/s, determine the magnitude tracts every other particle with a force along
of the maximum centripetal acceleration. a line joining them.
¨ The force is directly proportional to the prod-
2.2.5. Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation uct of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

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¨ Gravitational attraction is along a line join- Substituting known values for Earths mass
ing the centers of mass of these two bodies. and radius (to three significant figures),
The magnitude of the force is the same on
each, consistent with Newtons third law.
(6.674 × 10−11 N m2 /kg 2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg)
g=
(6.38 × 106 m)2

and we obtain a value for the acceleration of

a falling body:

g = 9.8m/s2

¨ The distance between the centers of mass of

Earth and an object on its surface is very
GmM nearly the same as the radius of Earth, be-
F~ = r̂......................(2.3.4) cause Earth is so much larger than the object.
r2
Here, r is the distance between the centers ¨ This is the expected value and is independent
of mass of the bodies, G is the gravitational of the bodys mass.
constant, whose value found by experiment
is G= 6.674 × 10−11 N m2 /kg 2 in SI units. ¨ Newtons law of gravitation takes Galileos ob-
servation that all masses fall with the same
¨ The small magnitude of the gravitational acceleration a step further, explaining the
force is consistent with everyday experience. observation in terms of a force that causes
We are unaware that even large objects like objects to fall, in fact, in terms of a uni-
mountains exert gravitational forces on us. versally existing force of attraction between
masses.
¨ In fact, our body weight is the force of attrac-
tion of24the entire Earth on us with a mass of 2.2.6. Keplers Laws, Satellites Motion
6 × 10 kg. and Weightlessness
¨ Recall that the acceleration due to gravity g
is about 9.8m/s2 on Earth. We can now de- v The basic laws of planetary motion were es-
termine why this is so. tablished by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
based on the analysis of astronomical obser-
¨ The weight of an object mg is the gravita- vations of Tycho Brahe (15461601).
tional force between it and Earth. Substi-
tuting mg for F in Newtons universal law of
gravitation gives v In 1609, Kepler formulated the first two laws.
The third law was discovered in 1619. Later,
in the late 17th century, Isaac Newton proved
GmM mathematically that all three laws of Ke-
mg =
r2 pler are a consequence of the law of universal
gravitation.
Where, m is the mass of the object, M is
the mass of Earth, and r is the distance to Keplers First Law (Law of Orbits)
the center of Earth (the distance between
the centers of mass of the object and Earth). * States that the orbit of each planet in the so-
The mass m of the object cancels, leaving an lar system is an ellipse, the Sun will be on
equation for g: one focus.
GM v The points F1 and F2 represented in figure
g= ............................(2.3.5) are known as the foci of the ellipse.
r2

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v The closer together that these points are, the * States that the square of the orbital period
more closely that the ellipse resembles the of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
shape of a circle. average distance between the centers of the
planet and the sun.
v In fact, a circle is the special case of an el-
lipse in which the two foci are at the same v Unlike Kepler’s first and second laws that de-
location. scribe the motion characteristics of a single
planet, the third law makes a comparison be-
v Kepler’s first law is rather simple - all plan- tween the motion characteristics of different
ets orbit the sun in a path that resembles an planets.
ellipse, with the sun being located at one of
the foci of that ellipse. v The comparison being made is that the ratio
of the squares of the periods to the cubes of
their average distances from the sun is the
same for every one of the planets.
v As an illustration, consider the orbital pe-
riod and average distance from sun (orbital
radius) for Earth and mars as given in the
table below.

Keplers Second Law (The Law of Areas)

* States that the radius vector connecting the

centers of the Sun and the Planet sweeps
out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
v Observe that the T 2 /R3 ratio is the same for
v The Figure below shows the two sectors of Earth as it is for mars.
the ellipse having equal areas corresponding v In fact, if the same T 2 /R3 ratio is computed
to the same time intervals. for the other planets, it can be found that
v The second law describes the speed (which this ratio is nearly the same value for all the
planets (see table below).
is constantly changing) at which any given
planet will move while orbiting the sun. v Amazingly, every planet has the same T 2 /R3
ratio.
v A planet moves fastest when it is closest to
the sun and slowest when it is furthest from
the sun.
v Yet, if an imaginary line were drawn from the
center of the planet to the center of the sun,
that line would sweep out the same area in
equal periods of time.

Keplers Third Law (The Law of Harmony)

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v (NOTE: The average distance value is given b However, the stubbornness of one’s precon-
in astronomical units where 1 a.u. is equal ceptions on the topic often stands in the way
to the distance from the earth to the sun of one’s ability to understand. What was
1.4957 × 1011 m. The orbital period is given your answer for the self-diagnostic test given
in units of earth- years where 1 earth year is above?
the time required for the earth to orbit the
sun 3.156 × 107 seconds. ) b Read the statements given below and use
your knowledge of contact and non-contact
force to understand well and find the answer.
(MIND YOU: none of them are answers!)
Activities
- In what frame(s) of reference are Keplers b Weightlessness is simply a sensation expe-
laws valid? Are Keplers laws purely rienced by an individual when there are no
descriptive, or do they contain causal external objects touching one’s body and ex-
information? erting a push or pull upon it.

Satellite motion and Weightlessness b Weightless sensations exist when all contact
forces are removed.

b These sensations are common to any situa-

tion in which you are momentarily (or per-
Self Diagnostic Test petually) in a state of free fall.
Astronauts on the orbiting space station
are weightless because:
b When in free fall, the only force acting upon
* There is no gravity in space and they do your body is the force of gravity, a non- con-
not weigh anything. tact force.
* Space is a vacuum and there is no gravity in
a vacuum. b Since the force of gravity cannot be felt with-
* Space is a vacuum and there is no air out any other opposing forces, you would
resistance in a vacuum. have no sensation of it. You would feel
weightless when in a state of free fall.
* The astronauts are far from Earth’s surface
at a location where gravitation has a minimal
effect.

b Astronauts who are orbiting the Earth often

experience sensations of weightlessness.
b These sensations experienced by orbiting as-
tronauts are the same sensations experienced
by anyone who has been temporarily sus-
pended above the seat on an amusement park
ride.
b Not only are the sensations the same (for as-
tronauts and roller coaster riders), but the
causes of those sensations of weightlessness
are also the same.
2.3. Work, Energy and Linear Momentum
b Unfortunately however, many people have
difficulty understanding the causes of weight-
lessness. The cause of weightlessness is quite b On a typical day, you probably wake up, get
simple to understand. dressed, eat breakfast, and head off to work.

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b After you spend all day at your job, you go

home, eat dinner, walk the dog, maybe watch Objectives
some TV, and then go to bed. In this sense,
work can be just about anything - construc- At the end of this section, you will be able
to:
tion, typing on a keyboard, driving a bus,
teaching a class, cooking food, treating pa- + Define work, kinetic energy and potential
tients, and so much more. energy
+ Calculate the work done by a constant force
b But in physics, work is more specific. This + Derive work-kinetic energy theorem and apply
is the displacement of an object due to force. in solving related problems
How much work is done depends on the dis- + State the principle of conservation of
tance the object is moved. Work can be de- mechanical energy
fined as transfer of energy due to an applied
force. + Solve problems related to the topics discussed
in this section.
b In physics we say that work is done on an
object when energy is transferred to that ob-
ject. 2.3.1. Work and Energy

b If one object transfers (gives) energy to a sec-

ond object, then the first object does work on
the second object. Self Diagnostic Test
* Can we use work and energy
b The energy of a moving object is called ki- interchangeably?
netic energy.
* Can work be expressed in terms of the
kinetic energy of an object and vice versa?
b The work done on an object by conservative
force over any displacement is a function only
of the difference in the positions of the end-
points of the displacement. ª The terms work and energy are quite familiar
to us and we use them in various contexts.
b This property allows us to define a different ª In physics, work is done when a force acts
kind of energy for the system than its kinetic on an object that undergoes a displacement
energy, which is called potential energy. from one position to another.

b Potential energy is a state of the system, a ª Forces can vary as a function of position, and
way of storing energy as of virtue of its con- displacements can be along various paths be-
figuration or motion, while work done in most tween two points.
cases is a way of changing this energy from
one body to another. ª If no displacement takes place, no work is
said to be done.
b When only conservative forces act within an
isolated system, the kinetic energy gained (or Therefore for work to be done on an object,
three essential conditions should be satisfied:
lost) by the system as its members change
their relative positions is balanced by an
æ Force must be exerted on the object
equal loss (or gain) in potential energy.
æ The force must cause a motion or dis-
placement
b This balancing of the two forms of energy is
known as the principle of conservation of me- æ The force should have a component
chanical energy. along the line of displacement

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ª If a particle subjected to a constant force F~ ª Work done by the restoring force if the block
undergoes a certain displacement, ∆~r, the undergoes an arbitrary displacement from xi
work done W by the force is given by: to xf is the area enclosed by the above graph.
W = F~ .∆~r = |F~ ||∆~r|cosθ..............(2.3.1)
1
Area = W = (Fs ∆X) but fs = −kx
Where θ is the angle between F~ and ∆~r. 2

ª Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is 1 1

Joule (J). Where, W = kx2i − kx2f ........................(2.3.3)
2 2
1j = 1N.1m ª If the work is done by the applied force
ª The sign of work depends on the direction 1 1
of∆~r. Hence, the work done by the applied Wapp = kx2f − kx2i but Fapp = k∆x
force is positive when the projection of F~ 2 2
onto ∆~r is in the same direction as ∆~r.
Example
ª Consider the Mass-spring system where the
force applied varies with position constantly.
A particle is subject to a force that varies
ª A block on a horizontal, frictionless surface is with position as in figure below. What is the
connected to a spring as shown in the figure total work done by the force over the dis-
below. tance, x= 0 to x = 15.0 m?
ª If the spring is either stretched or compressed
a small distance from its un-stretched (equi-
librium) configuration, it exerts on the block
a force that can be expressed as:

Fs = −kx(Hook 0 s law)...................(2.3.2)
Þ x is the position of the block relative to
its equilibrium (x = 0) position Solution
Þ k is a positive constant called the force
constant or the spring constant of the The total work done is equal to the area un-
spring. der the versus x curve
Þ Fs is called restoring force
W = (Fx )(∆x) = ∆A
The negative sign in the equation signifies
that the force exerted by the spring is always 1 1
directed opposite to the displacement from W = (3)(5) + (5)(3) + (3)(5) = 30J
2 2
equilibrium.
Energy is the crown for physics. It is found
in every branch of physics. It is defined as
the capacity of a physical system to perform
work. And it exists in several forms such ki-
netic, potential, thermal, chemical and other
forms. And its SI unit is joule (J).
Kinetic energy (KE) is the capacity of an
Figure 2.3: Mass-spring system (left), graph- object to do work by virtue of its motion. For
ical representation of the motion of mass- an object of mass m and moving with speed
spring system (right) v, the kinetic energy is calculated as:

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+ We have discussed how to find the work done

on a particle by the forces that act on it, but
1 how is that work manifested in the motion of
KE = mv 2 the particle?
2
+ According to Newtons second law of motion,
Potential Energy (PE) is the energy that the sum of all the forces acting on a particle,
is stored in an object due to its position rel- or the net force, determines the product of
ative to some zero position. An object pos- the mass and the acceleration of the particle,
sesses gravitational potential energy if it is or its motion.
positioned at a height above (or below) the
zero height. + Therefore, we should consider the work done
by all the forces acting on a particle, or the
network, to see what effect it has on the par-
ticles motion.
+ Let a force ’F’ is applied on an object initially
moving with velocity ’u’. If it is displaced to a
displacement ’s’ and changes its velocity into
’v’, then its motion will be expressed by:

v 2 = u2 − 2as

The potential energy concept can be used Multiplying this equation by ’m’ and dividing
only when dealing with a special class of throughout by 2, we get:
forces called conservative forces.
mv 2 mu2
Mathematically the potential energy is given − = mas
2 2
by
2 2
Hence, mv2 − mu
2
where Fs is the force that
∆Ug = mg∆y caused the havoc!
2 2
+ Therefore, we can write, mv2 − mu =W where
This equation is valid only for objects near 2
the surface of the Earth, where g is approxi- W = Fs is the work done by this force.
mately constant So what just happened? We just proved
that, 12 (mv 2 ) − 21 (mu2 ) is the work done by
Work- Energy theorem the force!
+ In other words, the work done is equal to
the change in K.E. of the object! This is the
Self Diagnostic Test Work-Energy theorem
If the work is done on a system, the work + or the relation between Kinetic energy and
done appears as an increase in the energy of Work done. In other words, the work done
the system. on an object is the change in its kinetic en-
* What types of energy do you know? ergy.
* Can you state the work-kinetic energy
theorem? Wnet = ∆K.E......................(2.3.6)

The work-kinetic energy theorem states that:

+ One of the possible outcomes of doing work In the case in which work is done on a sys-
on a system is that the system changes its tem and the only change in the system is in
speed. its speed.

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Example . The mechanical energy of an isolated,

friction-free system is conserved. An isolated
A 0.600-kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at system is one for which there are no energy
point A and kinetic energy of 7.50 J at point transfers across the boundary. For the an ob-
B. What is (a) its kinetic energy at A? (b) its ject of mass m falling in a gravitational field
speed at B? (c) the total work done on the 1 2 1
particle as it moves from A to B? mvf + mgyf = mvi2 + mgyi
2 2

Activity
A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h
above the ground. Neglecting air resistance, (a)
determine the speed of the ball when it is at a
height y above the ground. (b) Determine the
speed of the ball at y if at the instant of release
it already has an initial upward speed vi at the
initial altitude h.

Example

Mechanical Energy (ME): is defined as A 3.00-kg crate slides down a ramp. The
the sum of kinetic energy and potential en- ramp is 1.00m in length and inclined at an
ergy. Consider the book-earth system shown angle of 30o , as shown in the figure below.
in the figure below. The crate starts from rest at the top, experi-
ences a constant friction force of magnitude
5.00 N, and continues to move a short dis-
tance on the horizontal floor after it leaves
the ramp. Use energy methods to determine
the speed of the crate at the bottom of the
ramp.

. As the book falls from to , the work done by

the gravitational force on the book is
Wonbook = (−mg).(ya − yb = mgyb − mgya )

. From the work-kinetic energy theorem, the Solution

work done on the book is equal to the change Since the non-conservative force (friction
in the kinetic energy of the book: force) exists in the system,
Wonbook = ∆KE
. As the book falls from initial heightyb to a
final height ya ,

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2.3.2. Power
1kW h = (103 W )(3600s) = 3.6 × 106 J
. Power is defined as the time rate of energy
transfer.
Example
. If an external force is applied to an object
(which we assume acts as a particle), and if An older model car accelerates from rest to
the work done by this force in the time inter- speed v in 10 seconds. A newer, more power-
val ∆t is W, then the average power during ful car accelerates from rest to 2v in the same
this interval is defined as time period. What is the ratio of the power
of the newer car to that of the older car?
W Solution
pav = − − − − − − − − − − − (2.3.7)
∆t

. The instantaneous power P is defined as the

limiting value of the average power as ∆t ap-
proaches zero:
W W
p = lim∆t→0 = −−−−−−−−−(2.3.8)
∆t t
But,W=F.∆r
W ∆~r
p= = F~ . = F~ .~v −−−−−−−−(2.3.9)
∆t ∆t

. In general, power is defined for any type of

energy transfer. Therefore, the most general
expression for power is Activity

E - The electric motor of a model train

p = − − − − − − − − − − − (2.3.10) accelerates the train from rest to 0.620m/s in
t 21.0cs. The total mass of the train is 875 g.
Find the average power delivered to the train
The SI unit of power is joules per second during the acceleration.
(J/s), also called the watt (W) (after James
Watt):
1J m2 2.3.3. Linear Momentum
1W = = 1kg. 3
s s
. Momentum is defined as the quality of a
. A unit of power in the U.S. customary system moving object to exert a force on anything
is the horsepower (hp): that tries to stop it. The linear momentum
of a particle or an object that can be mod-
1hp = 746W eled as a particle of mass m moving with a
velocity ~v is defined to be the product of its
mass and velocity:
. A unit of energy (or work) can now be defined
in terms of the unit of power. p~ = m~v − − − − − − − − − (2.3.11)
. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy trans-
ferred in 1 h at the constant rate of 1 kW = . Momentum (~p) is a vector quantity in the
1 000 J/s. The amount of energy represented direction of the velocity with SI unit kgm/s.
by 1 kWh is: Using Newtons second law of motion, we can

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relate the linear momentum of a particle to the two particles for the time interval dur-
the resultant force acting on the particle. ing which the particles interact. This result,
known as the law of conservation of linear
momentum, can be extended to any number
∆v ∆(m~v ) ∆~p of particles in an isolated system. We can
F~ = m ⇒ F~ = =
∆t ∆t ∆t state it as follows:
. ”Whenever two or more particles in an iso-
. Therefore, the time rate of change of the lin- lated system interact, the total momentum of
ear momentum of a particle is equal to the the system remains constant”.
net force acting on the particle.
Example 1
∆~p = F~ ∆t A 60-kg archer stands at rest on frictionless
ice and fires a 0.50-kg arrow horizontally at
~
I(Impulse) = ∆~p = p~f −~pi = F~ ∆t.......(2.3.12) 50 m/s. With what velocity does the archer
move across the ice after firing the arrow?
. The impulse of the net force F~ acting on the Solution
particle is equal to the change in momentum
of the particle.
Conservation of Linear Momentum

Recall Newtons third law:

. When two objects of masses m1 and m2 in-
teract (meaning that they apply forces on
each other), the force that object 2 applies
to object 1 is equal in magnitude and oppo-
site in direction to the force that object 1
applies on object 2.

Let:
+ F~12 =the force on m1 from m2
Activity
+ F~21 =the force on m2 from m1
- A ball of mass 0.150 kg is dropped from rest
Then, in symbols, Newtons third law says from a height of 1.25 m. It rebounds from the
floor to reach a height of 0.960 m. What
impulse was given to the ball by the floor?

2.3.4. Collisions

Self Diagnostic Test

* What is the difference between elastic,
inelastic and perfectly inelastic collision?

. Consider the collision between two particles

Where p~1i and p~2i are the initial values p~1f of masses m1 and m2 shown in the figure be-
and p~2f the final values of the momenta for low.

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. If the two particles form an isolated system,

the momentum of the system must be con-
served.

. Therefore, the total momentum of an isolated

system just before a collision equals the to-
tal momentum of the system just after the
collision.
From conservation of kinetic energy,
. But, the total kinetic energy of the system of
particles may or may not be conserved, de- 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
pending on the type of collision. m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f
2 2 2 2
. Whether or not kinetic energy is conserved is We can cancel the factor 1/2 in the equation,
used to classify collisions as either elastic or and rewrite as
inelastic.
2 2 2 2
A. Elastic collision:- An elastic collision m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )
between two objects is one in which the total
kinetic energy as well as total momentum of Then, factor both sides
the system is conserved.
m1 (v1i −v1f )(v1i +v1f ) = m2 (v2f −v2i )(v2f +v2i ).....(a)
Perfectly elastic collisions occur between
atomic and subatomic particles. Separate the terms containing and (m1 )
(m2 )(b)
. Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2
moving with initial velocities and along the m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )............(b)
same straight line, as shown in the figure be-
low. Dividing equation (a) by equation (b)
. The two particles collide head-on and v1i + v1f = v2f + v2i
then leave the collision site with different
velocities,v1f and v2f . v1i − v2i = −(v1f − v2f ) − − − − − (2.3.16)
Equation (2.3.16) along with equation
. If the collision is elastic, both the momen- (2.3.14) can be used to solve problems deal-
tum and kinetic energy of the system are ing with elastic collisions.
conserved. Therefore, considering velocities B. Inelastic Collision:- An inelastic colli-
along the horizontal direction we have: sion is one in which the total kinetic energy
of the system is not conserved. But the mo-
m1 v1i +m2 v2i = m1 v1f +m2 v2f .....................(2.3.14) mentum of the system is conserved.
* Therefore, for inelastic collision of two parti-
1 1 1 1 cles:
2 2 2 2
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f ............(2.3.15)
2 2 2 2 m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f
Because all velocities in the figure are either 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
to the left or the right, they can be rep- m1 v1i + m2 v2i 6= m1 v1f + m2 v2f
2 2 2 2
resented by the corresponding speeds along
with algebraic signs indicating direction. We C. Perfectly Inelastic Collision:- When
shall indicate v as positive if a particle moves the colliding objects stick together after the
to the right and negative if it moves to the collision, the collision is called perfectly in-
left. elastic.

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* Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2

moving with initial velocities and along the
same straight line, as shown in the figure be- Example 2
low.
A block of mass m1 = 1.6kg initially moving
* The two particles collide head-on, stick to-
gether, and then move with some common to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a hori-
velocity vf after the collision. zontal frictionless track collides with a second
block of mass m2 = 2.1kg initially moving to
the left with a speed of 2.5m/s. If the colli-
sion is elastic, find the velocities of the two
blocks after collision.
Solution

* The total momentum before the collision

equals the total momentum of the compos-
ite system after the collision
m1 v1f + m2 v2f = (m1 + m2 )vf

m1 v1f + m2 v2f
vf = ....................(2.3.17)
m1 + m2
Example 1

An archer shoots an arrow toward a target

that is sliding toward her with a speed of 2.50
m/s on a smooth surface. The 22.5-g arrow
is shot with a speed of 35.0 m/s and passes
through the 300-g target, which is stopped by
the impact. What is the speed of the arrow
after passing through the target?
Solution

Activity
* A 10.0-g bullet is fired into a stationary block
of wood (m = 5.00 kg).The bullet sticks into
the block, and the speed of the
bullet-plus-wood combination immediately
after the collision is 0.600 m/s. What was the
original speed of the bullet?

2.3.5. Center of Mass

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Self Diagnostic Test

* What do we mean by the center of mass?

v The center of mass is the point at which all

the mass can be considered to be ”concen-
trated”. The center of mass of the system
is located somewhere on the line joining the
particles and is closer to the particle having
the larger mass.
Activity
v The center of mass of the pair of particles
located on the x axis as shown in the figure * Four objects are situated along the y axis as
below lies somewhere between the particles, follows: a 2.00 kg object is at +3.00 m, a
it is given by: 3.00-kg object is at +2.50 m, a 2.50-kg object is
at the origin, and a 4.00-kg object is at -0.500
m. Where is the center of mass of these
objects??

Chapter Summery

v Kinematics is the study of motion of objects

without considering the agents that cause the
motion, and Dynamics is the study of mo-
tion of objects with the cause of the motion.
v For motion with constant acceleration,
v We can extend this concept to a system of
many particles with masses mi in three di- ~u + ~v
mensions. The x coordinate of the center of ~v = ~u + ~at.....(a) ~vav = ....(b)
mass of n particles is defined to be 2
1
~rf −~ri = ~ut+ ~at2 ...(c) v 2 = u2 +2a∆r...(d)
2
v Projectile motion is a motion in a curved
path in a gravitational field. The maximum
height of the projectile is given by
u2 sin2 θ
h=
2g

v The Range(R) is the horizontal displacement

Example 1 of the projectile covered in a total time of
flight
A system consists of three particles with
masses m1 = m2 = 1kg and m3 = 2kg lo- 2usinθ u2 sinθ
cated as shown in the figure below. Find the (ttot = )is : R =
g g
center of mass of the system.
Solution v Force: any interaction that changes the mo-
tion an object.

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v Friction force is always proportional to the v Momentum is defined as the quality of a

normal force between the two interacting sur- moving object to exert a force on anything
faces. that tries to stop it.
Ff rict ∝ Fnorm → Ff = µFN v The center of mass is the point at which
all the mass can be considered to be ”con-
There are two types of frictional force: Static centrated”.
friction, Kinetic friction:
v Uniform Circular Motion is motion of ob-
jects in a circular path with a constant speed. Chapter Review Questions and Problems
For objects moving in a circular path with a ¬ A fish swimming in a horizontal plane has
constant speed, acceleration arises because of velocity ~vi (4î + ĵ) m/s at a point in the ocean
the change in direction of the velocity, and where the position relative to a certain rock is
such acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration ~ri = (10î − 4ĵ) m. After the fish swims with
constant acceleration for 20s, its velocity is
v2 ~vf (20î − 5ĵ) m/s. a) Find the acceleration of
ac = the fish
r b) If the fish maintains this constant
acceleration, where is it at t=25s?
v Newtons universal law of gravitation ­ A projectile is fired in such a way that its
states that the force is directly proportional horizontal range is equal to three times its
to the product of their masses and inversely maximum height. What is the angle of
proportional to the square of the distance be- projection?
tween them
® Two projectiles are thrown with the same
GmM initial velocity, one at an angle θ and the other
F~ = r̂ at an angle of 90o − θ .
r2
(a) Can both projectiles strike the ground at
the same distance from the projection point?
v Weightlessness is simply a sensation ex- (b) Can both projectiles be in air for the same
perienced by an individual when there are no time interval?
external objects touching one’s body and ex-
erting a push or pull upon it. ¯ A ball of mass 0.200 kg has a velocity of
150m/s; a ball of mass 0.300 kg has a velocity
v The work (W) done on a system by an of - 0.4m/s. They meet in a head-on elastic
agent exerting a constant force (F~ )and mov- collision.
(a) Find their velocities after the collision.
ing the system through the displacement
(b) Find the velocity of their center of mass
(∆~r) is
before and after the collision.
W = F~ .∆~r ° Four objects are situated along the y axis as
v Kinetic energy is represents the energy as- follows: a 2.00 kg object is at +3.00 m, a
sociated with the motion of the particle: 3.00-kg object is at +2.50 m, a 2.50-kg object is
at the origin, and a 4.00-kg object is at -0.500
v Potential energy is the energy associated m. Where is the center of mass of these
objects?
with the configuration of a system of objects
that exert forces on each other. The poten-
tial energy concept can be used only when
dealing with a special class of forces called
conservative [Link] = mgy
v Power is defined as the time rate of energy
transfer:pav = W/∆t

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Chapter Three 3.1. Properties of Bulk Matter

Fluid Mechanics

t Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics Self Diagnostic Test

concerned with the mechanics of fluids in
motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid stat- * Can you differentiate what elastic and
ics) and the forces on them. inelastic behaviors?
* What are stress and strain?
t This study area deals with many and diver- * Can you define pressure?
sified problems such as surface tension, fluid
statics, flow in enclose bodies, or flow round
bodies (solid or otherwise), flow stability, etc. t Although a solid may be thought of as hav-
t The applications of fluid mechanics are ing a definite shape and volume, its possible
enormous: breathing, blood flow, swim- to change its shape and volume by applying
ming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, external forces.
rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, t A sufficiently large force will permanently de-
engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name form or break an object, but otherwise, when
a few. the external forces are removed, the object
t In physics, a fluid is a substance that con- tends to return to its original shape and size.
tinually deforms (flows) under an applied This is called elastic behavior.
shear stress, or external force.
Definitions:
t Fluids are a phase of matter and include liq-
uids and gases. Elastic materialsare materials that regain
their original shape and size when the de-
forming force is removed.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: Elastic deformationis a reversible defor-
mation by a force applied within the elastic
+ Distinguish between elastic and plastic limit. Beyond elastic limit, a force applied on
materials properties. an object causes permanent and irreversible
+ Define the three kinds of stresses, strains and deformation called plastic deformation.
elastic moduli (tensile, shear and volume) and
then apply them to solve problems. Plastics materials:do not regain their orig-
inal shape and size when the deforming force
+ Distinguish between density, weight density, is removed. The elastic properties of solid
and specific gravity and given an objects mass materials are described in terms of stress
and volume, calculate the objects density, weight and strain.
density, and specific gravity.
+ Calculate the pressure acting at a depth h
t Stress is the force per unit area that is caus-
below the surface of a liquid of density ( ρ). ing some deformation on an object. It has SI
+ Distinguish between absolute pressure and unit N/m2 called the Pascal (Pa), the same
gauge pressure. as the unit of pressure.
+ State Pascals principle and apply this principle
to basic hydraulic systems. F
+ State Archimedes principle and use this stress = .......................(3.1)
A
principle to solve problems related to buoyancy.
+ Explain equation of continuity and Bernoullis Strain-measures the amount of deformation
equation and apply to solve problems by the applied stress and defined as the

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change in configuration of a body divided by t If the object is originally a rectangular block,

its initial configuration. Strain is unit less a shear stress results in a shape whose cross
quantity. section is a parallelogram.
t A book pushed sideways, as shown in Figure
change in conf igration 3.2b, is an example of an object subjected to
strain = .......................(3.2)a shear stress.
initial conf igration
t To a first approximation (for small distor-
There are three kinds of strains: tions), no change in volume occurs with this
deformation.
1. Tensile Strain: t We define the shear stress as F/A, the ratio
of the tangential force to the area A of the
t When the ends of a bar(rod or wire) of uni- face being sheared.
form cross-sectional area A are pulled with ∆F
equal and opposite forces of magnitude F⊥ Shear stress = .......................(3.5)
(Figure 1(a)), the bar will undergo a stretch A
by the tensile stress defined as the ratio of t The shear strain is defined as the ratio x/h,
the force magnitude F⊥ to the cross-sectional
area A: where x is the horizontal distance that the
sheared face moves and h is the height of the
F ⊥ object. Interms of these quantities, the shear
T ensile stress = .......................(3.3) modulus is
A
x
Shear strain = = tanφ.......................(3.6)
The fractional change in length of an ob- h
ject under a tensile stress is called the tensile
strain (Figure 1b)

Figure 3.2: Shows an object deformed by

Figure 3.1: Shows a bars a) tensile stress and a shear stress, a) shear stress and b) shear
b) tensile strain strain
3. Volume Stress and Strain
∆L
T ensile strain = .......................(3.4)
Lo Volume Stress is a stress which causes vol-
ume deformation on an object and defined as
2. Shear Stress and Strain the ratio of the change in the magnitude of
the applied force ∆F to the surface area A.

t Another type of deformation occurs when an ∆v

V olume stress = .......................(3.7)
object is subjected to a force parallel to one of vo
its faces while the opposite face is held fixed
by another force (Figure 3.2a). Volume strain is the fractional change in
volume (Figure 3) that is - the change in vol-
t The stress in this case is called a shear stress. ume, ∆V , divided by the original volume Vo :

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tensile stress F ⊥ /A
Y = = .......................(3.9)
tensile strain ∆L/Lo

2. Shear Modulus (S): with units of Pas-

cal, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain.
u It is the measure of the resistance to motion
of the planes within a solid parallel to each
other.
Figure 3.3: A block undergoing volume strain u A material having a large shear modulus is
by the applied volume stress difficult to bend. Values of the shear modulus
Elasticity Moduli for some representative materials are given in
Table 3.1.
u The stress will be proportional to the strain u Like Youngs modulus, the unit of shear mod-
if the stress is sufficiently small. ulus is the ratio of that for force to that for
area.
u In this regard, the proportionality constant
known as elastic modulus depends on the shear stress F ||/A
S= = .......................(3.10)
material being deformed and on the nature shear strain x/h
of the deformation.
3. Bulk Modulus: its SI unit is Pascal, is
stress = elastic modulus×strain..................(3.8) the ratio of the volume stress to the volume
strain.
u This relationship between stress and strain u Bulk modulus measures the resistance of
is analogous to Hookes law (F=-k∆x ), re- solids or liquids to changes in their volume.
lationship between force and extension of a u A material having a large bulk modulus
spring. doesnt compress easily.
u The elastic modulus is analogous to a spring u Note that a negative sign is included in this
constant. defining equation so that B is always positive.
Corresponding to the three types of u An increase in pressure (positive ∆P) causes
strains, there are three types of elastic a decrease in volume negative ∆V) and vice
module. versa.
1. Youngs Modulus: is the ratio of the ten-
sile stress to the tensile strain. volume stress −∆F/A −∆p
B= = = ..........(3.11)
volume strain ∆v/vo ∆v/vo
u It measures the resistance of a solid to a
change in its length and typically used to u A negative sign is inserted in this defining
characterize a rod or wire stressed under ei- equation so that B is a positive number.
ther tension or compression.
u Note that because strain is a dimensionless u This maneuver is necessary because an in-
quantity, Y has units of force per unit area. crease in pressure (positive∆ p) causes a de-
creasein volume (negative∆ v) and vice versa.
u Typical values are given in Table 3.1. Experi-
ments show (a) that for a fixed applied force, u Table 3.1 lists bulk moduli for some materi-
the change in length is proportional to the als.
original length and (b) that the force neces- u If you look up such values in a different
sary to produce a given strain is proportional source, you often find that the reciprocal of
to the cross-sectional area. the bulk modulus is listed.

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u The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called (940N )(10m)

= = 9.4 × 10−6 m2
the compressibility of the material. (20 × 1010 N/m2 )(0.005m)
u Note from Table 12.1 that both solids and Because A=πr2 the radius of the wire can be
liquids have a bulk modulus. However, no found from
shear modulus and no Youngs modulus are r r
given for liquids because a liquid does not A 9.4 × 10−6 m
sustain a shearing stress or a tensile stress. r= = = 1.7×10−3 m = 1.7mm
π π
u If a shearing force or a tensile force is ap- d = 2r = 2(1.7mm) = 3.4mm
plied to a liquid, the liquid simply flows in
response.
Strain Energy is energy stored in a - Activity: A solid brass sphere is initially
stretched wire. If x is the stretch due to ap- surrounded by air, and the air pressure exerted
plied force F, on it is (normal atmospheric pressure). The
sphere is lowered into the ocean to a depth
1 where the pressure is . The volume of the
strain energy = kx2 .....................(3.12) sphere in air is 0.50 m3. By how much does this
2
volume change once the sphere is submerged?
Table 3.1: Typical Values for Elastic Moduli
3.2. Density and Pressure in Static Fluids

Density (ρ) is the quantity of mass (m) per

unit volume (V) of a body with SI unit kg/m3
and given by:
m
ρ= ......................(3.13)
v
Specific gravity (SG): is the ratio of the
density of the substance to the density of an-
other substance which is taken as a standard.
u The density of pure water at 40 C is usu-
ally taken as the standard and this has been
Example:
defined to be exactly 1.0x103 kg/m3 Specific
gravity is a dimensionless quantity and the
Suppose that the tension in the cable is 940 N same in any system of measurement.
as the actor reaches the lowest point. What
diameter should a 10-m-long steel wire have u For example, the density of aluminum is
if we do not want it to stretch more than 0.5 2.7x103 kg/m3 ; therefore, the SG of alu-
cm under these conditions?
minum is SG=(2.7x103 kg/m3 )/(1.0x103 kg/m3 ) =
Solution: 2.7
Example:
From the definition of Youngs modulus, we A solid sphere made of wood has a radius of
can solve for the required cross-sectional area. 0.1 m. The mass of the sphere is 1.0 kg. De-
Assuming that the cross section is circular, termine a) density and b) specific gravity of
we can determine the diameter of the wire. the wood.
From Equation:
Solution:

F ⊥ /A F Lo The volume of the sphere wood,

Y = ⇒A= V = 43 πr3 = 43 x3.14x(0.1)3 = 4.18x10−3 m3
∆L/Lo Y ∆L

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a) The density of the wood, u Because gauge pressure is the pressure rel-
1.0kg
ρ = mv = 4.18x10 −3 m3 = 239kg/m
3 ative to atmospheric pressure, therefore, it
is positive for pressures above atmospheric
b) The specific gravity of the wood, pressure, and negative for pressures below it.
239kg/m3
SG = mdensity
density of wood
of water
= 1000kg/m 3 =0.239 Absolute Pressure: In fact, atmospheric
pressure does add to the pressure in any fluid
Pressure is the ratio of the force acting per- not enclosed in a rigid container.
pendicular to s surface to the surface area (A)
on which the force acts. u This happens because of Pascals principle.
u SI unit of pressure is N/m2, called Pas- The total pressure, or absolute pressure, is
cal (Pa). Another commonly used pressure thus the sum of gauge pressure and atmo-
spheric pressure:
unit is atmosphere (atm) equal to 101.3 kPa,
which is the average pressure, exerted by the
Earths atmosphere at sea level. Pabsolute = Pguage +Patmosphere ...................(3.17)

F ⊥ u In most cases the absolute pressure in fluids

P = ...................(3.14)
A cannot be negative. Fluids push rather than
pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero.
v The pressure produced by the column of fluid (A negative absolute pressure is a pull.)
of height h and density is given by:
u Thus the smallest possible gauge pressure is
Pf luid = ρgh...................(3.15) Pguage = −Patmosphere
Example:
u The density of liquids and solids is consid-
ered to be constant. In reality, the density of A submerged wreck is located 18.3 m beneath
a liquid will increase slightly with increasing the surface of the ocean off the coast of South
depth (Why?). The variation in density is Florida. Determine the a) gauge pressure and
usually negligible and can be ignored. b) absolute pressure on a scuba diver who is
Note that: exploring the wreck. Note: the density of sea
water is 1025kg/m3
u All points at same level in a fluid have Solution:
same pressure.
a) Pguage = ρgh = (1025kg/m3 )(9.8m/s2 )(18.3m)
u Fluid pressure increases with increase in
the depth of the fluid. = 1.83 × 105 N/m2 = 182kpa
u Fluid pressure does not depend on the
shape of the container.
b) Pabs = Pgua +Patm = (1.83x105 +1.013x105 )N/m2
Atmospheric Pressure: is the pressure due
to the weight of the atmosphere exerted on = 2.84 × 105 N/m2 = 2.84kpa
the surface of the Earth.
u Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase 3.3. Buoyant Force and Archimedes Principles
in altitude as a result of decrease in the den-
sity of the air. Pascals Principle - sates that pressure ap-
Gauge pressure: is the difference in pres- plied to a confined fluid in a container is
sure between a system and the surrounding transmitted equally to all regions of the fluid
atmosphere. and to the walls of the container.
u An important application of Pascals principle
Pguage = Psystem −Patmosphere ...................(3.16) is the hydraulic press (Figure 4).

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u A downward force F~1 applied to a small pis- 3.3.1. Archimedes principle

ton of area A1 causes a pressure of P1 =
F1 /A1
u Any object which is partially or totally sub-
u The pressure is transmitted throughout the merged in a liquid has buoyant force acting
fluid and reaches the larger piston of area A2 on it which pushes the object up.
without any change.
u That is why a rock appears to weigh less
when it is submerged in liquid, or why it is
very difficult to push a beach ball under wa-
ter.

u The famous Greek mathematician,

Archimedes developed a principle which de-
scribes this around 250 B.C.

u Archimedes principle can be stated as any-

body completely or partially submerged in a
u As the fluid moves it pushes the larger piston fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
with F~2 and exerts a pressure of P2 = F2 /A2

u According to Pascals principle, these two Fbuoyant = Wf luid = ρf luid Vdisplaced gf luid ................(3.19)
pressures are equal implying:

F1 F2 u Where,Fbuoyant is the magnitude of the buoy-

= ...................(3.18) ant force and Wf luid is the weight of the dis-
A1 A2
placed fluid.

- Activity: Discuss in group what conclusion u The reason for this is that the pressure of the
you can draw from the above equation about fluid is dependent on the depth of the fluid.
the output force and describe some applications
of Pascals principle. u So the pressure at the top of an object is less
than the pressure at the bottom of the object
which creates a net force.
Example:

The small piston of a hydraulic lift has an

area of 0.20m2 . A car weighing 1.2x104 N - Activity: Discuss in group about the
sits on a rack mounted on the large piston. principles of floatation and explain for what
The large piston has an area of 0.90m2 . How conditions an object floats and sinks in a fluid.
large force must be applied to the small pis-
ton to support the car?
Solution:
Example:
F1 F2   A sample of an unknown material weighs
= ⇒ F1 = F2 A1 /A2 300 N in air and 200 N when submerged
A1 A2 in an alcohol solution with a density of
  0.70x103 kg/m3 . What is the density of the
(1.2x104 N ) 0.90m2 /0.20m2 = 2.7x103 N material?

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u It assumes that as each particle in the fluid

passes a certain point it follows the same path
as the particles that preceded it.
u There is no loss of energy due to internal fric-
tion in the fluid, which is the fluid, is assumed
to travel smoothly in regular layers; the ve-
locity and pressure remain constant at every
point in the fluid.
u Above some certain velocity, the flow is not
smooth and becomes turbulent.
u Illustrations of turbulent and laminar flow
are shown in Figure 3.5. Turbulent flow is the
irregular movement of particles in a fluid and
results in loss of energy due to internal fric-
3.4. Moving Fluids and Bernoulli Equations tion between neighboring layers of the fluid,
(Fluid Dynamics) called viscosity.
u There is disruption to the layers of fluid; the
u Up until this point, we have discussed fluids speed of the fluid at any point is continuously
which are static. That is, they are not in mo- changing both in magnitude and direction.
tion. We now turn our attention to fluids in Factors affecting laminar flow are den-
motion, or hydro dynamics.
sity, compressibility, temperature and viscos-
u There are many categories of fluids in mo- ity of the fluid.
tion, categorized by whether the fluid flow is u Assumptions made in the ideal fluid flow to
steady, or not steady, compressible or incom- understand the complex motions of real flu-
pressible, viscous or non-viscous. ids:
u In steady flow, the velocity of the fluid par- u The fluid is non-viscous, i.e there is no
ticles at any point is constant as time goes internal friction between adjacent lay-
by. ers.
u The flow is steady; the velocity of the
u Different parts of the fluid may be flowing at fluid at each point remains constant.
different rates, but the fluid in one location
is always flowing at the same rate. u The fluid is incompressible; density of
the fluid is constant.
u An in compressible flow is the flow of a fluid u The flow is irrotational; the fluid has no
which cannot be compressed. Most liquids angular momentum about any point.
are nearly incompressible.
Equation of Continuity
u A viscous fluid is one which does not flow
easily, like honey, while a non-viscous fluid is Equation of continuity expresses conserva-
one which flows more easily, like water. tion of mass for an incompressible fluid flow-
ing in a tube. It says:”the amount (ei-
u We will mostly be concerned with the steady ther mass or volume) of fluid flowing
flow of in compressible, non-viscous fluids. through a cross section of the tube in a
given time interval must be the same
u If the flow is steady, then the velocity of the for all cross sections”, or ”the prod-
fluid particles at any point is a constant with uct of the area and the fluid speed at
time. all points along a tube is constant for
u The various layers of the fluid slide smoothly an incompressible fluid (Figure 3.5).
past each other. This is called streamline or
laminar flow. Av = A! v1 = A2 v2 .............................(3.20)

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u We see that if the cross sectional area is de- u At one point the pipe has a cross sectional
creased, and then the flow rate increases. area of A1 , a height of y1 , a pressure of P1 , a
velocity of v1 and moves a distance of ∆x1 in
u This is demonstrated when you hold your fin- a time of ∆t.
ger over part of the outlet of a garden hose.
Because you decrease the cross sectional area, u At another point P1 along the pipe these
the water velocity increases. quantities are given by A2 , y2 , P2 , v2 , and
∆x2 .
u The product Av, which has the dimensions of
volume per unit time, is called the flow rate. v Conservation of energy gives the following
equation, called Bernoullis equation,
u The condition Av = constant is equivalent to
the statement that the volume of fluid that 1
P + ρv 2 +ρgy = constant..........................(3.22)
enters one end of a tube in a given time inter- 2
val equals the volume leaving the other end 1 1
of the tube in the same time interval if no = P1 + ρv12 +ρgy1 = P2 + ρv22 +ρgy2 .........(3.23)
leaks are present. 2 2

V olume
F low rate = = Av = constant......(3.21)
time

3.4.1. Bernoullis Equation

u In the 18th century, the Swiss physicists

Daniel Bernoulli derived a relationship be-
tween the velocity of a fluid and the pressure
it exerts. Figure 3.5: A fluid moving with steady flow
through a pipe with varying cross-sectional
u Qualitatively, Bernoullis principle states that area.
swiftly moving fluids exert less pressure than
slowly moving fluids.
- Activity: Discuss some applications of
u Bernoullis principle is extremely important in Bernoullis Equation in a group.
our everyday life.
* It is the primary principle which leads to lift Example:
on an airplane wing and allows the plane to
fly. Water circulates throughout a house in a hot
water heating system. If the water is pumped
* It is the primary reason a sailboat can sail at a speed of 0.50 m/s through a 4.0 cm di-
into the wind. ameter pipe in the basement under a pressure
of 3.03x105 pa, what will be the velocity and
* It is the primary reason a baseball can curve. pressure in a 2.6 cm diameter pipe on the
* It is an important reason that smoke is drawn second floor 5.0 m above?
up a chimney.
u Bernoullis equation is really a consequence of
a fundamental principle of physics: the con-
servation of energy. It can be derived using
energy principles.
u Consider a fluid moving through a pipe. The
pipes cross sectional area changes, and the
pipe changes elevation.

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v The pressure in a fluid at rest varies with

depth h in the fluid according to the expres-
sion:
P = po + ρgh
Where po is the pressure at h=0 and ρ is the
density of the fluid, assumed uniform.
v Pascals law states that when pressure is ap-
plied to an enclosed fluid, the pressure is
transmitted undiminished to every point in
the fluid and to every point on the walls of
the container.
v When an object is partially or fully sub-
merged in a fluid, the fluid exerts on the
object an upward force called the buoyant
force. According to Archimedess principle,
the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
Chapter Summary object:

v We can describe the elastic properties of a Fb = ρf gv

substance using the concepts of stress and
strain.
Stress is a quantity proportional to the force v You can understand various aspects of a flu-
producing a deformation; ids dynamics by assuming that the fluid is
strain is a measure of the degree of deforma- non-viscous and incompressible, and that the
tion. fluids motion is a steady flow with no rota-
Strain is proportional to stress, and the con- tion.
stant of proportionality is the elastic modu-
lus: v Two important concepts regarding ideal fluid
stress flow through a pipe of non-uniform size are
Elastic modulus =
strain as follows:
v Three common types of deformation are rep- v The flow rate (volume flux) through the pipe
resented by (1) the resistance of a solid to is constant; this is equivalent to stating that
elongation under a load, characterized by the product of the cross-sectional area A and
Youngs modulus Y; (2) the resistance of a the speed v at any point is a constant. This
solid to the motion of internal planes sliding result is expressed in the equation of conti-
past each other, characterized by the shear nuity for fluids:
modulus S; and (3) the resistance of a solid
or fluid to a volume change, characterized by A1 v1 = A2 v2 = constant
the bulk modulus B.
v The pressure P in a fluid is the force per unit v The sum of the pressure, kinetic energy per
area exerted by the fluid on a surface: unit volume, and gravitational potential en-
ergy per unit volume has the same value at
p = F/A all points along a streamline. This result is
summarized in Bernoullis equation:
v In the SI system, pressure has units of
Newtons per square meter (N/m2), and 1 1
= P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
(1N/m2 =1 pascal(pa) ) 2 2

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Chapter Review Questions and Problems

¬ A 200-kg load is hung on a wire having a length of 4.00 m,
2
cross-sectional area 0.2x10−4m , and Youngs modulus
8.0x10−10 N/m2 . What is its increase in length?
­ A steel wire of diameter 1 mm can support a tension of 0.2
kN. A cable to support a tension of 20 kN should have
diameter of what order of magnitude?
® A 30.0-kg hammer strikes a steel spike 2.30 cm in diameter
while moving with speed 20.0 m/s. The hammer rebounds
with speed 10.0 m/s after 0.110 s. What is the average strain
in the spike during the impact?
¯ If the shear stress in steel exceeds 4.0x108 N/m2 , the steel
ruptures. Determine the shearing force necessary to (a) shear a
steel bolt 1.00 cm in diameter and (b) punch a 1.00-cm
diameter hole in a steel plate 0.500 cm thick.
° Lead has a greater density than iron, and both are denser
than water. Is the buoyant force on a lead object greater than,
less than, or equal to the buoyant force on an iron object of the
same volume?
± When an object is immersed in a liquid at rest, why is the net
force on the object in the horizontal direction equal to zero?
² When water freezes, it expands by about 9.0 %. What
pressure increase would occur inside your automobile engine
block if the water in it froze? (The bulk modulus of ice is
2.0x109 N/m2 )
³ A 40-cm tall glass is filled with water to a depth of 30 cm.
A. What is the gauge pressure at the bottom of the glass?
B. What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the glass?
´ Water circulates throughout a house in a hot water heating
system. If the water is pumped at a speed of 0.50 m/s through
a 4.0-cm diameter pipe in the basement under a pressure of
3.03x105 Pa, what will be the velocity and pressure in a 2.6cm
diameter pipe on the second floor 5.0 m above?
µ Calculate the absolute pressure at an ocean depth of 1.0x103
m. Assume that the density of the water is 1.025x103 kg/m3
and that Patm = 1.01x105 pa.

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.1. The concept of Temperature and

the Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

t Thermodynamics is a science of the relation-

ship between heat, work, temperature, and
energy. In broad terms, thermodynamics Self Diagnostic Test
deals with the transfer of energy from one ¬ Can you state the Zeroth law of
system to another and from one form to an- thermodynamics?
other.
¬ How do temperature and heat differ?
t In thermodynamics, one usually considers
both thermodynamic systems and their en- ¬ Can you explain what the first law of
vironments. thermodynamics says?
t A typical thermodynamic system is a definite
quantity of gas enclosed in a cylinder with a
sliding piston that allows the volume of gas u Heat is defined as the flow of energy from
to vary. But in general a thermodynamic sys- one object to another. This flow of energy is
tem is a quantity of matter of fixed identity caused by a difference in temperature.
that is the subject of study and it may be
solid, liquid or gas. u Heat can flow between objects if they are in
thermal contact.
t The surrounding is the environment that is
around a system and in thermal contact with
it. u An important concept related to temperature
is thermal equilibrium.
t In general, a thermodynamic system is de-
fined by its temperature, volume, pressure,
and chemical composition. u Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if
they are in close contact that allows either to
t A system is in equilibrium when each of these gain energy from the other, but nevertheless,
variables has the same value at all points. no net energy is transferred between them.

u Even when not in contact, they are in ther-

Learning Objectives: mal equilibrium if, when they are placed in
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: contact, no net energy is transferred between
* State the Zeroth law of thermodynamics and them.
use it to define temperature.
* Distinguish between heat and temperature. u If two objects remain in contact for a long
time, they typically come to equilibrium. In
* Convert from one temperature scale to another. other words, two objects in thermal equilib-
* Explain the concepts of work, heat and internal rium do not exchange energy.
energy in thermodynamics; determine work and
heat sign conventions. u Experimentally, if object A is in thermal
* Define the concepts specific heat and latent equilibrium with object B, and object B is
heats and solve problems using the concepts. in thermal equilibrium with object C, then
object A is in thermal equilibrium with ob-
* Define thermal expansion; distinguish between ject C.
linear, areal and volume expansions and solve
related problems.
u That statement of transitivity is called the
* Explain the different heat transfer mechanisms zeroth law of thermodynamics. (The number
* Explain the first law of thermodynamics for a ”zeroth” was suggested by British physicist
closed system and apply it to solve problems. Ralph Fowler in the 1930s.

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t Temperature scales are created by identifying

two reproducible temperatures.
t The freezing and boiling temperatures of
water at standard atmospheric pressure are
commonly used.
v On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of
water is 00 C and the boiling point is 1000 C.
Figure 4.1: If thermometer A is in thermal The unit of temperature on this scale is the
equilibrium with object B, and B is in ther- degree Celsius (0 C).
mal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal
equilibrium with C. Therefore, the reading v The Fahrenheit scale has the freezing point of
on A stays the same when A is moved over water at 320 F and the boiling point at 2120 F.
to make contact with C. Its unit is the degree Fahrenheit (0 F ).
t The first, second, and third laws of thermo-
dynamics were already named and numbered
then.
t The zeroth law had seldom been stated, but
it needs to be discussed before the others, so
Fowler gave it a smaller number.)

t Consider the case where A is a thermometer.

The zeroth law tells us that if A reads a cer-
tain temperature when in equilibrium with
B, and it is then placed in contact with C, it Figure 4.2: Relationships between the
will not exchange energy with C; therefore, Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature
its temperature reading will remain the same scales are shown. The relative sizes of the
(Figure 4.1). scales are also shown.

t In other words, if two objects are in thermal

equilibrium, they have the same temperature. - Activity: If the ice-point and the
Temperature Scales steam-point temperatures on an unknown scale
X are 500 X and 2000 X, respectively, then what
is the reading in 0 X for a temperature of 600 C?
t Any physical property that depends consis-
tently and reproducibly on temperature can Conversions from one temperature scale to
be used as the basis of a thermometer. the other are possible using the following re-
lations:
t For example, volume increases with temper- Table 4.1 Temperature Conversions
ature for most substances. This property is
the basis for the common alcohol thermome-
ter and the original mercury thermometers.
t Other properties used to measure tempera-
ture include electrical resistance, color, and
the emission of infrared radiation.
t Thermometers measure temperature accord-
ing to well-defined scales of measurement.
t The three most common temperature scales
are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

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Figure 4.3: The curvature of a bimetallic

4.2. Thermal Expansion strip depends on temperature. (a) The strip
is straight at the starting temperature, where
u The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer its two components have the same length. (b)
is one of many commonly encountered ex- At a higher temperature, this strip bends to
amples of thermal expansion, which is the the right, because the metal on the left has
change in size or volume of a given system expanded more than the metal on the right.
as its temperature changes. At a lower temperature, the strip would bend
to the left.
u The most visible example is the expansion of
hot air. When air is heated, it expands and Areal Expansion
becomes less dense than the surrounding air, The change in area ∆A of a solid is propor-
which then exerts an (upward) force on the tional to its initial areaAo and the change in
hot air and makes steam and smoke rise, hot its temperature ∆T. That is,
air balloons float, and so forth.
Linear Thermal Expansion

u The increase in length ∆L of a solid is propor-

tional to its Lo initial length and the change Volume Expansion
in its temperature ∆[Link] proportionality
constant is called the coefficient of linear ex-
pansion, α The change in volume∆V of a solid is propor-
tional to its initial volume Vo and the change
in its temperature ∆T. That is:

Table 4.2: Some typical coefficients

of thermal expansion
Table 4.3: Some typical coefficients of
volume expansion

u A bimetallic strip consists of two metals of

different coefficients of thermal expansion, A
and Bin the figure. It will bend when heated
or cooled.

- Activity: Metal A has a coefficient of linear

expansion that is three times the coefficient of
linear expansion of metal B. How does their
coefficient of areal expansion, β compare?

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4.3. The Concept of Heat, Work and v Internal Energy, symbol U, is defined as the
Internal Energy energy associated with the random, disor-
dered motion of the microscopic components-
atoms and molecules.
v Heat, symbol Q and unit Joule (J), is the
spontaneous flow of energy into or out of a v Any bulk kinetic energy of the system due
system caused by a difference in temperature to its motion through space is not included
between the system and its surroundings, or in its internal energy. Internal energy in-
between two objects whose temperatures are cludes kinetic energy of translation, rotation,
different. Another aspect of this definition of and vibration of molecules, potential energy
heat is that a body never contains heat. within molecules, and potential energy be-
tween molecules.
v Rather, heat can be identified only as it
crosses the boundary. Thus, heat is a tran- v It is useful to relate internal energy to the
sient phenomenon. temperature of an object, but this relation-
ship is limited, internal energy changes can
v Work, symbol W and unit Joule (J), is a non- also occur in the absence of temperature
spontaneous energy transfer into or out of changes.
a system due to force acting through a dis-
placement. Work takes many forms, moving 4.4. Specific Heat and Latent Heat
a piston, or stirring, or running an electrical
current through a resistance. Specific Heats:
v Work is the non-spontaneous transfer of en-
ergy. Heat and work are two possible ways of v Heat flowing into or out of a body (or sys-
transferring energy from one system to an- tem) changes the temperature of the body
other. (or system) except during phase changes the
temperature remains constant. The quantity
v Heat is a microscopic form of energy transfer of heat, Q, required to change the tempera-
involving large number of particles; the ex- ture of a body of mass m by ∆T proportional
change of energy occurs due to the individual to both the mass and the change in temper-
interactions of the particles. ature. Mathematically,
v No macroscopic displacement occurs when
heat flows and no macroscopic force is ex-
erted by one object on the other.
Q ≈ m∆T ⇒ Q = mc∆T
v A system cannot possess heat or work; these
two are energies that flow into or out of a
system.
C is a proportionality constant called specific
v Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation heat capacity(or in short specific heat) of the
of energy (if no heat is lost to the surround- substance defined as the amount of heat re-
ings): quired to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of any substance through a unit degree. Its
SI unit is J/kg.k or j/kg.o c
Qlost by hotter object = Qgain by cooler object v The amount of heat required to change the
temperature of n moles of a substance, usu-
ally for gases, by ∆T is :

- Activity: When hot and cold objects are

placed in contact, the hot one loses energy. Q = nc∆T
Does this violate energy conservation? Why or
why not?

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v The heat capacity(C) is defined as the Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf ): is the heat
amount of heat energy required to raise the absorbed or released when matter melts,
temperature of a substance by 10 C. changing phase from solid to liquid form at
constant temperature.
Latent Heats

Latent Heat the heat required per unit mass u For example, 333.7 kJ of heat is required to
of a substance to produce a phase change at change 1 kg of ice to water at 00 C, so for
constant temperature. water Lf= 333.7kJ/kg.

v The latent heat QL , required to change the Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV): is
phase of ”m” mass of a body at constant tem- the heat absorbed or released when matter
perature is calculated as, vaporizes, changing phase from liquid to gas
phase at constant temperature.

u To change 1 kg of water to steam at 1000 C,

QL = ±mL 2256 kJ of heat is required and so LV = 2256
kJ.
Table 4.5: This is a table of specific latent heat
Where L is the specific latent heat required of fusion and vaporization for common materials.
to change the phase of 1 kg of a substance at
constant temperature.
Table 4.4: Specific Heats of Substances
at 250 C and Atmospheric Pressure

Example 1

How much heat energy is required to change a

40 g ice cube from a solid at −10o C to steam
at 1100 C?
Types of Latent Heat Transfer Solution:

There are two types of latent heat transfers To raise the temperature of the ice to o c we
between an object and its environment. need,

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- Activity: A liquid of unknown specific heat

at a temperature of 20o C was mixed with water
at 80o C in a well-insulated container. The final
temperature was measured to be 50o C, and the
combined mass of the two liquids was measured
to be 240g. In a second experiment with both
liquids at the same initial temperatures, 20 g
less of the liquid of unknown specific heat was
poured into the same amount of water as
before. This time the equilibrium temperature
was found to be 52o C. Determine the specific
heat of the liquid. The specific heat of water is
4187J/Kg o C or 1kcal/kg o C.

4.5. Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat may be transferred from one place to

another in three ways:

+ conduction
+ convection
Example 2:
+ radiation
If 90 g of molten lead at 327.30 C is poured + direct burning
into a 300 g casting form made of iron and
initially at 20.00 C, what is the final tempera- Often a combination of all four processes
ture of the system? Assume no energy is lost takes place at the same time, especially in
to the environment. a fire situation. If we wish to contain heat,
Solution: then these processes must be prevented.
Conduction
The melting point of lead is 327.30 [Link]
the final temperature of the system is T,
u Conduction is most obvious in solids. All
liquids (except mercury) and gases are very
poor conductors of heat.

u When a solid heats up, its particles gain ki-

netic energy and increase the energy with
which they vibrate.

u Conduction occurs when heat energy trav-

els through a body, passing from particle to
particle as they vibrate against each other.
A good conductor must have particles which
are close enough together to collide with suf-
ficient force for energy to be transferred.

u Metals are all good conductors of heat espe-

cially copper, aluminum and silver, because
they have ”free” electrons which are easily
able to transfer heat energy.

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u A vacuum is an extremely poor conductor

of heat. Placing a vacuum between the two
- Activity: Explain how fire may spread by walls keeps the contents hotter than outside
conduction in a building from one room to the air because the presence of the vacuum limits
other and suggest the ways to prevent its the transfer of heat.
spread.
u Heat will ultimately be transferred slowly
u Fire spread by conduction of heat may occur through the cap (for example), but will keep
in a building along the metal beams support- the substance much hotter than another type
ing the building. of container.
Radiation
u Metal doors or door handles subject to heat
on one side rapidly conduct heat to the other
side. u Radiation is the way we receive heat energy
u The presence of an insulator (poor conduc- from the sun. It does not require a medium
tor) may trap heat and cause heat build up for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through
until ignition temperature is reached, e.g. empty space) and is in the form of electro-
faulty electric blankets under eiderdowns or magnetic energy waves which travel in the
pillows. same way as light or radio waves.
Convection u When these energy waves fall on a body, the
energy may be:
u Convection is the transfer of heat by the
movement of the heated particles themselves. + absorbed
u This can only take place in liquids and gases + transmitted
because in solids the particles are not able to + reflected
move from their fixed positions.
u When radiant energy is absorbed the body
u When a liquid or gas is heated, it expands will rise in temperature. A rack of clothes
and becomes less dense. The lighter liquid or left in front of a radiant heater will continue
gas rises allowing a flow of cooler material to to absorb heat until it reaches ignition tem-
take its place. This in turn becomes heated perature.
and so a current is set up.
u Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate)
u Heat will continue to be transferred through heat much more efficiently than white shiny
the available space in this way until it is surface.
evenly distributed.
u In a fire situation, convection currents can u The amount of heat energy received decreases
carry hot gases and burning fragments up with the square of the distance from a radiant
source,
through stairwells and open lift shafts,
spreading fire to the upper parts of a build- u for example, if an object is moved to twice
ing. the distance from a source, it will only re-
u A current of cool air replaces the hot gases, ceive a quarter of the heat energy it would
providing a continuous supply of oxygen for have received at the original distance.
the fire.
u Radiant energy is transmitted through
clear materials such as glass. The glass does
not heat up.
- Activity: A vacuum flask (sometimes called
a Thermos bottle) is a double-wall container u Radiant heat from the sun may be concen-
with a vacuum between the two walls. How trated by means of a magnifying glass, suffi-
does the flask keep its contents hotter than the cient to ignite flammable material.

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u Shiny, silver surfaces will reflect radiant en- u In equation form the first law can be written
ergy and not heat up. This is the reason for as
the silver coating on a fire-fighters jacket.
Direct Burning ∆U = Q + W

Where i∆Us the change in internal energy of

u Some agencies use the term ’direct burning the system, W= P∆V is the work done on
to describe how physical contact of the flame the system (or by the system) and P and ∆V
with other available fuel spreads a fire. are the pressure and change in volume of the
system.
u By this form of direct fire spread, the heat
of a fire will transfer across any area where u The first law is a specialized statement of
there is a line of fuel for the fire to follow. energy conservation applied to a thermody-
Some examples of direct burning are: namic system, such as a gas inside a cylinder
that has a movable piston.
v Fire spreading along a piece of wood and set-
ting fire to other pieces of wood in contact u The gas can exchange heat with its surround-
with it. ings in two ways.
u Heat can flow between the gas and its sur-
roundings when they are at different temper-
atures and work can be done on the gas when
- Activity: Water is very effective as an the piston is pushed in.
extinguishing agent because of its cooling
effect. Why is this so? Would other liquids The First Law for different thermodynamic system
have the same cooling effect?
Isolated system-is a system which does not
exchange heat with its surrounding and no
Water as an Extinguishing Agent work is done on the external environment.
u In this case Q=0 and W=0, so from the first
law we conclude ∆U=0 or U=constant
u When sand and water are exposed to the
same amount of heat energy from the sun, u The internal energy of an isolated system is
you will have observed that sand gets much constant.
”hotter” (attains a higher temperature) than Cyclic Process
water.
Engines operate in cycles, in which the sys-
u This is because water has a much higher spe- tem for example, a gas-periodically returns
cific heat than sand. This means that for to its initial state.
each degree temperature rise it will absorb a
greater amount of heat than sand. u Since the system returns to its initial state,
the change in internal energy in one complete
u The ”specific heat” of a substance measures cycle is zero; that is, ∆U=0. From the first
the amount of heat absorbed by 1 kilogram of law we see that
the substance when its temperature is raised
by 1o C. Q=W

4.6. The First Law of Thermodynamics Isochoric process

The first law of thermodynamics states that: In a constant volume process, the volume
”The change in internal energy of a of the system stays constant. Consequently,
system is equal to the sum of the heat W=0. From the first law we see that
flow into the system and the work
done on the system. ∆U = Q

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u All the heat entering the system goes into in- Example 1:
creasing the internal energy.
Adiabatic Process 5000 J of heat are added to two moles of an
ideal monatomic gas, initially at a tempera-
ture of500 K, while the gas performs 7500 J
In an adiabatic process, the system does not of work. What is the final temperature of the
exchange heat with its surroundings; that is, gas?
Q = 0.
Solution
u The first law for an adiabatic process takes
the form

∆U = W

Isothermal Process

It is a process which involves no change in

the temperature of the system.
The gas does more work than it takes in as
u If the process occurs at constant temperature heat .So, it must use 2500 J of its internal
then there is no change in the internal energy energy.
of the system so ∆U.
Example 2:
u The first law for an isothermal process takes
the form 2000 J of heat leaves the system and 2500 J
. ∆U = Q + W of work is done on the system. What is the
. 0=Q+W change in internal energy of the system?
. Q = −W Solution
u For an ideal gas in isothermal process the
work done is calculated as
vf
W = nRT ln( )
vi
Therefore, internal energy increases by 4500
Isobaric process Joule.
In an isobaric process the expansion or com-
pression occurs at constant pressure. Any
work done by the system will result in an - Activity: A 1.0 mol sample of an ideal gas is kept
increase in volume. at 0.0o C during an expansion from 3.0 L to10.0 L.
a) How much work is done on the gas during the
u The work done in Pressure- Volume graph is
equal to the area under the PV graph. expansion?
b) How much energy transfer by heat occurs with
u For an isobaric process the work done W is the surroundings in this process?
calculated as
W = p∆v = p(vf − vi )

u The first law for an isobaric process can be

written as or
∆U = Q+W or ∆U = Q−p∆v = Q−p(vf −vi )

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Chapter Summery v The energy required to change the phase of a

pure substance of mass m is Q=±mL, whereL
is the latent heat of the substance and de-
v Two objects are in thermal equilibrium with pends on the nature of the phase change and
each other if they do not exchange energy the properties of the substance. The positive
when in thermal contact. sign is used if energy is entering the system,
v The zeroth law of thermodynamics states and the negative sign is used if energy is leav-
that if objects A and B are separately in ther- ing.
mal equilibrium with a third object C, then
objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium
with each other. v The first law of thermodynamics states that
v Temperature is the property that determines when a system undergoes a change from one
whether an object is in thermal equilibrium state to another, the change in its internal
with other objects. Two objects in thermal energy is ∆U=Q+W, where Q is the energy
equilibrium with each other area the same transferred into the system by heat and W is
[Link] SI unit of absolute temper- the work done on the system. Although Q
ature is the Kelvin, which is defined to be and W both depend on the path taken from
the fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature of the initial state to the final state, the quan-
tity ∆Uis path-independent.
the triple point of water.
v When the temperature of an object is
changed by an amount ∆T, its length v In a cyclic process (one that originates and
changes by an amount ∆L that is propor- terminates at the same state), ∆U=0 and,
tional to ∆T and to its initial length Lo : therefore, Q+W=0⇒Q=-W. That is, the en-
∆L = αLo ∆T ergy transferred into the system by heat
equals the negative of the work done on the
Where, the constant is the average coefficient system during the process.
of linear expansion. The average coefficient
of areal and volume expansions respectively
are β = 2α and γ = 3α. v In an adiabatic process, no energy is trans-
v Internal energy is all of a systems energy ferred by heat between the system and its
that is associated with the systems micro- surroundings (Q=0 ). In this case, the first
scopic components. Internal energy includes law gives ∆U=W. That is, the internal en-
kinetic energy of random translation, rota- ergy changes as a consequence of work being
tion, and vibration of molecules, potential en- done on the system. In the adiabatic free
ergy within molecules, and potential energy expansion of a gas Q=0 and W=0, and so
between molecules. ∆U=0. That is, the internal energy of the
gas does not change in such a process.
v Heat is the transfer of energy across the
boundary of a system resulting from a tem-
perature difference between the system and
its surroundings. We use the symbol Q for v An isobaric process is one that occurs at con-
the amount of energy transferred by this pro- stant pressure. The work done on a gas in
cess. such a process is W=-p(vf − vi ).
v The heat capacity C of any sample is the
amount of energy needed to raise the tem-
perature of the sample by 1o C. v An isovolumetric process is one that occurs
at constant volume. No work is done in such
v The energy Q required to change the tem- a process, so ∆U=Q. An isothermal process
perature of a mass m of a substance by an is one that occurs at constant temperature.
amount ∆T is Q = mc∆T , where c is the The work done on an ideal gas during an
specific heat of the substance. isothermal process is W = nRT ln(vf /vi ).

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Chapter Review Questions and Problems

¬ Clearly distinguish among temperature, heat, and internal energy.
­ What is wrong with the following statement? ”Given any two objects, the one with the higher
temperature contains more heat.”
® The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10o C when it absorbs 1.23kJ of energy by heat. The
mass of the bar is 525g.
Determine the specific heat of silver.
¯ Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of ice from -100 C to
1100 C.
° If 20 g steam initially at 1000 C is added to 60 g of ice initially at 00 C, then find the final
equilibrium temperature of the mixture.
± The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10.0o C when it absorbs1.23 kJ of energy by heat. The
mass of the bar is525 g. Determine the specific heat of silver.
² A 50.0-g sample of copper is at 25.0o C. If 1 200 J of energy is added to it by heat, what is the
final temperature of the copper?
³ A system absorbs 35J of heat and in the process it does 11J of work.
(a) If the initial internal energy is 205J what is the final internal energy?
(b) The system follows a different thermodynamic path to the same final state and does 15J of
work, what is the heat transferred?
´ A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 0.800atm from 9.00 L to 2.00 L. In the process,
400 J of energy leaves the gas by heat.
(a) What is the work done on the gas?
(b) What is the change in its internal energy?
µ A gas is confined to a vertical cylinder by a piston of mass 2 kg and radius 1 cm. When 5J of
heat are added, the piston rises by 2.4 cm. Find:
(a) the work done by the gas;
(b) the change in its internal energy. Atmospheric pressure is 105 Pa.
11. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by 500J.
At the same time, 220 J of work is done on the system. Find the energy transferred to or from it
by heat.
12. A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 0.8atm from 9.00L to 2.0 L. In the process,400J
of energy leaves the gas by heat.
(a) What is the work done on the gas?
(b) What is the change in its internal energy?
13. A gas is taken through the cyclic process described in Figure 1.
(a) Find the net energy transferred to the system by heat during one complete cycle.
(b) If the cycle is reversed-that is, the process follows the path ACBA-what is the net energy
input per cycle by heat?

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CHAPTER FIVE
Self Diagnostic Test
OSCILLATIONS, WAVES AND OPTICS
* What is oscillation in waves?
* What is difference between wave and
` Waves are responsible for basically every oscillation?
form of communication we use. Whether * What is difference between vibration and
you’re talking out loud, texting on your oscillation?
phone or waving to someone in a crowd
there’s going to be a wave transmitting in- * Why are vibrations important? (in both
formation. science and engineering)

` An oscillation is a disturbance in a physical

system that is repetitive in time. 5.1.1. Periodic and Oscillatory Motion

` A wave is a disturbance in an extended physi- When a body repeats its path of motion back
cal system that is both repetitive in time and and forth about the equilibrium or mean po-
periodic in space. sition, the motion is said to be periodic.
` All periodic motions need not be back and
` In general, an oscillation involves a contin- forth like the motion of the earth about the
uous back and forth flow of energy between sun, which is periodic but not vibratory in
two different energy types: e.g., kinetic and nature.
potential energy, in the case of a pendulum.
` The periodic motion in which there is exis-
` A wave involves similar repetitive energy tence of a restoring force and the body moves
flows to an oscillation, but, in addition, is ca- along the same path to and fro about a defi-
pable of transmitting energy and information nite point, equilibrium position, is called os-
from place to place. cillatory motion.
` In all types of oscillatory motion one thing
` Now, although sound waves and electromag- is common that is each body (performing os-
netic waves, for example, rely on quite dis-
tinct physical mechanisms, they, neverthe- cillatory motion) is subjected to a restoring
less, share many common properties. force that increases with increase in displace-
ment from mean position.
` The same is true of different types of oscil- Types of oscillatory motion:
lation. It turns out that the common fac-
tor linking various types of wave is that they There are two types of oscillatory motion:
are all described by the same mathematical linear oscillation and circular oscillation.
equations. Again, the same is true of various
types of oscillation. + Example of linear oscillation:-
À Oscillation of mass spring system.
Learning objectives: Á Oscillation of fluid column in a U-tube.
 Oscillation of floating cylinder.
- Discuss systems that oscillate with simple
harmonic motion. Ã Oscillation of body dropped in a tunnel
along earth diameter.
- Explain the concept of wave,
Ä Oscillation of strings of musical instru-
- Describe the wave motion and derive the ments.
wave equation
+ Example of circular oscillation:-
- State Doppler Effect
À Oscillation of simple pendulum.
5.1. Simple Harmonic Motion Á Oscillation of solid sphere in a cylinder
(If solid sphere rolls without slipping).

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 Oscillation of a circular ring suspended horizontal frictionless floor (Figure 5.1) is one
on a nail. example of a SHM.
à Oscillation of balance wheel of a clock.
Ä Rotation of the earth around the sun.

Oscillatory system:

Oscillators are the basic building blocks of

waves. Oscillatory systems are of two types,
mechanical and non- mechanical systems. Figure 5.1: A block attached to a spring mov-
ing on a frictionless surface. a) When the
Mechanical oscillatory system: In this block is displaced to the right of equilibrium
type of system a body itself changes its po-
sition. For mechanical oscillation two things (x > 0), the force exerted by the spring acts
are especially responsible, inertia and restor- to the left, b) When the block is at its equi-
ing force. librium position (x < 0), the force exerted by
the spring is zero, c) When the block is dis-
Non-mechanical oscillatory system: In placed to the left of equilibrium (x < 0), the
this type of system, the body itself doesnt
change its position but its physical property force exerted by the spring acts to the right.
varies periodically. ` Assuming the net force on the block is the
PERIOD (T): is the time required to com- spring force which obeys Hookes law:
plete one full cycle of vibration or oscillation.
FREQUENCY (f ): The frequency is the Fs = −kx..............................(5.1.2)
number of complete oscillations or cycles per
unit time. The minus sign shows the force is always act-
The frequency of wave is given by: ing opposite to the displacement and always
tries to restore the block back to its equilib-
1 rium position. Newtons 2nd law, Fs = ma,
f= ..............................(5.1.1) applied to the block gives:
T
k
Example: On average a human heart is ma = −kx ⇒ a = −( )x = −ω 2 x...............(5.1.3)
found to beat 75 times in a minute. Cal- m
culate its frequency and period. Solution:
The beat frequency of heart = 75/1min = Where k is the constant of proportionality
75/60sec = 1.25/sec = 1.25Hz called the spring constant or stiffness factor
The time period T = 1/1.25se-1 = 0.8sec and ω is the angular frequency of the oscilla-
tor.
AMPLITUDE (A): is the maximum dis- ` Not all periodic motions over the same path
placement of the oscillator from the equilib- can be classified as simple harmonic motion.
rium position.
` A ball being tossed back and forth between a
` Simple harmonic motion is a special type of parent and a child moves repetitively, but the
oscillatory motion caused by a restoring force motion isnt simple harmonic motion because
which obeys Hookes law. the force acting on the ball doesnt take the
form of Hookes law.
` In SHM acceleration (a) is always directly Characteristics of SHM:
proportional in size but opposite in direction
to its displacement (x).
À The amplitude A is constant.
` A block, of mass m, attached to one end of Á The frequency and period are indepen-
a spring, of constant k, and oscillating in a dent of the amplitude.

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 The fluctuating quantity can be ex-

pressed in terms of sinusoidal function
of a single frequency.
For SHM to occur,

– there must be a stable equilibrium posi-

tion
– there must be no dissipation of energy
– the acceleration is proportional to the
displacement and opposite in direction.
5.1.2. Displacement, Velocity
and Acceleration in a SHM
Displacement: x=Asin(ωt)(if the oscillator
starts from the equilibrium position)...(5.1.4) - Activity: For a simple harmonic oscillator, which
Velocity: v=ωAcos(ωt).....................(5.1.5) of the following pairs of vector quantities can’t both
acceleration: a=-ω 2 Asin(ωt) = −ω 2 x point in the same direction? (The position vector is
the displacement from equilibrium.)
` Maximum velocity occurs at equilibrium po-
sition with vmax = ωA.......................(5.1.6)
5.2. The simple Pendulum
` Maximum acceleration is observed at x =
±A ; amax = ω 2 A..............................(5.1.7) A simple pendulum is another mechanical
Example: An object oscillates with simple system that exhibits periodic motion. It con-
harmonic motion along the x axis. Its posi- sists of a small bob of mass m suspended by
tion varies with time according to the equa- a light string of length L fixed at its upper
tion x=(4.00)mcosθ(πt + π/4) where t is in end, as in Figure 5.2.
seconds and the angles in the parentheses are
in radians. t (By a light string, we mean that the string’s
a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, and mass is assumed to be very small compared
period of the motion. with the mass of the bob and hence can be
b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of ignored.)
the object at any time t.
c) Using the results of part (b), determine t When released, the bob swings to and fro
over the same path, so that its motion is sim-
the position, velocity, and acceleration of the ple harmonic.
object at t = 1.00 s.
d) Determine the maximum speed and max-
imum acceleration of the object.
Solution
Comparing the given equation x=(4.00)mcosθ(πt+
π/4) with the general equation for sim-
ple harmonic motion x(t)=Acos(ω t+Φ):

Figure 5.2: the simple pendulum

t The force of gravity is the only force that
acts on the pendulum. The pendulum bob
moves along a circular arc, rather than back
and forth in a straight line.

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t When the oscillations are small, however, Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
the motion of the bob is nearly straight, so
Hookes law may apply approximately. In the absence of friction, the total energy of
a block-spring system is constant and equal
s to the sum of the kinetic and potential ener-
L gies.
T = 2π ......................(5.2.1)
g
_ The potential energy is given by:

t This equation reveals somewhat surprising 1 2

result that the period of a simple pendulum PE = x ........................(5.2.2)
k
doesn,t depend on the mass, but only on the
pendulum’s length and on the free-fall accel-
eration. _ The kinetic energy is also given by

t Further, the amplitude of the motion isn’t a 1 2

factor as long as its relatively small. KE = v ........................(5.2.3)
m
t Geophysicists often make use of the simple
pendulum and equation 5.2.1 when prospect- _ Therefore the total energy of the oscillator
ing for oil or minerals. performing SHM is:

t Deposits beneath the Earths surface can pro- 1 2

E= A ........................(5.2.4)
duce irregularities in the free-fall acceleration K
over the region being studied.
t A specially designed pendulum of known Energy of SHM is constant and propor-
length is used to measure the period, which tional to the square of amplitude.
in turn is used to calculate g. Although such
a measurement in itself is inconclusive, its an 5.3. Wave and Its Characteristics
important tool for geological surveys.
Example:
Self Diagnostic Test
A rock swings in a circle at constant speed on * What is a Wave?
the end on a string, making 50 revolutions in
30sec. What is the frequency and the period
for this motion? _ The world is full of waves. Sound waves,
Solution waves on a string, seismic waves, and elec-
tromagnetic waves, are some of examples of
f = 50rev/30sec = 1.67rev/sec = 1.67Hz a wave.

T = 1/f = 1/0.5Hz = 2sec _ When you drop a pebble into a pool of water,
the disturbance produces water waves, which
move away from the point where the pebble
entered the water.
- Activity: A butcher throws a cut of beef on _ A leaf floating near the disturbance moves up
spring scales which oscillates about the and down and back and forth about its origi-
equilibrium position with a period of T = 0.500 nal position, but doesn’t undergo any net dis-
s. The amplitude of the vibration is A = 2.00 placement attributable to the disturbance.
cm (path length 4.00 cm). Find:
a) frequency, _ This means that the water wave (or distur-
b) the maximum acceleration, bance) moves from one place to another, but
c) the maximum velocity the water isn’t carried with it.

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_ All waves carry energy and momentum. The Examples are water waves, sound wave,
amount of energy transmitted through a waves in strings etc.
medium and the mechanism responsible for
the transport of energy differ from case to _ All mechanical waves require:
case.
4 some source of disturbance
_ The energy carried by ocean waves during a
storm, for example, is much greater than the 4 a medium that can be disturbed and
energy carried by a sound wave generated by 4 physical medium through which ele-
a single human voice. ments of the medium can influence each
other.
_ Wave is a disturbance from normal or equi-
librium condition that travels, or propagates, 2) Electromagnetic (EM) waves-are
carrying energy and momentum through produced by accelerated charged particles
space without the transport of matter. and can propagate through both material
medium and vacuum.
_ Pulse is a single disturbance traveling into a Examples are: Light, radio and television
medium. waves, micro waves, x-rays, etc.
_ Wave supplies energy to the particles in a * All EM waves in vacuum propagate with
medium to set them in to motion. speed c = 3.0 ×108 m/s.

Terminologies in Wave _ Waves can either move in space (e.g wa-

ter waves), the so called traveling waves, or
Crests/Troughs: are positions in a wave be stationary in an enclosure, the so called
with maximum displacements above/below standing waves.
the equilibrium position.
Amplitude (A): is the maximum displace- _ Waves can also be categorized as transverse
and longitudinal waves based on the way they
ment from the equilibrium position. are propagating.
Displacement (y): is position of a wave
from equilibrium position at any time. 1) Transverse Wave- is a wave where par-
Wave length (λ): distance between any ticles of the disturbed medium oscillate per-
two consecutive points which are in phase. pendicular to the direction of wave motion.
Period (T): is the time taken by a wave to Examples are: water waves, waves on strings,
move one wave length. and all EM waves. Sinusoidal graphs can rep-
Frequency (f ): number of oscillations per- resent this motion.
formed per unit time. 2) Longitudinal Wave- is a wave where
Speed (v): is constant in a medium pro- particles of the disturbed medium oscillate
vided the medium is homogeneous. parallel to the direction of wave motion.
Example: sound wave
5.4. Resonance
v = λf.......................(5.2.5)
_ Resonance is the increase in amplitude of os-
Types of waves cillation of an electric or mechanical system
exposed to a periodic force whose frequency is
Waves can be categorized as Mechanical and equal or very close to the natural undamped
Electromagnetic waves based on the need of frequency of the system.
material medium for its propagation.
_ Resonance is a phenomenon in which an
1) Mechanical Waves - are waves pro- external force or a vibrating system forces
duced by the oscillation of particles of a another system around it to vibrate with
mechanical medium and need a medium for greater amplitude at a specified frequency of
propagation. operation.

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_ The frequency at which the second body sound (a measure of the siren’s frequency)
starts oscillating or vibrating at higher am- will be high; and then suddenly after the car
plitude is called the resonant frequency of the passed by, the pitch of the siren sound gets
body. low.
_ The best examples of resonance can be ob-
served in various musical instruments around
us.
_ A classic example of resonance is the swing-
ing of a person sitting on a swing. A swing
is a very good example of an object in oscil-
lating motion. Figure 5.3: a police car receding from a girl
and approaching to a boy. The wavelength
_ Initially, the motion is slow and the swing of a wave gets longer when preceding and
doesn’t extend to its maximum potential. shorter when approaching.
But once when the swing reaches its natu-
ral frequency of oscillation, a gentle push to Let: fo = frequency heard by the observer
the swing helps it maintain that amplitude of and fs = frequency emitted by the source.
swing all throughout due to resonance. Let: vo , v, and vs respectively be velocities of
_ In an ideal situation, with no friction at all, the observer, sound wave and the source.
even that slight push wont be necessary once _ The observed frequency due to Doppler Ef-
the swing reaches its natural frequency for it fect is:
to sustain the maximum amplitude forever.
v ± vo
_ Also almost all musical instruments, like the fo = fs ( )
flute, guitar etc work on the principle of res- v ∓ vs
onance itself.
5.5. The Doppler Effect -”Upper” signs (i.e., + vo and vs) refer to
motion of one towards the other.
-”Lower” signs (i.e., vo and + vs) refer to
_ The Doppler Effect is observed whenever the motion of one away from the other.
source of waves is moving with respect to an Characteristics of Waves
observer.
_ It can be described as the effect produced by The characteristics of waves are important in
a moving source of waves in which there is determining the size of waves, the speed at
an apparent upward shift in frequency for ob- which they travel, how they break on shore,
servers towards whom the source is approach- and much more. Following are some of the
ing and an apparent downward shift in fre- characteristics of waves.
quency for observers from whom the source
is receding. It is important to note that the Reflection of Waves
effect does not result because of an actual
change in the frequency of the source.
_ Whenever a traveling wave reaches a bound-
_ The Doppler Effect can be observed for any ary, part or all of the wave bounces back.
type of wave; water wave, sound wave, light This phenomenon (rebounding of wave from
wave, etc. a surface) is called reflection.
_ We are most familiar with the Doppler Effect _ For example, consider a pulse traveling on
because of our experiences with sound waves. a string that is fixed at one end. When the
pulse reaches the wall, it is reflected.
_ For instance a police car or emergency vehicle
traveling towards a listener on the highway Refraction of wave
with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren

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_ It is the change in direction of a wave pass- _ Interference also occurs between two wave
ing from one medium to another caused by trains moving in the same direction but hav-
its change in speed. ing different wavelengths or frequencies. The
resultant effect is a complex wave.
_ For example, waves in deep water travel _ A pulsating frequency, called a beat, results
faster than in shallow. If an ocean wave ap- when the wavelengths are slightly different.
proaches a beach obliquely, the part of the
wave farther from the beach will move faster
than that closer in, and so the wave will swing
around until it moves in a direction perpen- - Activity:
dicular to the shoreline. 1. Can you mention the types of interference
and explain their difference?
_ The speed of sound waves is greater in warm 2. Draw the diagrams illustrating the different
air than in cold. At night, air is cooled at the characteristics of wave.
surface of a lake, and any sound that travels
upward is refracted down by the higher layers 5.6. Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirror
of air that still remain warm.
_ Thus, sounds, such as voices and music, can
be heard much farther across water at night Self Diagnostic Test
than in the daytime.
* 1. Can you mention some of the applications
of image formation in your daily life
Diffraction of wave experience?
* 2. What is image from physics point of view?
_ It is the spreading of waves around obstacles. * 3. How is image formed in mirrors and
lenses?
_ Diffraction takes place with sound; with elec- * 4. List at least five devices in which the
tromagnetic radiation, such as light, X-rays, application of image is used?
and gamma rays; and with very small moving
particles such as atoms, neutrons, and elec-
trons, which show wavelike properties. 5.6.1. Images Formed by plane Mirrors

_ One consequence of diffraction is that sharp a If the reflecting surface of the mirror is flat
shadows are not produced. then we call this type of mirror as plane mir-
ror.
_ The phenomenon is the result of interference a Light always has regular reflection on plane
(i.e., when waves are superimposed, they mirrors. Given picture below shows how we
may reinforce or cancel each other out) and can find the image of a point in plane mirrors.
is most pronounced when the wavelength of
the radiation is comparable to the linear di-
mensions of the obstacle.

Interference of wave

_ It is the net effect of the combination of two

or more wave trains moving on intersecting
or coincident paths.
Figure 5.4: image formed by a plane mirror
_ The effect is that of the addition of the am-
plitudes of the individual waves at each point a We have to see the rays coming from the ob-
affected by more than one wave. ject to see it.

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a If the light first hits the mirror and then re- a Concave lenses-diverging lenses thinnest at
flects with the same angle, the extensions of their center and diverge a beam of parallel
the reflected rays are focused at one point light from a virtual focus (Figure 5.5b).
behind the mirror.
a The distance from the focal point to the lens
a We see the coming rays as if they are coming is called the focal length f.
from the behind of the mirror.
a At point A’ image of the point is formed and
we call this image virtual image which means
not real.
a The distance of the image to the mirror is
equal to the distance of the object to the mir-
ror.
a If we want to draw the image of an object in
plane mirrors we follow the given steps below.
a First look at picture and then follow the steps
one by one. In plane mirrors, the laws of re-
flection are obeyed while drawing the image
of the objects.
a As it is seen from the picture we send rays
from the top and bottom of the object to the
mirror and reflect them with the same angle
it hits the mirror.
a The extensions of the reflected rays give us
the image of the object. The orientation and
height of the image is same as the object.
a In plane mirrors always virtual image is Figure 5.5: image formed by convex (a) and
formed.
concave lens (b).
5.6.2 Images formed by Len a The equation that relates object and image
distances for a lens is identical to the mirror
equation.
a Lenses are commonly used to form images
by refraction in optical instruments, such as 1 1 1
cameras, telescopes, and microscopes. + = ..........................(5.6.1)
so si f
a A lens is an optical system with two refract-
ing surfaces. The two types of lenses are con- a Magnification is defined as the ratio of im-
vex and concave lenses. age height(hi) to object height(ho) or ratio
of image distance(si) to object distance(so).
a A lens is a part of a transparent thick glass
which is bounded by two spherical surfaces. hi si
m= = ...........................(5.6.2)
It is an optical device through which the rays ho so
of light converge or diverge before transmit-
ting. a Generally the image formed by a convex lens
has the following feature.
a Convex lenses- converging lenses thickest
at their center and converge a beam of par- a If an object is brought close to the lens, the
allel light to real focus (Figure 5.5a). size of the image keeps on increasing.

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a As it goes more close to the lens, the image and curved inward on the other), and concave
all the more enlarged. So here one can say meniscus (i.e. these lenses are curved inward
that the images formed can be of a variety of on one side and on the outer side its curved
types. less strongly).
a The images formed will be diminished in- a In case of the concave lens, the images formed
verted images, small sizes inverted images, are always erect, diminished and virtual im-
enlarged inverted images and enlarged erect ages.
images.
a So in a concave lens, there is a possibility of
getting a real as well as an inverted image.
Table 5.1: summery of image formation by
convex lens

Table 5.2: Summary of image formation by

concave lens

Here if the object is very far away, the images

formed by lenses will be all the more dimin-
ished.

Figure 5.6: Image Formation by Concave

Lens
a Concave lenses include lenses like plano-
concave (i.e. these lenses are flat on one side

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Chapter Summery v Resonance is the increase in amplitude of os-

cillation of an electric or mechanical system
exposed to a periodic force whose frequency is
v Periodic motion is a motion of a body which equal or very close to the natural undamped
repeats its path of motion back and forth frequency of the system.
about the equilibrium or mean position.
There are two types of oscillatory motion: v In plane mirrors always virtual image is
linear oscillation and circular oscillation. formed.
v Oscillators are the basic building blocks of v A lens is a part of a transparent thick glass
waves. Oscillatory systems are of two types, which is bounded by two spherical surfaces.
mechanical and non- mechanical systems. It is an optical device through which the rays
of light converge or diverge before transmit-
v Period (T): is the time required to complete ting.
one full cycle of vibration or oscillation.
v Convex lenses- converging lenses thickest
v Frequency (f ): The frequency is the num- at their center and converge a beam of par-
ber of complete oscillations or cycles per unit allel light to real focus. Concave lenses-
time. diverging lenses thinnest at their center and
1 diverge a beam of parallel light from a virtual
f= focus.
T
v Amplitude (A): is the maximum displace-
ment of the oscillator from the equilibrium
Simple harmonic motion is a special type of Chapter Review Questions and Problems
oscillatory motion caused by a restoring force ¬ How would the period of a simple pendulum be
which obeys Hookes law. affected if it were located on the moon instead of
the earth?
v Displacement: x=Asin(ωt) ; (if the oscilla- ­ What effect would the temperature have on the
tor starts from the equilibrium position) time kept by a pendulum clock if the pendulum rod
increases in length with an increase in temperature?
v Velocity: v=Aωsin(ωt)
® What kind of graph would result if the period T
v Acceleration: a=-ω 2 Asin(ωt) were graphed as a function of the square root of the
length, l.
v The potential energy of SHM is given by: ¯ What effect does the mass of the ball have on the
P E = k1 x2 period of a simple pendulum? What would be the
effect of replacing the steel ball with a wooden ball,
v The kinetic energy of SHM is given by: a lead ball, and a ping pong ball of the same size?
KE = m1 v 2

v Therefore the total energy of the oscillator

performing SHM is: E = k1 A2

v Wave is a disturbance from normal or

equilibrium condition that travels, or prop-
agates, carrying energy and momentum
through space without the transport of mat-
ter. Waves can be categorized as Mechani-
cal and Electromagnetic waves based on the
need of material medium for its propagation.
Waves can also be categorized as transverse
and longitudinal waves based on the way they
are propagating.

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CHAPTER SIX Self Diagnostic Test

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
Electromagnetism And Electronics * Describe the electric force, both qualitatively and
quantitatively
u This chapter of Electromagnetism and Elec- * Define electric potential, voltage, and potential
tronics is intended for students enrolling as difference
Natural Science Students in the Ethiopian * Apply conservation of energy to electric systems
Universities. * Define the unit of electrical current
u The chapter consists of Ten Sub- units: Con- * State Analyze complex circuits using Kirchhoffs
cept of Coulombs Law and Electric Field rules
, electric charge; electric potential; Cur- * Explain attraction and repulsion by magnets
rent , resistance and Ohms law capacitance; * Describe the historical and contemporary
Electric power, Equivalent resistance and applications of magnet
Kirchhoffs law, Magnetic field and Mag-
netic flux, Electromagnetic Induction, In- * Define magnetic flux
sulators, Conductors and semiconductors, * Use Faradays law to determine the magnitude of
Diodes/Characteristic curves and Transis- induced emf in a closed loop due to changing
tors. magnetic flux through the loop
u The study of electric charge involves differ-
entiating between conductors and insulators 6.1. Coulombs Law and Electric Fields
and using them to demonstrate the existence
of charges. Electric Charges

u In addition, Coulombs law will be stated and u Electric charge is an inherent property of
its expression derived and used in calcula- matter that makes it to have and experience
tions. Along with this, electric field, dipole electrical and magnetic characteristics.
moments; potential energy; and torque on an
electric dipole. And flux of electric field will u The effect of electric charge is observed when
be defined. electronic devices are activated with the click
of a switch like computers, cell phones, tele-
u Their expressions will be derived and also vision.
used to solve problems. Under electric po-
tentials, the sub-topics will be handled and u And also it is seen in natural phenomena dur-
relevant expressions shall be derived and used ing a heavy thunderstorm as a flash of light-
for calculations. ning.
Kinds Of Electric Charges
u In the third section of the module, capaci-
tance, properties of capacitors, including ca-
pacitors with dielectric will be learnt. For the u Many experiments in the past including the
section on Direct current and circuits, deriva- traditional comb and hair, have revealed that
tion of microscopic form of Ohms law will be there are generally two basic types of electric
among the expressions to be derived. charges in nature.
u These two types of charges are positive and
u Also analysis of equivalent circuits will be negative [Link] psitive charge is the
dealt with. Finally Magnetism will form the quantity of charge carried by a proton and
last part of the module of which Amperes cir- the negative charge is the charge carried by
cuital law will form part of it. an electron.
u Charge is a physical property of an object
and is a measurable quantity. The SI unit

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of charge is coulomb (C), and its symbol is u Let q1 and q2 be the net charges of two bod-
either Q or q. ies separated by the vector displacement ~r12 .
The magnitude of the electric force F~12 on
u The smallest amount of charge to be carried one of the charged body by the other is pro-
by a material is the charge of an electron and portional accordingly the relation given by
its amount is equation (6.1).

1e = 1.6 × 10−19 C q1 q 1
F12 ∝ 2
.............................(6.1)
r12
u The interaction of electric charges is governed
by the following basic law of electrostatics u This proportionality becomes equality with
which states that: the introduction of proportionality constant.
Therefore, the magnitude of the electric force
– Like charges repel each other. between two electrically charged particles is
– Unlike charges attract each other
|q1 q1 |
u The qualitative aspect of Coulombs law is F12 = k 2
r̂.............................(6.2)
also governed by these two laws. r12

u Experiments with electric charges have Where the proportionality constant

shown that two objects having electric 1
k= 4π = 9.0 × 109 N m2 /c2
charges exert an electric force on each other o

(see Figure 6.1). o = 8.85 × 10−12 c2 /N m2 o is the permittiv-

ity of free space. And equation 6.2 is known
u The magnitude of the force is linearly propor- as Coulombs law.
tionalto the net charge on each object and
inversely proportional to the square of the Electric Forces due to system of point charges
distance between them. (Interestingly, the
electric force does not depend on the mass of
the charged body.) u Considering a system of N point charges, the
net electric force on the test charge is sim-
u The direction of the force vector is along the ply the vector sum of each individual electric
imaginary line joining the two objects and is force exerted on it by each of the individual
dictated by the signs of the charges involved. test charges.

u Thus, we can calculate the net force on the

test charge qo by calculating the force on it
from each source charge, taken one at a time,
and then adding all those forces together(as
vectors).

u This ability to simply add up individual

forces in this way is referred to as the prin-
Figure 6.1: The electrostatic force F~ between ciple of superposition, and is one of the
point charges q1 and q2 separated by a dis- more important features of the electric force.
tance r is given by Coulombs law. Note that
Newtons third law (every force exerted cre- u In mathematical form, this becomes:
ates an equal and opposite force) applies as
usualthe force on q1 is equal in magnitude N
and opposite in direction to the force it exerts
X qi q o
F12 = = 2
r̂io .............................(6.3)
on q2 . (a)Like charges; (b) unlike charges i=1
rio

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Example Electric Field

The force between two identical charges sep-

arated by 1 cm is equal to 90 N. What is the
magnitude of the two charges?
Self Diagnostic Test
Solution: First, draw a force diagram of the * [Link] measuring an electric field, could we use
problem. a negative rather than a positive test charge?
* 2. During fair weather, the electric field due to
the net charge on Earth points downward. Is
Earth charged positively or negatively?
* 3. If the electric field at a point on the line
between two charges is zero, what do you know
about the charges?
* 4. Two charges lie along the x-axis. Is it true
that the net electric field always vanishes at some
point (other than infinity) along the x-axis?

u Qualitatively, electric field can be defined as

the region around a point charged particle
where all other charged particles experience
electrical force.

u For point charge q located at position r, the

electrostatic forces on a test charge qo is given
by
Since we want the charges, solve for q Enter
the values for the variables. Remember to |qqo |
convert 1 cm to 0.01 meters to keep the units F~ (r) = k 2 r̂.............................(6.4)
consistent. r

Where qo is a small positive charge and

used to test the presence of the electric field
around the charged body.

Since the charges are identical, they are ei- u Electric field is the property of a source
ther positive or negative. This force is repul- charge and does not depend on the test
sive. charge. And mathematically the electric field
for a point charge q is obtained from

~
~ = F = kq r̂.............................(6.5)
E
- Activity: qo r2
Two neutrally charged bodies are separated by
1cm. Electrons are removed from one body and
placed on the second body until a force of u The direction of any electric field vector is
1 × 10−6 N is generated between them. How the same as the direction of the electric force
many electrons were transferred between the vector that the field would apply to a positive
bodies? test charge placed in that field.

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u Such a charge would be repelled by positive

source charges (the force on it would point
- Activity:
away from the positive source charge) but at- Two equal charges are given:
tracted to negative charges (the force points (a) Find the electric field (magnitude and
toward the negative source). direction) a distance z above the midpoint
between two equal charges +q that are a
u By convention, all electric fields point away distance d apart (Figure ). Check that your
from positive source charges and point to- result is consistent with what youd expect
ward negative source charges. when z >> d
(b) The same as part (a), only this time make
Electric Fields due to Charge Distributions the right-hand charge q instead of +q.

u Considering a system having N number of

charges denoted as q1 , q2 , q3 , ...., qN with po-
sition vectors r1 , r2 , r3 , ...., rN respectively.

u The electric field at a point P due to these

discrete charges can be calculated according
to the Coulombs law shown in the section
above.

u The total electric field at the test point P can

be calculated using the superposition princi- Electric Field Lines
ple.
u Electric field lines are models for representing
N electric field distribution over space around
~ =k
X qi charged bodies.
E = r̂i .............................(6.5)
i=1
ri2
u For a positive source charge, the electric
field points radially outward from the source
charge and for a negative one, it points radi-
Example ally inwards as shown in Figure 6.2 below.
The electric field of an atom in an ionized
helium atom, the most probable distance be-
tween the nucleus and the electron is r =
26.5x10−12 m. What is the electric field due
to the nucleus at the location of the electron?
Solution: The electric field is calculated by

~ = k q r̂
E
r2

hence q=2e=2(1.6x10−19 C) (since there are Figure 6.2: (a) The electric field line diagram
two protons) and r is given; substituting gives of a positive point charge. (b) The field line
diagram of a dipole. In both diagrams, the
−19 magnitude of the field is indicated by the field
~ = (9.0x109 ) 2(1.6x10 ) = 4.1x1012 N/m
E line density. The field vectors (not shown
(26.5x10−12 )2 here) are everywhere tangent to the field lines

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6.2. Electric Potential exactly analogous to the gravitational force.

When a force is conservative, it is possible to
define a potential energy associated with the
force. It is usually easier to work with the
Self Diagnostic Test potential energy (because it depends only on
position) than to calculate the work directly.
* 1. What is the quantity that describes the
vector space electrical property of a charge? v A charge accelerated by an electric field is
* 2. Can you state the relationship between analogous to a mass going down a hill.
work and potential energy?
v In both cases, potential energy decreases as
kinetic energy increases,-∆U = ∆K. Work
v The energy released in a lightning strike is an is done by a force, but since this force is con-
excellent illustration of the vast quantities of servative, we can write W= -∆U.
energy that may be stored and released by an
electric potential difference. v To show this explicitly, consider an electric
charge +q fixed at the origin and move an-
v In this section, the amount of energy released other charge +Q toward q in such a manner
in a lightning strike can be calculated and that, at each instant, the applied force F F~
how this varies with the height of the clouds
from the ground. exactly balances the electric force F~e on Q
(Figure).
6.2.1 Electric potential energy
v The work done by the applied force F~ on the
v When a free positive charge q is accelerated charge Q changes the potential energy of Q.
by an electric field, it is given kinetic energy
(Figure 6.3). v We call this potential energy the electrical
potential energy of Q.
v The process is analogous to an object be-
ing accelerated by a gravitational field, as v Displacement of ”test” charge Q in the pres-
if the charge were going down an electrical ence of fixed ”source” charge q.
hill where its electric potential energy is con-
verted into kinetic energy, although of course
the sources of the forces are very different.
v Let us explore the work done on a charge q
by the electric field in this process, so that we
may develop a definition of electric potential
energy. The work done W12 by the applied force F~
when the charged particle moves from P1 to
P2 may be calculated by

W12 = F~e .~r......................(6.6)

Where, ~r is the displacement of the charged

particle from point 1 to point 2. Then,

W12 = Fe rcosθ......................(6.7)
Figure 6.3: The electrostatic or Coulomb
force is conservative, which means that the Where, Fe and r are the magnitudes of the
work done on q is independent of the path electric force F~e and the displacement ~r re-
taken, as we will demonstrate later. This is spectively.

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v Since the electric force and the displacement Example

are parallel, the angle θ between them is zero,
and hence the above equation becomes Find the electric potential energy in assem-
bling four charges at the vertices of a square
W12 = Fe r......................(6.8) of side 1.0 cm, starting each charge from in-
finity as shown in the figure.
Also the electric force between q and Q sep-
arated by a distance r from Coulomb’s law is
given by

1 qQ
Fe = .................(6.9)
4πo r2

v Then substituting eq.6.9 into the work equa-

tion,
1 qQ
W12 = ( )(r)
4πo r2 Solution
1 qQ
W12 = .................(6.10) From the formula of electric poten-
4πo r tial energy of systems of charges above,
his work done on the charge Q is exactly
equivalent to the potential energy of the con-
figuration of the two (q and Q) systems of
charges.
v Therefore, we define the electrical potential
energy of any two systems of charges q1 and
q2 is separated by a distance r12 is given by:

1 q1 q2
U12 = .................(6.11)
4πo r12

Where, we assumed that the initial position U = 57.8J

of the two charges before the configuration
shown in the figure above is infinity. So the v The superposition principle holds for electric
quantity U12 is the amount of work done on potential energy; the potential energy of a
the two charges to bring them from infinity system of multiple charges is the sum of the
to the separation r12 potential energies of the individual pairs.
v For systems of charges more than two, Definition: Electric Potential
q1 , q2 ....., qn , the electric potential energy is
given by The electric potential energy per unit charge
is
n
X 1 q1 q2 U
U= ( ).................(6.12) V = ................(6.13)
i,j
4πo r12 q

Note that the sign of the charges will not be Since U is proportional to q, the dependence
ignored if the charges are negative. on q cancels. Thus, V does not depend on q.

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v The change in potential energy U is crucial, the other because U=Vq. The car battery
so we are concerned with the difference in po- can move more charge than the motorcycle
tential or potential difference V between two battery, although both are 12-V batteries
points, where Example
U You have a 12.0-V motorcycle battery that
V = VB − VA = ................(6.14) can move 5000 C of charge, and a 12.0-V car
q
battery that can move 60,000 C of charge.
How much energy does each deliver?
Electric Potential Difference
Solution:
The electric potential difference between
points A and B, VA − VB , is defined to be U
the change in potential energy of a charge q V = ⇒ U = qV
moved from A to B, divided by the charge. q
Units of potential difference are joules per U1 = q1 V = (12V x5000C) = 60000J
coulomb, given the name volt (V) after
Alessandro Volta. U2 = q2 V = (12V x60, 000C) = 0.7M J

v The familiar term voltage is the common

name for electric potential difference. Keep - Activity:
in mind that whenever a voltage is quoted, it How Many Electrons Move through a Headlight
is understood to be the potential difference Each Second? When a 12.0-V car battery
between two points. powers a single 30.0-W headlight, how many
v For example, every battery has two termi- electrons pass through it each second?
nals, and its voltage is the potential differ-
ence between them. 6.3. Current, Resistance and Ohms Law
v More fundamentally, the point you choose to
be zero volts is arbitrary. This is analogous v In this section, we study the electrical cur-
to the fact that gravitational potential en- rent through a material, where the electrical
ergy has an arbitrary zero, such as sea level current is the rate of flow of charge. We also
or perhaps a lecture hall floor. examine a characteristic of materials known
as the resistance.
v It is worthwhile to emphasize the distinc- v Resistance is a measure of how much a
tion between potential difference and electri- material impedes the flow of charge, and it
cal potential energy. will be shown that the resistance depends on
Potential Difference and temperature.
Electrical Potential Energy v In general, a good conductor, such as copper,
gold, or silver, has very low resistance.
The relationship between potential difference
(or voltage) and electrical potential energy is
given by Self Diagnostic Test
U * [Link] you state the difference between
v=
q electrostatics and Electricity Current?
Voltage is not the same as energy. Voltage is * 2. What is the basic requirement for the motion
the energy per unit charge. Thus, a motorcy- of electric charges inside an electric field?
cle battery and a car battery can both have * 3. What is the main driving agent for electric
the same voltage (more precisely, the same charges to flow through a conductor?
potential difference between battery termi- * 4. Can you imagine how charges flow through a
nals), yet one stores much more energy than conductor?

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t Up to now, we have considered primarily Where Q is the amount of charge passing

static charges. When charges did move, they through a given area in time ∆t (Figure 6.4).
were accelerated in response to an electrical
field created by a voltage difference. t The SI unit for current is the ampere (A),
named for the French physicist Andr-Marie
t The charges lost potential energy and gained Ampre (17751836).
kinetic energy as they traveled through a po-
tential difference where the electrical field did t Since I = ∆Q/∆t, we see that an ampere
work on the charge. is defined as one coulomb of charge passing
t Although charges do not require a material through a given area per second:
to flow through, the majority of this section 1A = 1C = 6.25x1018 electrons flowing
1S
deals with understanding the movement of through the area A each second.
charges through a material.
t Most electrical appliances are rated in am-
t The rate at which the charges flow past a lo- peres (or amps) required for proper opera-
cation; that is the amount of charge per unit tion, as are fuses and circuit breakers.
time is known as the electrical current.
t It is measured in units called amperes. When
charges flow through a medium, the current
depends on the voltage applied the material
through which the charges flow, and the state
of the material. Of particular interest is the
motion of charges in a conducting wire.
t In previous sections, charges were accelerated
due to the force provided by an electrical
field, losing potential energy and gaining ki- Figure 6.4: Current flow in a conductor
netic energy.
Example
t In this section, we will discuss the situation
of the force provided by an electrical field in a What is the average current involved when a
conductor, where charges lose kinetic energy truck battery sets in motion 720 C of charge
to the material reaching a constant velocity, in 4.00s while starting an engine? (b) How
known as the ”drift velocity.” long does it take 1.00 C of charge to flow
from the battery?
t This is analogous to an object falling through
the atmosphere and losing kinetic energy to Solution
the air, reaching a constant terminal velocity.
a. Entering the given values for charge and
time into the definition of current gives
- Activity: You may have noticed that circuit Q 720C
breakers in your home and fuses in your car are I= = = 180C/s = 180A
t 4s
rated in amps (or amperes). But what is the
ampere and what does it measure? Q
t=
I
t The average current I through a given cross- t We can think of various devices; such as bat-
sectional area A is the rate at which charge teries, generators, wall outlets, and so onthat
flows, are necessary to maintain a current.
∆Q t All such devices create a potential difference
I= and are referred to as voltage sources.
∆t

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t When a voltage source is connected to a con- Conductivity is an intrinsic property of a

ductor, it applies a potential difference V that material. Another intrinsic property of a ma-
creates an electrical field. The electrical field, terial is the resistivity, or electrical resistivity.
in turn, exerts force on free charges, causing
current. t The resistivity of a material is a measure of
how strongly a material opposes the flow of
t The amount of current depends not only on electrical current. The symbol for resistiv-
the magnitude of the voltage, but also on the ity is the lowercase Greek letter ρ/rho, and
characteristics of the material that the cur- resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical con-
rent is flowing through. ductivity:
t The material can resist the flow of the t The unit of resistivity in SI units is the ohm-
charges, and the measure of how much a ma-
terial resists the flow of charges is known as meter (Ω-m). We can define the resistivity in
the resistivity. terms of the electrical field and the current
density,
t This resistivity is crudely analogous to the
friction between two materials that resists ~
E
motion. ρ= ........................(6.17)
J
Resistivity Ohm’s Law states that ” the voltage applied
across the end points of a conductor is pro-
t When a voltage is applied to a conductor, an portional to the flow of electric current”.
electrical field E is created, and charges in t Mathematically
the conductor feel a force due to the electri-
cal field. V
V ∝I⇒ = constant = Resistance(R)........(6.18)
t The current density J that results depends I
on the electrical field and the properties of
the material. This dependence can be very + The greater the resistivity, the larger the field
complex. needed to produce a given current density.
t In some materials, including metals at a given + The lower the resistivity, the larger the cur-
temperature, the current density is approxi- rent density produced by a given electrical
mately proportional to the electrical field. In field.
these cases, the current density can be mod- + Good conductors have a high conductivity
eled as and low resistivity.
J~ = σ E........................(6.16)
~ + Good insulators have a low conductivity and
a high resistivity.
Where,σ is electrical conductivity and it is 6.4. Electrical Energy and Power
analogous to thermal conductivity and is a
measure of a materials ability to conduct t In an electric circuit, electrical energy is con-
or transmit electricity. Conductors have a tinuously converted into other forms of en-
higher electrical conductivity than insulators. ergy.
Since the electrical conductivity σ is, the
units are t The electrical field, supplied by the voltage
source, accelerates the free electrons, increas-
J A/m2 A ing their kinetic energy for a short time.
σ= = 2
=
E V /m Vm
t In Work and Kinetic Energy, we defined
power as the rate at which work is done by a
Here, we define a unit named the ohm with force measured in watts. Power can also be
the Greek symbol uppercase omega, Ω. One defined as the rate at which energy is trans-
ohm equals one volt per ampere. ferred.

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t In an Electric Potential, electrical field exists t The sum of the individual currents equals the
between two potentials, which points from current that flows into the parallel connec-
the higher potential to the lower potential. tions.
Recall that the electrical potential is defined
as the potential energy per charge, V=Uq,
and the ∆Q loses potential energy moving
through the potential difference.
t If the conductor has a length l, the electric
field E is given by,

V2 − V1 V
E= = ...................(6.19)
l l
Figure 6.5: Four resistors connected in series
Then the work W is (a) and parallel (b)
Resistors in Series
W = F I = (QE)I = Q(V /I)I = QV = U.....(6.20)
If N resistors are connected in series, the
Hence, the power is ,using ohm’s law equivalent resistance is
N
U QV Q V2 X
P = = = V = IV = I 2 R = .......(6.21) Req = R1 +R2 +R3 +......RN = Ri ..............(6.22)
t t t R i=1

6.5. Equivalent Resistance and Kirchhoffs Rule

Resistors in Parallel

t If several resistors are connected together and For any number of N resistors, the equiva-
connected to a battery, the current supplied lent resistance Req of a parallel connection is
by the battery depends on the equivalent re- related to the individual resistances by
sistance of the circuit.
N
1 1 1 1 1 X 1
t The equivalent resistance of a combination = + + +..... = ( ).........(6.23)
of resistors depends on both their individual Req R1 R2 R3 RN i=1
Ri
values and how they are connected.
t The simplest combinations of resistors are Kirchhoff ’s Circuit Rule
series and parallel connections (as shown in
Figure 6.5). Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws allow us to solve
complex circuit problems by defining a set
t In a series circuit, the output current of the of basic network laws and theorems for the
voltages and currents around a circuit.
first resistor flows into the input of the second
resistor; therefore, the current is the same in 1. Kirchhoff ’s First Rule (Junction Rule)
each resistor. In a parallel circuit, all of the
resistor leads on one side of the resistors are states that the ”total current or charge enter-
connected together and all the leads on the ing a junction or node is exactly equal to the
other side are connected together. charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is
t In the case of a parallel configuration, each lost within the node”.
resistor has the same potential drop across
it, and the currents through each resistor may u In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the
be different, depending on the resistor. currents entering and leaving a node must be

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equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This - The circuit has 2 branches, 3 nodes (B, C
idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the and D) and 2 independent loops, thus the
Conservation of Charge. I*R voltage drops around the two loops will
X X be:
Iin = Iout .................(6.24)
– Loop ABC⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 6I2
u Kirchhoff’s first rule applies to the charge en- – Loop ABD⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 12I3
tering and leaving a junction (Figure 6.6). As
stated earlier, a junction, or node, is a con- Since Kirchhoffs current law states that at
node B, I1 = I2 + I3 , we can therefore sub-
nection of three or more wires. stitute current I1 for (I2 + I3 ) in both of the
u Current is the flow of charge, and charge is following loop equations and then simplify.
conserved; thus, whatever charge flows into
the junction must flow out. - Kirchhoffs Loop Equations

We now have two simultaneous equations

Figure 6.6: Currents entering a junction and that relate to the currents flowing around
exiting a junction the circuit.
Equation No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3
u Charge must be conserved, so the sum of cur- Equation No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
rents into a junction must be equal to the sum
of currents out of the junction.
By multiplying the first equation (Loop
Example ABC) by 4 and subtracting Loop ABD from
Loop ABC, we can be reduced both equa-
Find the currents flowing around the fol- tions to give us the values of I2 and I3
lowing circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law Equation No 1 :
only 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 (x4) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Equation No 2 :
12 = 4I2 + 16I3 (x1) ⇒ 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
Equation No 1 - Eq. No 2 ⇒ 36 = 36I2 + 0
Substitution of I2 in terms of I3 gives us the
value of I2 as 1.0 Amps Now we can do the
same procedure to find the value of I3 by
multiplying the first equation (Loop ABC)
by 4 and the second equation (Loop ABD)
by 10. Again by subtracting Loop ABC from
Loop ABD, we can be reduced both equa-
tions to give us the values of I2 and I3
Solution Equation No 1 :
12 = 10I2 + 4I3 (x4) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
IT is the total current flowing around the cir- Equation No 2 :
cuit driven by the 12V supply voltage. At 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 (x10) ⇒ 120 = 40I2 + 160I3
point A, I1 is equal to IT , thus there will be Equation No 2 - Eq. No 1 ⇒ 72 = 0 + 144I3
an I1 ∗ R voltage drop across resistor R1 .

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- Thus substitution of I3 in terms of I2 gives u Thus the voltage drop across resistor, V1 =
us the value of I3 as 0.5 Amps IR1 and the voltage drop across resistor,
Kirchhoff’s voltage law V2 = IR2 giving by
- As Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that: I1 = KVL:
I2 +I3 The supply current flowing through re-
sistor R1 is given as: 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 Amps
- Thus I1 = IT = 1.5 Amps, I2 = 1.0 Amps
and I3 = 0.5 Amps and from that informa-
tion we could calculate the IR voltage drops
across the devices and at the various points
(nodes) around the circuit.
- We could have solved the circuit of exam-
ple two simply and easily just using Ohms We can see that applying Kirchhoffs Voltage
Law, but we have used Kirchhoff’s Cur- Law to this single closed loop produces the
rent Law here to show how it is possi- formula for the equivalent or total resistance
ble to solve more complex circuits when in the series circuit and we can expand on
we can’t just simply apply Ohms Law. this to find the values of the voltage drops
++++++++++++++++++.+++ around the loop.
2. Kirchhoffs second rule (loop rule):

States that ”in any closed loop network, the

total voltage around the loop is equal to the
sum of all the voltage drops within the same
loop” which is also equal to zero.
u In other words the algebraic sum of all volt-
ages within the loop must be equal to zero.
This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Con-
servation of Energy.
u The algebraic sum of changes in potential Example:
around any closed circuit path (loop) must
be zero: Three resistors of values: 10 ohms, 20 ohms
X and 30 ohms, respectively are connected in
V = 0................................(6.25) series across a 12 volt battery supply. Calcu-
late:
a) the total resistance,
b) the circuit current,
c) the current through each resistor,
d) the voltage drop across each resistor,
e) verify that Kirchhoffs voltage law, KVL
holds true.
a) Total Resistance (RT )

Figure 6.7: Kirchhoffs loop consisting of two RT = R1 +R2 +R3 = 10Ω+20Ω+30Ω = 60Ω
resistors and a voltage source
Then the total circuit resistance RT is equal
u Since the two resistors, R1 and R2 (see Fig- to 60
ure 6.7) are wired together in a series con- b) Circuit Current (I)
nection; they are both part of the same loop
so the same current must flow through each Vs 12
resistor. I= = = 0.2A
RT 60

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Thus the total circuit current I is equal to ` In this section, we see that when an electric
0.2 amperes or 200mA charge moves, it generates other forces and
fields.
c) Current through Each Resistor
` These additional forces and fields are what
we commonly call magnetism.
The resistors are wired together in series;
they are all part of the same loop and there- ` Before we examine the origins of magnetism,
fore each experience the same amount of cur- we first describe what it is and how magnetic
rent. Thus: fields behave.
IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = ISERIES = 0.2amperes
` Once we are more familiar with magnetic ef-
d) Voltage Drop across Each Resistor fects, we can explain how they arise from the
behavior of atoms and molecules, and how
magnetism is related to electricity.
` The connection between electricity and mag-
netism is fascinating from a theoretical point
of view, but it is also immensely practical,
as shown by an industrial electromagnet that
e) Verify Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law can lift thousands of pounds of metal.
Contemporary Applications of Magnetism

` Today, magnetism plays many important

roles in our lives. Physicists understanding
of magnetism has enabled the development
of technologies that affect both individuals
and society.

Thus Kirchhoffs voltage law holds true as the ` The electronic tablet in your purse or back-
individual voltage drops around the closed pack, for example, wouldn’t have been pos-
loop add up to the total. sible without the applications of magnetism
and electricity on a small scale.
6.6. Magnetic Field and Magnetic Flux ` We have outlined the properties of magnets,
described how they behave, and listed some
of the applications of magnetic properties.
Self Diagnostic Test ` Even though there are no such things as iso-
* 1. Do you think that there is a relationship lated magnetic charges, we can still define the
between electric current and magnetism? attraction and repulsion of magnets as based
on a field.
* 2. What are the sources of magnetism?
* 3. State the similarities and differences ` In this section, we define the magnetic field,
between electric field and magnetic field determine its direction based on the right-
hand rule, and discuss how to draw magnetic
` In the previous sections, we have been study- field lines.
ing electrostatic forces and fields, which are Definition: Magnetic Field
caused by electric charges at rest.
` These electric fields can move other free ` A magnetic field is defined by the force that
charges, such as producing a current in a charged particle experiences moving in this
a circuit; however, the electrostatic forces field, after we account for the gravitational
and fields themselves come from other static and any additional electric forces possible on
charges. the charge.

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` The magnitude of this force is proportional ` Orient your right hand so that your fingers
to the amount of charge q, the speed of the curl in the plane defined by the velocity and
charged particle v, and the magnitude of the magnetic field vectors.
applied magnetic field.
` Use your right hand and sweep from the ve-
` The direction of this force is perpendicular locity toward the magnetic field with your fin-
to both the direction of the moving charged gers through the smallest angle possible.
particle and the direction of the applied mag-
netic field. ` The magnetic force is directed where your
thumb is pointing. If the charge was neg-
` Based on these observations, we define the ative, reverse the direction found by these
magnetic field strength B based on the mag- steps.
netic force F~ on a charge q moving at velocity
as the cross product of the velocity and mag- ` Magnetic fields exert forces on moving
~ that is,
netic field B, charges. The direction of the magnetic force
on a movingcharge is perpendicular to the
plane formed by B and follows the right-hand
F~ = q~v × E....................(6.26)
~ rule-1 (RHR-1) as shown.

` In fact, this is how we define the magnetic ` The magnitude of the force is proportional to
field B, in terms of the force on a charged q, v, B, and the sine of the angle between v
particle moving in a magnetic field. and B.

` The magnitude of the force is determined

from the definition of the cross product as
it relates to the magnitudes of each of the
vectors.
` In other words, the magnitude of the force
satisfies
Figure 6.8: The right hand rule
F = qV Bsinθ......................(6.27) ` The representation of magnetic fields by mag-
netic field lines is very useful in visualizing
Where, θ is the angle between the velocity the strength and direction of the magnetic
and the magnetic field. field.

` The SI unit for magnetic field strength B is ` As shown in (Figure 6.9), each of these lines
called the tesla (T) after the eccentric but forms a closed loop, even if not shown by the
brilliant inventor Nikola Tesla (18561943), constraints of the space available for the fig-
ure.
where A smaller unit, called the gauss (G),
where 1G = 1x10−4 T , is sometimes used. ` The field lines emerge from the north pole
The strongest permanent magnets have fields (N), loop around to the south pole (S), and
near 2 T; superconducting electromagnets continue through the bar magnet back to the
may attain 10 T or more. north pole.
+ Earths magnetic field on its surface is only v Magnetic field lines have several hard-
about or 0.5 G. and-fast rules:
` The direction of the magnetic force is per- ` The direction of the magnetic field is tangent
pendicular to the plane formed by ~v and B,~ to the field line at any point in space. A small
as determined by the right-hand rule-1 (or compass will point in the direction of the field
RHR-1), which is illustrated in (Figure 6.8). line.

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` The strength of the field is proportional to Magnetic Flux

the closeness of the lines. It is exactly pro-
portional to the number of lines per unit area To calculate the size of the induced emf we
perpendicular to the lines (called the areal need one more concept; magnetic flux. The
density). symbol for magnetic flux is Φ (pronounced
”sigh”).
` Magnetic field lines can never cross, meaning
that the field is unique at any point in space. + The unit of magnetic flux is the Weber
(Wb)
` Magnetic field lines are continuous, form-
ing closed loops without a beginning or end. ` To introduce the idea of magnetic flux con-
They are directed from the north pole to the sider an area, A in a uniform magnetic field.
south pole.
` When the magnetic force lines are perpendic-
` The last property is related to the fact that ular to this area (see Figure 6.10) the total
the north and south poles cannot be sepa- magnetic flux (Φ) through the area is defined
rated. as the product of B and A.
` It is a distinct difference from electric field
lines, which generally begin on positive
charges and end on negative charges or at
infinity.
` If isolated magnetic charges (referred to as
magnetic monopoles) existed, then magnetic
field lines would begin and end on them.
Figure 6.10: Magnetic flux through a loop of
` Magnetic field lines are defined to have the di- area A
rection in which a small compass points when
placed at a location in the field. ` The magnetic flux,Φ, can be visualised as
the number of magnetic field lines passing
` The strength of the field is proportional to through a given area.
the closeness (or density) of the lines.
` The number of magnetic field lines per unit
` If the interior of the magnet could be probed, area, i.e. B, is then referred to as the density
the field lines would be found to form contin- of the magnetic flux or, more properly, the
uous, closed loops. magnetic flux density.
` To fit in a reasonable space, some of these 6.7. Electromagnetic Induction
drawings may not show the closing of the
loops; however, if enough space were pro-
vided, the loops would be closed.
Self Diagnostic Test
* 1. Can an electric current create magnetic
field?
* 2. Can a magnetic field create an electric
current?
* 3. Do you know how a hydroelectric power
generator works to produce an electric current?
Figure 6.9: Magnetic field lines of a bar mag- * 4. Is there any difference between an electric
net(a), Magnetic field lines of unlike poles motor and an electric generator in their physics
(b), Magnetic field lines of like poles (c) principle of operation?

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` The first productive experiments concerning we came across this before.(the minus sign is
the effects of time-varying magnetic fields a reference to Lenz’s Law)
were performed by Michael Faraday in 1831.
An electromotive force (emf) is induced when Example
the magnetic field in the coil is changed by
pushing a bar magnet into or out of the coil.
The square coil of (Figure) has sides l=0.2m
` Electromotive force of opposite signs are pro- long and is tightly wound with N=200 turns
duced by motion in opposite directions and of wire. The resistance of the coil is R=5.0Ω.
the directions of emfs are also reversed by re- The coil is placed in a spatially uniform mag-
versing poles. netic field that is directed perpendicular to
the face of the coil and whose magnitude
` The same results are produced if the coil is is decreasing at a rate ∆B∆t
= −0.04T /s (a)
moved rather than the magnet; it is the rel- What is the magnitude of the emf induced in
ative motion that is important. the coil? (b) What is the magnitude of the
current circulating through the coil?
` The faster the motion, the greater the emf,
and there is no emf when the magnet is sta-
tionary relative to the coil. - A square coil with N turns of wire with uni-
form magnetic field B directed in the down-
` Movement of a magnet relative to a coil pro- ward direction, perpendicular to the coil.
duces emfs. The same emfs are produced if
the coil is moved relative to the magnet.
- Figure below shows a square coil of the side
` This short-lived emf is only present during length l with N turns of wire. A uniform
the motion. magnetic field B is directed in the down-
ward direction, perpendicular to the coil.
` The greater the speed, the greater the mag-
nitude of the emf, and the emf is zero when
there is no motion.
` Electromagnetic induction occurs when an
emf is induced in a coil due to a changing
magnetic flux. This is now known as Fara-
day’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
The Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
1. Faradays Law states that the size of Solution
the induced emf is proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux.
2. Lenz’s Law states that the direction
of the induced emf is always such as to
oppose the change producing
Now we are in a position to calculate the in-
duced emf:

∆Φ
Induced − emf = −N
∆t

Remember Faraday’s Law: The size of the

induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of [Link] this case the proportional
constant turns out to be N (remember where

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6.8. Insulators, Conductors and h Materials are classified as conductors, in-

Semiconductors sulators and semiconductors according to
their electric conductivity.
h Electronics is the branch of physics and
technology concerned with the design of cir- h This classification is purely based on the
cuits using transistors and microchips, and available number of free electrons within the
with the behavior and movement of electrons materials, apart from the bonded orbital elec-
in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or trons. So the word conductivity is used to
gas. describe a materials ability to transport elec-
tricity.
h Initially, vacuum tubes were used in the pro-
cess of electrical signal generation, amplifica- h Another means for the classification of mate-
tion and transmission. rials is the band gap or forbidden energy gap
h With the advent of semiconductor devices theory.
like diode, transistor and other solid state
electronic components, the vacuum tubes A. Energy Band in Solids:
were replaced completely from all fields of ap-
plications.
h During solid formation, the outer most en-
h All modern gadgets like television, computer, ergy levels of the atoms overlap with each
CD player, automatic washing machine, etc., other to form a band of energy. An energy
use microprocessors having integrated chips band consists of closely spaced energy levels,
which consists a large number of logic gates, which are considered to be continuous.
diodes, transistors, resistors, etc.
h The outermost electrons of an atom are called
valence electrons and the band of energy oc-
Objectives cupied by the valence electrons is known as
After completing this unit, you should be able valence band (V.B.) This valence band
to: may be partially filled or completely filled but
+ Distinguish between conductors, insulators it cannot be empty.
and semiconductors in terms of the electrical
conductivity and the size of the band gap. h The next higher permitted band of energy is
+ Explain the difference between intrinsic and called the conduction band (C.B.).
extrinsic semiconductors.
+ Describe the doping process for creating N- h It is located above the valence band. The
and P-type semiconductor materials. electrical conductivity of solids depends on
the number of electrons present in the con-
+ Describe what junction diode and transistor duction band of their atoms.
are and how they are made.
+ Draw and label the schematic symbols for a h The conduction band may be empty or par-
diode and transistors. tially filled and can never be completely filled.
+ Explain the different bias kinds of a diode
and a transistor. h When the electrons reach the conduction
band from the valence band, they can freely
move, so they are called as free electrons or
Self Diagnostic Test conduction electrons.
1. Explain what criteria are used to classify
solids as conductors, semiconductors and h These free electrons are responsible for flow
insulators? of electric current through the solid. The gap
between the valence band and the conduction
2. Can you describe the difference among them? band is called the forbidden energy gap
3. Can you mention some advantages of the (F.G.).
semiconductors diodes and transistors?

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B. Energy band diagram for Conductors, h Conductors are materials with high
insulators and semiconductors: conductivities ranging between 104 and
107 ohm−1 m−1
h Our interest is focused on conducting prop- h Metals have conductivities in the order of 107
erty of a material. In general, physical and ohm-1m-1 are good conductors.
chemical properties of an element are decided
by the valence orbital electrons. h In conductors, the lowest level in the con-
h For example, if valence orbit is filled, with duction band happens to be lower than the
element is inert like He, Ne, etc. highest level of the valence band and hence
the conduction band and the valence band
h On the other hand the materials with unfilled overlap.
valence orbit exhibit electrical and magnetic
properties like metals. h Hence the electron in the valence band can
migrate very easily into the conduction band.
h So, only valence band is considered for fur-
ther studies. The other low level bands are h Thus at a room temperature, a large number
not contributing any significant changes in of electrons are available for conduction.
the conducting properties.
l Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold,
h The energy band occupied by the valence All metals.
electrons is called valence band (V.B.). Next,
the conducting band (C.B) lies above the va- Characteristics of Conductors:
lence band.
h Conduction band is due to the free electrons l The substances which conduct electric-
from the atoms of the crystal or solid. ity through them in greater extent are
h These free electrons possess kinetic energy called conductors.
and acts as a carrier within the crystal. l In conductors, the conduction band and
the valence band overlap with each
h The energy band diagrams for good conduc- other or gap between them is very small.
tors, insulators and semiconductor are shown So, the forbidden energy gap is Eg = 0
in the Figure 6.11.
l There are free electrons in the conduc-
tion band.
l Due to increase in temperature conduc-
tance decreases.
l There is no effect of the addition of im-
purities on the conductivity of conduc-
tors.
Figure 6.11: Band gap sizes of Insulator, l Their conductivity range between 104
semiconductor and conductor. and 107 ohm−1 m−1 .

h The above energy band diagram has a gap Insulators:

between V.B. and C.B, named as forbidden
energy gap.
h Insulators are materials with very low
h So based on the energy gap between the va- conductivities ranging between 10−20 and
lence band and conduction band, the materi- 10−10 ohm−1 m−1 .
als are classified as conductors, semiconduc-
tors and insulators. h The conduction band and valence band are
widely spaced. Thus forbidden energy gap
Conductors: between the valence band and conduction
bands is large (greater than 3eV).

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h Hence the electrons in the valence band can- h Thus energy gap between the valence band
not migrate into the conduction band. Hence and conduction band is small.
no electrons are available for conduction.
h At absolute zero, no electrons are available
h But at higher temperature, some of the elec- for conduction.
trons from the valence band may gain exter-
nal energy to cross the gap between the con- h As the temperature increase, many electrons
duction band and the valence band. from the valence band may gain external en-
ergy to cross the gap between the conduction
h Then these electrons will move into the con- band and the valence band.
duction band. At the same time, they will
create vacant energy levels in the valence h Then these electrons will move into the con-
band where other valence electrons can move. duction band. At the same time, they will
create vacant energy levels in the valence
h Thus the process creates the possibility of band where other valence electrons can move.
conduction due to electrons in conduction
band as well as due to vacancies in the va- h Thus the process creates the possibility of
lence band. conduction due to electrons in conduction
l Examples: Glass, wood, paper, plastic, mica. band as well as due to vacancies in the va-
lence band.
Characteristics of insulators: h In semiconductors, charges movement can be
manipulated according to our need to make
electronic devices.
l In insulators the conduction band and
valence band are widely separated. h So, silicon and germanium are used as a base
l There are no free electrons in the con- material for making electronic components
duction band. like diode, transistors, etc.
l There is energy gap between conduction Characteristics of semiconductors:
band and valence band which is more
than 3eV.
l In semiconductors, the conduction band
In insulators like diamond, the forbidden en- and valence band are very close to each
ergy gap is quite large having a value is 6eV, other or the forbidden energy gap be-
so minimum of 6eV energy is required for tween them is very small. The forbidden
electron to move from valence band to con- energy gap is 1.1 eV for Silicon
duction band.
l The electrons of valence band can easily
l There is no effect of change of tempera- be excited to the conduction band.
ture on the conductivity of insulators. l There is energy gap between conduc-
l There is no effect of the addition of im- tion band and valence band which is less
purities on the conductivity of insula- than 3 eV.
tors. l Due to increase in temperature conduc-
l They have very low conductivities rang- tance increases.
ing between 10−20 and 10−10 ohm−1 m−1 . l There is an effect of the addition of im-
purities on the conductivity of semicon-
Semiconductors: ductors.
l Their conductivity range from 10−6 and
h These are materials with conductivities 104 ohm−1 m−1
in the intermediate range from 10−6 and
104 ohm−1 m−1 . 1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:
h The forbidden energy gap between the va-
lence band and the conduction band is less u In general, semiconductors are classified as
than 3eV. intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

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u Semiconductors in pure form are called in- u By the addition of certain selected impurities
trinsic semiconductor. Example: A crystal to the pure semiconductor in a very small
formed by silicon atoms alone (see Figure 12). ratio (1:106), the conductivity of a silicon
or germanium crystal can be remarkably im-
u The silicon atoms are arranging themselves proved.
by sharing an electron between the neighbor-
ing atoms. Such bond is covalent bond. u The process of adding impurity to a pure
semiconductor crystal to improve its conduc-
tivity is named as doping. The impurity
added semiconductors are named as extrin-
sic semiconductors.
u The extrinsic semiconductors are classified
as P-type and N-type semiconductors, based
on the type of impurity atoms added to the
semiconductors.
Figure 6.12: (a) Silicon in covalent bond and
(b) Band gap in pure semiconductor N-type Semiconductor:
u In intrinsic semiconductor like silicon forbid-
den energy gap value is 1.1 eV. u Pentavalent element like antimony (Sb) or ar-
senic (As) is added to pure silicon crystals.
u This energy is available for semiconductors
placed at room temperature. u These impurity atoms replace some of the sil-
icon atoms, here and there in the crystal.
u Due to that thermal energy some covalent
bond within the crystal breaks (or) some elec- u The added Arsenic (As) atom shares it four
trons are pumped from valence band to con- electrons with the neighbor atoms and release
duction band. it fifth electron to the crystal for conduc-
tion. So these pentavalent elements are called
u In the bond from which electron is freed, a donor impurities, as they donate electrons
vacancy is created there. without creating holes.
u This absence of electron is named as hole. u In silicon, electron needs 1.1 eV to move from
Electron and hole pair is created. valence band to conduction band. This en-
ergy becomes available to the semiconductor
u Thus at room temperature, a pure semicon- even at room temperature.
ductor will have both electrons and holes
wandering in random directions. u So at room temperature few covalent bonds
within the material are broken by the ther-
u This electron and holes are called intrinsic mal energy from the surrounding and some
carriers and such a semiconductor is called electrons from the valence band are pumped
intrinsic semiconductor.
to conduction band.
u The vacant place created in the valence band u This process leaves some absence of electrons
due to the jumping of electron from the in the valence band. Electron and hole pairs
valence band to conduction band is called are created.
’hole’, which is having positive charge.
u At the same time,the number electrons in
2. Extrinsic semiconductor: the conduction band are increasing further by
the addition of pentavalent impurities with-
out any addition of holes which already exist
u Pure semiconductor at room temperature within the crystal.
possesses free electrons and holes but their
number is so small that conductivity offered u So the numbers of electrons are donor elec-
by the pure semiconductors cannot be used trons plus thermal electrons at room temper-
for any practical purpose like device making. ature.

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u This thermal excitation produces very less

pair of electrons and holes, whereas the added
impurity donates more electrons.

u The majority charge carriers electrons are

of the order of 1024, whereas the minority
charge carriers holes are of the order of 108
at 300 K.
Figure 6.14: Dopped Aluminum atom in co-
valent bonding with Silicon atoms to produce
P-type semiconductor
u Indium needs one more electron to complete
its covalent band. So indium is an acceptor
of electrons.
u Now, this extrinsic semiconductor gains ther-
mal energy from the surrounding at room
Figure 6.13: Dopped Arsenic atom in cova- temperature.
lent bonding with Silicon atoms to form N-
type semiconductor. u So some electron absorbs this thermal energy
and jumps to the conduction band.
u Hence, the majority charge carriers are elec-
6.9. Diodes
trons in this material (see Figure 6.13).

u The electron carries negative charge, so it is u To understand electronic devices and cir-
cuits, brief idea about semiconductor diodes
named as N-type semiconductor and conduc- is must.
tion is due to large number of electrons.
u The semiconductor diode is a fundamental
u As the number of electrons in the conduction two terminal electronic device, similar to a
band is more than the number of holes in resistor.
the valance band, in N type semiconductor,
the Fermi level lies nearer to the conduction u The voltampere (V-I) relationship of a resis-
band. tor is linear. However, the V-I characteristic
of a diode is not only nonlinear but also de-
pends on the operating condition.
P-type Semiconductor:
u That is resistor allow the charge carriers at
any condition and behaves like passive ele-
u When trivalent element like Indium, Alu- ment.
minum, Boron is doped with pure silicon, the
added impurity atoms replace some of the sil- u A diode allows current to pass through it in
icon atoms, here and there in the crystal and one direction and acts as a switch in elec-
tronic circuits.
establish covalent band with the neighboring
atoms. N junction diode:

u Indium has three electrons but that Indium is u At the room temperature, a piece of P-type
covered by four silicon atoms as shown in the material has majority of holes and N-type
Figure 6.14. So, one of the covalent bonds material has a majority of electrons.
is not completed by sharing of electrons be-
tween them. u When a part of intrinsic semiconductor piece
is doped with pentavalent impurities and the
u There is an absence of electron which creates remaining part is doped with trivalent impu-
a hole. rities, a P-N junction diode is formed.

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u The potential barrier of a PN junction diode

can be decreased or increased by applying ex-
ternal voltage. This barrier acts like a bat-
tery.

u However the value of potential barrier de-

pends upon the number of diffused impurity
atoms within the silicon crystal (or) depends
Figure 6.15: Diode and its schematic symbol. upon the dopant concentration.
Potential barrier and depletion region: u The arrow mark or arrow- head represents
holes current flow direction (Conventional
u In the PN junction diode as shown in Figure Current flow direction), when they form a cir-
6.15, the P region has circles with a negative cuit with an external source.
sign indicating immobile ions and the mobile Forward and Reverse biasing of P-N junction
holes are represented by small circle. diode: Biasing:
u In the N region, the circles with a positive
sign inside represent immobile ions and the Applying a suitable d.c. voltage to a diode
mobile free electrons are represented by small is known as biasing. It can be done in two
dots. ways.
u During the junction formation, the free elec- 1. Forward Biasing:
trons and holes on both sides of the junction
migrate across the junction by the process of
diffusion. u When the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the P-type semiconductor and
u The electrons passing through the junction the negative terminal to the N-type semicon-
from N region into the P region recombines ductor of the P-N junction diode (see Figure
with holes in the P region very close to the 6.16), the junction is said to be forward bi-
junction. ased.
u Similarly, the holes crossing the junction u When the applied voltage is increased from
from the P region into the N region recom- zero, the holes and the electrons move to-
bine with the electrons in the N region very wards the junction. Therefore the depletion
close to the junction. layer is decreased and disappeared i.e., the
u This recombination of free or mobile charges potential barrier is disappeared.
produces a narrow region on either sides of
the junction of width about 104cm to 106cm.
u This region is called the depletion region,
where there are no mobile charges available.
u In the depletion region, the atoms on the left
side of the junction become negative ions (-)
and the atoms on the right side of the junc- Figure 6.16: Diodes in forward bias
tion become positive ions (+).Thus an inter-
nal potential difference (p.d.) is produced u While the holes and the electrons move across
across the junction. This p.d. is called the the junction, they combine together and neu-
internal potential barrier. tralized.
u This prevents the further flow of charge car- u Electrons from the battery move into the N-
rier from P-region to N-region. The potential type semiconductor. Further they move the
barrier for germanium is 0.3 V and that for junction and come out of the P-type semi-
silicon is 0.7 V. conductor. Hence there is a flow of current.

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u The current is due to flow of electrons. Thus u This diode simply blocks any current from
the P-N junction diode conducts electricity. leaving the battery if it is reversed. It pro-
tects the sensitive electronic devices.
u As the battery v increases, the current also
increases. The current is of the order of milli
ampere (mA). P-N junction diode rectification:

2. Reverse biasing: u A P-N junction diode conducts electricity

when it is forward biased and it does not con-
u When the negative terminal of the battery is duct electricity when it is reverse biased. v
connected to the P-type semiconductor and Hence it is used to rectify alternating voltage
the positive terminal to the N-type semicon- (A.C).
ductor of the P-N junction diode, the P-N
junction diode is said reverse biased. u The process in which an AC voltage is con-
verted into a unidirectional (D.C) voltage is
u The negative potential of the battery attracts known as rectification and the circuit used
the holes. Similarly, the positive pot of the for the conversion is called a rectifier.
battery attracts the electrons.
u In general, a rectifier is an electronic device
u Therefore the holes and electrons move away which converts a.c. signal into d.c. signal.
from the junction (see Figure 6.7).
u It is based on the principle that a junction
u Hence the width of the depletion layer in- diode offers low resistance path for input sig-
creases and there is no current flow through nal, when forward biased and high resistance
the junction during reverse bias. under reverse biased condition.
u However, as the reverse bias voltage in-
creases, the minority charge carriers across Half - wave rectification:
the junction.
u Therefore there is a very feeble current, which u The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the
is of the order of micro ampere (µA). half wave rectifier (Figure 6.18).

u When an A.C input is applied to a junction

diode, it gets forward biased during the pos-
itive half cycle permitting the A.C input to
pass through the load, and reverse biased for
the negative half cycle during this time pro-
hibiting the A.C input not to pass through
the load.
Figure 6.7: Diode in reverse bias
u Diode acts as a switch. In forward biased
state diode is in ”ON” position and in the
reverse biased condition the same diode is in
”OFF” position.
u So diode is an electronic device which allows
the conventional current flow in one direc-
tion alone. Diodes can be used in a number Figure 6.18: Half wave rectifier circuit.
of ways.
u The Full Wave Rectifier Circuit If we need
u For example, a device that uses batteries of- to rectify A.C power to obtain the full use of
ten contains a diode that protects the device both half-cycles of the sine wave, a full wave
if you insert the batteries backward. rectifier circuit must be used.

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u The popular full-wave rectifier circuit built 6.10. Transistors

around a four-diode bridge is called a full-
wave bridge. s A junction diode cannot be used for amplify-
ing a signal. For amplification another type
of semiconductor device called ’transistor’
is used.
s Transistor is a three sectioned semiconduc-
tor.
s Transistor is a solid state device. Two P-N
junction diodes placed back to back form a
Figure 6.19: Full wave rectifier circuit. three layer transistors.
s Current directions for the full- wave bridge
rectifier circuit are as shown in Figure 6.19
for positive half- cycle and for negative half-
cycles of the AC source waveform.

s Note that regardless of the polarity of the in-

put, the current flows in the same direction
through the load. That is, the negative half- Figure 6.22: The two types of transistors,
cycle of source is a positive half-cycle at the NPN and PNP.
load (see Figure 20 & 21).
s The three sections of the transistors are
called emitter [E], base [B] and collector [C].
s The current flow is through two diodes in
series for both polarities. Thus, two diode s In a transistor the emitter is heavily doped,
drops of the source voltage are lost in the since emitter has to supply majority carriers.
diodes. The base is lightly doped.
s This is a disadvantage compared with a full- s Two type of transistors are available, namely
wave center-tap design. N-P-N and P-N-P transistor (see Figure
6.22).
s This disadvantage is only a problem in very
low voltage power supplies. Symbol for transistors:

Figure 6.20: Full-wave rectifier circuit: Elec-

tron flow for positive half-cycles. Figure 6.23: Symbols for PNP and NPN
transistors.
s In the symbolic representation for a transis-
tor as shown in Figure 6.23, the arrow mark
is placed on the emitter in the direction of
conventional current flow, i.e., from P to N
direction.
s In an electronic circuit a transistor can be
Figure 6.21: Full-wave rectifier circuit: Elec- connected in three different ways (see Figure
tron flow for negative half-cycles. 6.24).

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- They are, s The input signal may be obtained from a

phonograph, tape head or a transducer such
(I) Common base (CB) as thermocouple, pressure gauge etc.
(ii) Common emitter (CE) Transistor Amplifier- Common Emitter configura
(iii) Common Collector (CC)

Figure 6.25: NPN transistor as an amplifier

Figure 6.24: Transistor connections, (a) com-
mon base, (b) common emitter and (c) com- s Amplifier is an electronic device which is used
mon collector to magnify the amplitude of weak signal.
s A common emitter configuration of NPN
s The term common is used to denote the lead transistor amplifier circuit is shown in Fig-
that is common to the input and output cir- ure 6.25.
cuits.
s The potential VBE with input AC signal Vi is
s The three different modes are shown above applied between base and emitter and the po-
for NPN transistor. tential VCE is applied between collector and
emitter through the load resistance RL .
s For proper working of a transistor, the input
junction should be forward biased and the s The output amplified signal voltage Vo is ob-
output junction should be reverse biased. tained between collector and emitter.
s The amplification of the transistor is ex-
plained by using its transfer characteristic
curve shown in the figure.
Self Diagnostic Test
* .Why do we need amplification? s It gives the variation of collector current IC
with increase of base current Ib at constant
VCE .
s When we cannot hear a stereo system, we ∆lc
have to increase the volume, when picture in current, gain =, β =
∆lb
our television is too dark, we should increase
the brightness control. s In common emitter configuration, the collec-
tor current is times larger than the input base
s In both of these cases, we are taking a rel- current.
atively weak signal and making its stronger s So the variation in IC is much more than that
(i.e., increasing of its power). in Ib .
s The process of increasing the power of an a.c. s If the input signal rises, it increases the Ib
signal is called amplification. from OP to OA and also there is a corre-
sponding increase in IC from PQ to AA’.
s The circuit used to perform this function is s If Ib decreases from OA to OP, IC also de-
called amplifier. creases from AA’ to PQ. Similarly it happens
in reverse direction also as it continues an
s An amplifier may also be defined as a device, amplified sine wave form of IC flows in the
which amplifies the input weak signal. circuit.

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s Both the frequencies of input and output are l High voltage gain
the same. If IC increases the potential drop l High Power gain
across RL also increases.
l Phase reversal
F rom, circuit, Vo = vCE − IC RL In common emitter amplifier, the output sig-
nal is 1800 out of phase with input signal.
As per the above equation, the increase of po-
tential across RL opposes the VCE . So that Logic Gates:
the input signal and the output voltage are
out of phase differing by 1800 .
s Logic Gates: An electronic circuit which has
A.C. power gain: one or more inputs but only single output is
called agate.
s It is the ratio of the change in output power s There is always logic relationship between in-
to the change in input power. put and output of a gate hence more precisely
is called logic gate.
s Logic gates are basically of three types: (i)
OR- gate, (ii) AND- gate and (iii) NOT -
gate.

Example: s The input to a logic gate can have only one of

In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC two values. It can be low, example near 0 V,
= 0.95 mA. Calculate the value of IB . and indicated by ”0”, or it can be high, ex-
Solution: ample close to the supply voltage of typically
Using the relation, IE = IC + IB 5-6 V, and indicated by ”1”.
1= IB + 0.95 s A truth table for a logic gate indicates the
IB = 1-0.95= 0.05 mA.
output for all possible inputs.
Example: s Different logic gates have different shapes and
Calculate IE in a transistor for which β= 50 their type is sometimes written on them in
and IB = 20µA. circuit diagrams.
Solution
Here β = 50, IB = 0.02 mA s The common logic gates and their truth table
Now, β = IIBC ⇒ IC = βIB = 50x0.02 = 1 mA. is provided as Figure 6.26 below
Advantages of common emitter configuration: l AND gate - output is only high when
both inputs are high, otherwise the out-
s On comparing the three different configu- put is low. A and B is written as A.B
rations of an amplifier, with help of their l NAND (NOT AND) gate - logic out-
characteristics like input impedance, output put of any logic gate is reversed if the
impedance, current gain, voltage gain, power symbol is modified by adding a small
gain and phase circle to the base of the output. Output
is low when both inputs are high. For
s reversal the following are the major advan- all other combinations of input output
tages of common emitter configuration when is high.
compared with other configurations.
l OR gate -logic output is high if either
l High input impedance or both of the inputs are low. A or B is
written
l Low output resistance l NOR (NOT OR) gate- logic output is
l Moderate current gain the reverse of an OR gate.

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l NOT gate - called an inverter since v A p-n junction, consisting of wafers of p-type
output is always the logical opposite to and n-type germanium or silicon may be ei-
the input ther grown or fused, depending on manufac-
turing technique. A P-N junction diode con-
ducts in forward direction and poorly in re-
verse direction.

Figure 6.26: Symbols for different type of

logic gates

Chapter Summary
v Rectifiers are used to convert alternating sup-
v Coulombs law gives the magnitude of the ply into dc supply. Since the electric energy
force between point charges. It is given by that is available through power mains is al-
ternating but the electric energy needed for
K|q1 q2 | most of the electronic gets is dc, we make use
F~12 (r) = r̂
2
r12 of the rectifier circuits.

v The electric field mediates the electric force

between a source charge and a test charge.
v Electric potential is potential energy per unit
charge.
v The potential difference between points A
and B, VB − VA , that is, the change in po-
tential of a charge q moved from A to B, is
equal to the change in potential energy di- v A junction transistor is a sandwich made up
vided by the charge of two p-n junctions either in pnp form or npn
form. Transistors can be used as amplifiers,
v Magnets have two types of magnetic poles, rheostat, switches etc.
called the north magnetic pole and the south
magnetic pole. North magnetic poles are
those that are attracted toward Earth’s ge-
ographic North Pole. Like poles repel and
unlike poles attract.
v Discoveries of how magnets respond to cur-
rents by Oersted and others created a frame-
work that led to the invention of modern elec-
tronic devices, electric motors, and magnetic
imaging technology.
v Semiconductors are a class of materials which
lie between insulators and metals (conduc-
tors). Pure semiconductors are two types:
intrinsic (pure) and extrinsic (with impurity
atoms). Adding a suitable impurity to a
semiconductor is called doping. Doped semi-
conductors are either n-type or p-type.

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Chapter Review Questions and Problems

1. Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity
and type of charge: -0.0025 C. They are held apart at a
separation distance of 8 m. Determine the magnitude of
the electrical force of repulsion between them.
2. A particle of charge 2x10−8 C experiences an upward
force of magnitude 4x10−6 N when it is placed in a
particular point in an electric field.
A. What is the electric field at that point?
B. If a charge q = -1.0 x 10−8 C is placed there, what is
the force on it?
3. What is the strength of the electric field between two
parallel conducting plates separated by 1.00 cm and
having a potential difference (voltage) between them of
1.5V?
4. Consider the circuit shown below. (a) Find the
voltage across each resistor. (b)What is the power
supplied to the circuit and the power dissipated or
consumed by the circuit?

5. A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40 cm x 8.50 cm is

by a magnetic field of magnitude of 0.350T parallel to
the plane of the loop. What is the magnetic flux on the
rectangular loop?
6. A proton moves with a speed of 8.0x106 m/s along
the x-axis. It enters a region where there is a field of
magnitude 2.5 T, directed at an angle of 600 to the
x-axis and lying in the xy plane. Calculate the initial
magnetic force and acceleration of the proton.
7. A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 14
cm in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.35 T
directed perpendicular to the velocity of the proton.
Find the orbital speed of the proton.
8. A stationary coil is in a magnetic field that is
changing with time. Does the emf induced in the oil
depend on the actual values of the magnetic field?

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CHAPTER SEVEN l Newtonian mechanics: Industrial revolu-

tion based on engineered machines; probably
Cross Cutting Application of Physics the closest to our daily experiences, Newto-
nian mechanics finds many applications in in-
dustry as well as research. Mechanical design
and automation in industry and simulation
Self Diagnostic Test in research rely on the principles of classical
mechanics.
* Why do we need to study Physics?
* What are the roles of physics in science and l Thermodynamics:
machines, railroads,
Steam engines to power
steamboats;
technology?
l Electricity and magnetism: Electrical
_ Physics is the most fundamental and all- power distribution system, motors, lights,
inclusive of the sciences, and has had a pro- telegraphs, electronics; development in the
found effect on all scientific development. knowledge of Electricity and Magnetism has
revolutionized the technological development
_ In fact, it is the present-day equivalent of in all fields of physics.
what used to be called natural philosophy, The generator and motor designed using the
from which most of our modern sciences phenomena of Electromagnetic Induction are
arose. widely use machines.
_ Physics generates fundamental knowledge Technology and industry today depends
needed for the future scientific and techno- largely on power. Knowledge of magnetism
logical advances that will continue to drive has helped us build precise instruments and
the economic engines of the world. And also mechanical systems.
it contributes to the technological infrastruc-
ture and provides trained personnel needed l Quantum mechanics: Lasers, atomic
to take advantage of scientific advances and clocks, chemistry;
discoveries. l Nuclear Science: finds many different ap-
_ Students of many fields find themselves plications in diverse fields of science and tech-
studying physics because of the basic role it nology; Atomic energy, medical diagnosis and
plays in all phenomena. treatments, production of electricity in nu-
clear power plants.
_ Physics is the curiosity-driven study of the
inanimate natural world at a very funda- The study of structure of molecules can be
mental level that extends across all nature; carried out by a technique called Nuclear
from the extremes of empty space itself, time, Magnetic Resonance which uses the phenom-
light, energy, elementary particles, and atoms ena of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
through many orders of magnitude to stars, and derives its name from it. NMR uses the
galaxies, and the structure and fate of the magnetic property of the nucleus.
universe.
l Condensed matter physics: Transistors
_ Physics is widely appreciated for the beauty and integrated circuits, computers, materi-
of its concepts, but it is valued for its im- als like liquid crystals (e.g., liquid-crystal dis-
mense range of predictive power and life-
improving application. plays), polymers, superconducting technol-
ogy and materials;
_ Successive revolutions in fundamental
physics have been tightly interconnected with l Optics: Optics and Optical phenomena find
technological advances that have each sub- many examples in nature such as the for-
stantially improved our lives. mation of the rainbow, the phenomenon of
mirage and twinkling of stars.
_ The concepts, laws, principles, and theories There are many other applications of op-
of physics are widely applicable in the follow- tics using lens systems, mirrors, fiber optics,
ing scientific and technological areas. lasers and diffraction gratings etc. The field

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of fiber optics is advanced and still a large _ Soil physical degradation, gas production in
amount of research is going on in fiber op- soils and emission to the atmosphere, phys-
tics. This field is useful in communication ical properties of plant materials influencing
systems. The field of ray optics is used to de- their technological and nutritional values and
sign and use the Microscope, the Telescope crop losses are examples of such hazards.
and cameras. Optics is also used in the de-
sign of precision components and systems. _ Agro physical knowledge can be helpful in
evaluating and improving the quality of soils
The beauty of this intellectual approach and and agricultural products as well as the tech-
its remarkable profusion of insights, knowl- nological processes.
edge, and applications has captured the
imaginations of people for centuries and at- _ Soil is the upper most layer of earth crust,
tracted them to study, research, and develop and it supports all terrestrial life. It is the
applications in physics. interface between the lithosphere and the at-
mosphere, and strongly interacts with bio-
sphere and the hydrosphere.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students will be able _ It is a major component of all terrestrial
to: ecosystems, and is the most basic of all natu-
+ Explain the application of physics in different ral resources. Most living things on earth are
sciences and technology fields. directly or indirectly derived from soil.
+ Provide an insight to students on how _ Soil physics deal with the study of soil phys-
physics played in the development of ones
nation (Science and technology) ical properties (e.g., texture, structure, water
retention, etc.) and processes (e.g., aeration,
+ Describe the physical properties of the soil diffusion, etc.).
and their effects on soil quality.
+ Analyze how the principle of electromagnetic _ It also consists of the study of soil compo-
induction is applied on Generator and Motor nents and phases, their interaction with one
operations another and the environment, and their tem-
+ Explain the basic principles of the major poral and spatial variations in relation to nat-
medical imaging techniques; ural and anthropogenic or management fac-
tors (Figure 7.1). Additionally, soil physics
+ Help students become more literate in the involves the principles of physics to under-
benefits and hazards of radiation. stand interrelationship of mass and energy
+ Discuss the uses of radiation and radioactive status of components and phases as dynamic
particles in archeology, industry, and medicine. entities.
+ Stimulate students on the understanding of
Seismometer, Radio and TV communications.
+ Discuss the physics concepts behind the
renewable sources of energies

7.1. Physics in Agriculture and Environment

_ Agro physics is one of the branches of nat-

ural science dealing with the application of
physics in agriculture and environment.
Figure 7.1: The three phases of Soil. Un-
_ It plays an important role in the limitation of der optimal conditions for growth of upland
hazards to agricultural entities (soils, plants, plants, the solid phase composes about 50%
agricultural products and foods) and to the of the total volume, and liquid and gaseous
environment. phases each compose 25% by volume.

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_ Soil quality plays an important role in agri- density or specific gravity and dry specific
culture, more specifically, it is directly re- volume.
lated to soil physical properties and pro-
cesses which affects agronomic productivity _ Soil Porosity: refers to the relative volume
through strong influences on plant growth. of voids or pores, and is therefore expressed
as a fraction or percent of the total volume
_ There is a misconception and a myth that or of the volume of solids.
agricultural productivity can be sustained by
addition of fertilizer and/or water. Soil porosity can be expressed in the follow-
ing four ways: total porosity, air-filled poros-
_ Expensive inputs can be easily wasted if soil ity, void ratio and air ratio.
physical properties are sub optimal or below
the critical level. _ Soil Moisture Content: Soil moisture is
the term used to denote water contained in
_ High soil physical quality plays an important the soil. Soil water is usually not free water,
role in enhancing soil chemical and biological and is, therefore, called soil moisture.
qualities.
Soil moisture content can be expressed in the
_ Applications of soil physics can play a crucial following four ways: gravimetric soil moisture
role in sustainable management of natural re- content, volumetric soil moisture content, liq-
sources (Fig. 7.2). uid ratio, degree of saturation.
Energy Balance Concept and Energy
_ Soil physical properties such as soil texture, Balance in Soil
structure, water retention and transmission,
heat capacity and thermal conductivity, soil The surface energy balance is usually defined
strength, etc are important to agricultural with respect to an active layer of very small
sustainability. thickness of the soil. In this case the stor-
_ These properties affect plant growth and age of energy in the layer can be neglected
vigor directly and indirectly. and the energy balance equation is written
mathematically as:
0 = Rn + G + LE + H........................(7.1)
Where,
l Rn is net radiation
l G is soil heat flux
l LE is the latent heat flux (evaporation to the
atmosphere) and is the product of the evap-
orative flux, E, and the latent heat of vapor-
ization, λ.
l H is sensible heat flux (all terms taken as pos-
Figure 7.2: Applications of soil physics are itive −2
when flux is toward the surface and in
crucial to sustainable use of natural resources Wm )
for agricultural and other land uses.
_ Each term from equation 1 may be expressed
_ Soil Density: is the relation between the more completely as the sum of sub terms that
mass and the volume of a dry soil sample. It describe specific physical processes.
is commonly expressed in the units of g/cm3 _ Energy fluxes at soilatmosphere and plantat-
and Kg/m3 . mosphere interfaces can be summed to zero
when the surfaces, including plants and plant
This density is defined in the following four residues, have no or negligible capacity for
ways: particle density, bulk density, relative energy storage.

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_ The resulting energy balance equations may _ The speed and direction of rotation of a dc
be written in terms of physical descriptions of motor are easily controlled.
these fluxes and have been the basis for prob-
lem casting and solving in diverse fields of en- _ This makes it especially useful for operating
vironmental and agricultural science such as equipment, such as winches, cranes, and mis-
estimation of evapo-transpiration (ET) from sile launchers, which must move in different
vegetated surfaces, estimation of evaporation directions and at varying speeds.
from bare soil, rate of soil heating in spring
(important for timing of seed germination), _ The operation of a dc motor is based on the
rate of residue decomposition (dependent on following principle:
temperature and water content at the soil
surface), and many other problems.
_ A current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field, perpendicular to the lines of
Soil Moisture Characteristics flux, tends to move in a direction perpendic-
ular to the magnetic lines of flux.
_ The fundamental relationship between soils
moisture content and soil-matric potential is _ There is a definite relationship between the
called ”soil moisture characteristics”. direction of the magnetic field, the direction
of current in the conductor, and the direction
_ This unique relationship depends on soil in which the conductor tends to move.
structure as determined by total porosity and
the pore size distribution. GENERATORS

_ Thus, change in structure and pore size dis-

tribution leads to changes in soil moisture _ A generator is a machine that converts me-
characteristics. chanical energy into electrical energy by us-
ing the principle of magnetic induction.
7.2. Physics in Industries
_ This principle is explained as follows: When-
Principles of Motor and generator ever a conductor is moved within a magnetic
field in such a way that the conductor cuts
across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is gen-
_ One of the important applications of electro- erated in the conductor.
magnetism is the electric motor.
_ The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends
_ A motor is a machine that converts electrical on (1) the strength of the magnetic field, (2)
energy into mechanical energy.
the angle at which the conductor cuts the
_ A generator does exactly the opposite: it magnetic field, (3) the speed at which the
converts mechanical energy into electrical conductor is moved, and (4) the length of the
energy. Electric motors generate magnetic conductor within the magnetic field.
fields with electric current through a coil.
_ The POLARITY of the voltage depends on
_ The magnetic field then causes a force with the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and
a magnet that causes movement or spinning the direction of movement of the conductor.
that runs the motor.
DC Motor and its Principles of Operation 7.3. Physics in Health Sciences and
Medical Imaging
_ The dc motor is a mechanical workhorse that
can be used in many different ways.
_ The contribution of physics to medicine and
_ Many large pieces of equipment depend on a health science can be described at various lev-
dc motor for their power to move. els.

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_ Much could be written about the impacts

of basic discoveries of physics on medicine,
which is, among other descriptors, an ap-
plied science. One example is the discovery
of x-ray diffraction, which led to the knowl-
edge of the three-dimensional structures of
molecules that was crucial to understand bi-
ology at the molecular level with important
impact on such areas as pharmacology and
genetic diseases.

_ Medical practice utilizes a broad range of de- Figure 7.3: The electromagnetic spectrum.
vices that contain microelectronics. MRI: magnetic resonance imaging.

_ In fact, diagnostic imaging modalities, such _ Radiation: is classified as ionizing or non-

as x-ray, Computer tomography scanner, ionizing, depending on its ability to ionize
magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasound matter (Figure 4):
have been revolutionized medical practices.
l Non-ionizing radiation cannot ionize matter
and has longer wavelength/lower frequency
_ Radiation is all around us. And it is natu- lower energy.
rally present in our environment and has been
since before the birth of this planet.
l Ionizing radiation has higher energy/short
wavelength/high frequency and sufficient en-
_ Radiation can also be produced artificially, as ergy to produce ions in matter at the molec-
in medical x-rays and microwaves for cook- ular level. It ionize matter either directly or
ing. It can be either beneficial or harmful, indirectly:
depending on its use and control.
l Directly ionizing radiation: Fast charged par-
ticles that deposit their energy in matter di-
_ Therefore, regulation of certain radioactive rectly, through many small Coulomb (elec-
sources is necessary in which people protect
themselves from unnecessary or excessive ex- trostatic) interactions with orbital electrons
posures. along the particle track.

l Indirectly ionizing radiation: X or gamma

_ Radiation is energy given off by matter in the ray photons or neutrons that first transfer
form of rays or high-speed particles. their energy to fast charged particles released
in one or a few interactions in the matter
through which they pass. The resulting fast
_ There are many forms of radiation that are charged particles then deposit their energy
familiar to us. directly in the matter.

_ For example, we use light, heat, and mi-

crowaves every day. Radiation can be
thought of as the transmission of energy
through space and it may be classified as
electromagnetic or particulate, with electro-
magnetic radiation including visible light, in-
frared and ultraviolet, X rays and gamma
rays (Fig. 7.3), and particulate radiation
including electrons, positrons, protons and
neutrons. Figure 7.4: Classifications of Radiation

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Biological effects of radiation _ Therefore, reducing the duration of an indi-

vidual’s exposure to radiation will decrease
dose.
Self Diagnostic Test _ Increasing the distance between an individual
* What happens when living things are and a radiation source is an important means
exposed to radiation? of reducing radiation exposure, because the
intensity of the radiation is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance from the
_ Consequently, life has evolved in an environ- radiation source.
ment which has significant levels of ionizing
radiation. _ Shielding is useful for absorbing radiation
_ It comes from outer space (cosmic), the energy. If enough interactions occur in the
shielding material, then much of the radia-
ground (terrestrial), and even from within tion is prevented from reaching the body’s
our own bodies. tissues.
_ It is present in the air we breathe, the food
we eat, the water we drink, and in the con- _ Alpha particles can be stopped by a piece of
struction materials used to build our homes. paper.

_ Ionizing radiation has enough energy to elec- _ Beta particles are blocked by about a cen-
trically charge or ionize matter. The cells in timeter of plastic. Clothing and the outer
living organisms are also made of matter, so layers of skin cells provide some protection
they too can be ionized. Cosmic rays, x-rays, from beta particles outside the body.
gamma rays, alpha particles and beta parti-
cles are forms of ionizing radiation. _ Gamma rays, however, may require many
centimeters of lead or meters of concrete for
_ Ionizing radiation may come from a natural shielding.
source such as the Sun or it may come from a
man-made source such as an x-ray machine. Medical Imaging
_ The possibility of overexposure to ionizing ra-
diation among members of the general public _ Medical imaging refers to several different
is minimal. technologies that are used to view the high-
resolution, 2 or 3 dimensional images of the
_ However, there are environments such as hos- human body to diagnose, monitor, or treat
pitals, research laboratories and areas of high medical conditions.
level natural background radiation where
some potential health risks do exist. _ It is one of the most remarkable fields that
have transformed the face of clinical medicine
_ The effect of ionizing radiation on the human during the last millennium. Imaging tech-
body or any other living organism depends on nologies include radiography, magnetic res-
three things: onance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine,
1. The amount and the rate of ionizing radi- photo acoustic imaging, tomography, ultra-
ation which was absorbed. sound, echocardiography, etc.
2. The type of ionizing radiation which was
absorbed.
3. The type and number of cells affected. _ A medical image is a pictorial representation
of a measurement of an object or function of
_ There are three primary means of reducing the body.
radiation dose from sources external to the
body: time, distance, and shielding. X-Ray: use ionizing radiation to produce im-
ages of a persons internal structure by send-
_ For a given source of radiation, the amount ing X-ray beams through the body, which are
of radiation energy deposited in the body is absorbed in different amounts depending on
related to how long one is exposed. the density of the material.

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_ X-rays are potentially harmful, and should be _ The sound spectrum can be conveniently di-
used with care. X-rays, however, have higher vided into three distinct parts.
frequency and shorter wavelength than light
and radio waves. _ Audible sounds are those which can be per-
ceived by the human ear. There are some
_ An X-ray tube consists of two electrodes, one differences between individuals in their abil-
negative, and glow cathode, which upon be- ity to perceive sound frequencies.
ing heated emits electrons, and one positive,
anode. _ In most humans, the audible frequency range
is approximately 20 Hz - 20,000 Hz.
_ The electrodes are incapsuled in a vacuum.
By applying an acceleration potential (20-200 _ Sound which has a frequency below that
kV), the electrons are accelerated towards the which can be perceived by the human ear
anode. is referred to as infrasound, while sound of
frequencies higher than that of human per-
_ The electrons gain kinetic energy which is the ception is known as ultrasound.
product of their charge and the potential dif-
ference. _ Therefore, ultrasound may be defined as
sound energy of frequency higher than 20
_ As a measure of the kinetic energy of the elec- kilohertz (20 kHz).
trons and X-ray photons, the unit of 1eV is
used. Ultrasound Systems: Diagnostic ultra-
sound, also known as medical sonography or
Computerized Tomography (CT Scanner): ultrasonography, uses high frequency sound
It is a medical imaging method that combines waves to create images of the inside of the
multiple X-ray projections taken from differ- body.
ent angles to produce detailed cross-sectional
images of areas inside the body. _ The ultrasound machine sends sound waves
into the body and can convert the returning
_ CT images allow to get precise, 3-D views of sound echoes into a picture.
certain parts of the body, such as soft tissues,
the pelvis, blood vessels, the lungs, the brain, _ Ultrasound technology can also produce im-
the heart, abdomen and bones. ages of internal organs and structures, map
blood flow and tissue motion, and provide
_ CT is often the preferred method of diagnos- highly accurate blood velocity information to
ing many cancers, such as liver, lung and pan- assess patients health;Ultrasound is the most
creatic cancers; commonly used diagnostic imaging modality,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): is is an acoustic wave with frequencies greater
a spectroscopic imaging technique used in than the maximum frequency audible to hu-
medical settings to produce images of the in- mans, which is 20 kHz Ultrasound has a wide
side of the human body and uses radio waves range of medical applications:
and a magnetic field to create detailed images
of organs and tissues. l Cardiac and vascular imaging

_ MRI has proven to be highly effective in diag- l Imaging of the abdominal organs
nosing many conditions by showing the dif-
ference between normal and diseased soft tis- l In utero imaging of the developing fetus
sues of the body. 7.3. Physics and Archeology
ULTRASOUND
Sound is a mechanical form of energy. A vi- Radioactive Dating
brating source is responsible for the produc-
tion of sound.
u Radiocarbon dating is an important tool for
_ The number of vibrations per unit time, the determination of the age of many samples
called the frequency of vibrations, determines and covers the time period of approximately
the quality of the sound produced. the last 50,000 years.

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u We can use radiocarbon dating to estimate u After an organism dies, its level of carbon-14
the age of a wide variety of carbon-containing gradually declines at a predictable pace, with
materials. a half-life of about 5,730 years.
u Both organic and inorganic materials at the u Archaeologists precisely measure levels of the
Earth’s surface and in the oceans form in isotope in organic remains.
equilibrium with atmospheric carbon-14.
u Knowing the half-life, they back calculate
u This makes it an important tool for the un- how much time must have passed since the
derstanding of processes during the time- remains had levels identical to living organ-
scale of modern humans, from the last isms.
glacial-interglacial transition, to recent ar-
chaeological studies of art works. u Radiocarbon measurement can date organic
remains up to about 50,000 years old.
u We present an overview of the technique, its
advantages, assumptions and limitations. u Objects younger than 500 years old are rarely
radiocarbon dated.
u We also emphasize dating interesting objects. u Natural and anthropogenic fluctuations in
environmental radiocarbon levels mean that
u Radiocarbon has been applied to dating organisms living in different centuries within
many historical artifacts and archaeological the past 500 years can have identical radio-
applications carbon contents.

u The technique of radiocarbon dating was in- Radiocarbon in nature

troduced by Willard Libby and his colleagues
in the University of Chicago in 1950.
u Radiocarbon (14 C) is a naturally occurring
u Libby was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1960 for isotope of carbon formed in the upper atmo-
his work on 14 C, which reflects the revolu- sphere by the interaction of cosmic radiation
tionary effect of radiocarbon dating in the with nitrogen atoms (Figure 7.5).
scholarly community.
u It is unstable, with a half- life of 5730±40
u Archaeologists have long used carbon-14 dat- years.
ing (also known as radiocarbon dating) to es- u Once produced, radiocarbon quickly enters
timate the age of certain objects. the terrestrial food chain by photosynthesis,
and so the 14 C content of all living organisms
u Traditional radiocarbon dating is applied is in equilibrium with that of the contempo-
to organic remains between 500 and 50,000 rary atmosphere.
years old and exploits the fact that trace
amounts of radioactive carbon are found in u When an organism dies it ceases to take up
the natural environment. radiocarbon, and so over time the proportion
u Standard carbon-14 testing, as used by ar- of 14 C in the dead organism decreases.
chaeologists, is based on the natural process u By measuring the proportion that remains,
of radioactive carbon formation that results the elapsed time since death can be esti-
from cosmic ray bombardment of nitrogen in
the earths upper atmosphere. mated.
u The ratio of 14 C in the material of unknown
u The radioactive carbon is taken from the at- age to that in a modern standard is multi-
mosphere and incorporated into plant tissues plied by the half-life to determine the age.
by plant photosynthesis.
u There are three physical characteristics of ra-
u It is then incorporated into all living organ- diocarbon that make it particularly difficult
isms by means of the food chain. to measure.

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u First, the naturally occurring concentration radiocarbon overlap with the energy spec-
of radiocarbon in living material is extremely trum produced by other decay products of
low. contaminant radioisotopes, specifically radon
and tritium (222Rn and 3H).
u The three isotopes of carbon occur in the pro-
portions 12 C:13 C:14 C = 1 : 0.01 : 1.2 × 10−12 . Radiocarbon in archaeological samples

u This makes detecting a radiocarbon atom in u For accurate radiocarbon dating, only the
1
a sample at the limit of detection (about 50 4C that was part of the organism when it
000 years old) equivalent to identifying a sin- died should be measured.
gle specific human hair that might occur on u Therefore the first task is to remove any for-
the head of any of the human beings alive on eign carbon that has entered the sample since
earth today! that time.
u Such contamination comes principally from
the burial environment.
u This is done by a mixture of physical and
chemical means. A simplified outline of one
of the pretreatment protocols is given in Fig-
ure 7.6.
u The procedures also isolate a stable chemical
fraction of a sample for dating (e.g. cellulose
from wood).
Figure 7.5: 14 C is formed in the upper atmo-
sphere. Cosmic rays produce neutrons which
collide with 14 N nuclei (14 N + n → 14 C + p).
u Second, the natural radioactivity of carbon
is extremely low (226 ± 1Bqkg −1 or 13.56 de-
cays per minute per gram of carbon). This
is within the range of natural background ra-
diation on the Earths surface, which makes
distinguishing 14 C radioactivity difficult.
u Third, the energy of the electrons emitted by
the decay of radiocarbon is very low, and so
they are difficult to detect.
Radiocarbon disintegrates as follows: Figure 7.6: An overview of methods for mea-
suring radiocarbon in archaeological samples.
14C → 14N + β − +− ν.
u Radiocarbon (14 C) is produced in the up-
per atmosphere by the action of secondary
Where the reaction energy is distributed over cosmic-ray particles, which are thermal neu-
the escaping electron (β − ) and the antineu- trons on nitrogen.
trino (− ν).
u It has a half-life of 5,700 years and the
u The maximum energy of the β − particle is as amounts of 14 C produced naturally cover the
low as 156 keV. time scale of approximately 50,000 years.
u Further difficulties arise because the energies u Of course, this is also the period of interest
held by electrons produced by the decay of to archaeology and many other fields.

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u There are a large and diverse number of ap- u The earliest seismometers consisted of a
plications of 14 C. mass, a spring, and sometimes a damper.

u Radiocarbon dating relies on a basic assump- u The mass was usually very large since its mo-
tion that organic or inorganic materials are tion was typically measured by a series of
in equilibrium with 14 C, which is produced levers that caused a needle stylus to move
in the atmosphere and its removal into other over a rotating drum covered with smoked
paper.
reservoirs, and which establishes a constant
level of 14 C at any given time. u Thus it was necessary for the small motions
of the ground to cause enough momentum
u This relies on the radioactive decay equa- in the mass to overcome the friction of the
tion (Rutherford and Soddy 1902), where the recording system.
decay rate is determined by the number of
atoms: u Seismic sensors are the mechanical or elec-
tromechanical assemblies that convert Earth
motion into electrical signals that can then
N be digitized and recorded for later analysis.
= e−λt
No TV and Radio Communications

u When an animal or plant dies, it is removed

from the atmospheric equilibrium and so the u Satellites offer a number of features not read-
ily available with other means of communica-
level of 14C decays is obtained from the ap- tions.
parent ”radiocarbon age” or t.
Rearranging this equation: u Because very large areas of the earth are vis-
ible from a satellite, the satellite can form
the star point of a communications net, si-
N multaneously linking many users who may be
t = −λln( )
No widely separated geographically.
u Satellites are also used for remote sensing, ex-
Where N is the number of atoms, N0 is the amples being the detection of water pollution
number of atoms present at the time of for- and the monitoring and reporting of weather
mation of the material and is the decay con- conditions.
stant of the nuclide.
u Some of these remote sensing satellites also
u This ”radiocarbon age” is an approximate form a vital link in search and rescue opera-
age of the material, since there are other tions for downed aircraft and the like.
effects on the 14C production in the atmo-
sphere. u Satellites are specifically made for telecom-
munication purpose.
7.4. Application in Earth and Space
Sciences u They are used for mobile applications such
as communication to ships, vehicles, planes,
Seismometer hand-held terminals and for TV and radio
broadcasting.
u Seismology provides the only direct method u A satellite works most efficiently when the
for measuring the properties of the deep in- transmissions are focused with a desired area.
terior of our planet.
u When the area is focused, then the emissions
u Seismometers are the sensors that produce do not go outside that designated area and
the signal to be recorded. Modern seismome- thus minimizing the interference to the other
ters produce some voltage that is related systems.
to the ground motion by the instrument re- Radio
sponse.

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u Radio is one of the important inventions of u Because of its high frequency, the carrier
the 20th Century, which has changed the wave is able to propagate over very large dis-
overall meaning of the term mass communi- tances and therefore carry the audio signal
cation. much further without the need for repeated
amplification.
u The parallel changes in technology have made
the radio more powerful in terms of the im-
pact they have upon masses. u The un-modulated carrier wave conveys very
little information itself. It is simply on or off.
u Radio reaches almost everyone everywhere.
Radio bands
u Radio involves the process, by which the mes-
sages are sent through electrical waves.
u Electromagnetic waves shown in Figure 7.7
u In other words, sound would be sent and with frequencies in the range 30 kHz to 300
received through the waves Radio waves GHz are used for radio, TV, and satellite
are produced by the accelerated motion of communication.
charges in conducting wires.
u They are used in radio and television com- u For convenience, the range is divided up into
munication systems. the following bands.

u They are generally in the frequency range

from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
u The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from
530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
u Higher frequencies upto 54 MHz are used for
short wave bands.
u TV waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.

u The FM (frequency modulated) radio band

extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Figure 7.7: Frequency bands and electromag-
netic waves
u Cellular phones use radio waves to trans-
mit voice communication in the ultrahigh fre-
quency (UHF) band. u Radio waves can travel from location to loca-
tion in a number of ways, dependent on their
u A radio transmitter converts electrical energy frequency.
into electromagnetic radiation.
u At frequencies below 3 MHz, radio waves fol-
u The transmission medium for electromag-
netic wave propagation is free space. low the contour of the earths surface (shown
in Figure 7.8) and are referred to as surface
u Signals within the audio frequency band do waves or ground waves.
not travel very far if converted directly to
electromagnetic waves. u With sufficient transmitter power, they can
travel for thousands of kilometers.
u Instead, the audio signal is used to vary
(modulate) some characteristics, such as am-
plitude or frequency, of a high frequency ra- u This method of propagation occurs mainly in
dio wave, known as a carrier wave. AM radio broadcasting and amateur radio.

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and Gunn diodes). Due to their short wave-

lengths, they are suitable for the radar sys-
tems used in aircraft navigation. Radar also
provides the basis for the speed guns used to
time fast balls, tennis serves, and automo-
biles.

7.5. Applications in Power Generation

u Energy plays a very important role in our

lives, providing comfort, increasing produc-
Figure 7.8: Surface / ground waves tivity and allowing us to live the way we want
to.
v Sky waves: At frequencies in the range 3 u Since the beginning of mankind, we have
to 30 MHz, radio waves travel upwards, to- made use of wood, water, and fossil fuels as a
wards space, and are reflected back towards means of heating and making machines work.
the earth by the ionosphere. In doing so, they
create dead or skip zones at the Earths sur- u Almost for all types of activities, we rely on
face, where the signal cannot be picked up. one or another form of energy.
l Space waves: Waves with frequencies above u Amount of energy used by a society is an in-
30 MHz travel in straight lines and are used dicator of its economic growth and develop-
in: ment.
l Terrestrial ”line of sight” communication u Without energy even our body would be un-
links i.e. where the receiving aerial can be able to perform basic functions like respi-
”seen” from the transmitting aerial; ratory, circulatory, or digestive functions to
name a few.
l FM radio broadcasts use frequencies between
87 and 110 MHz; u Nowadays, the electrical energy has become
so important that almost in all walks of life
l Television broadcasts use the UHF band - fre- electricity is required.
quencies between 470 and 850 MHz;
u For example all electrical appliances in our
l Mobile phone networks use frequencies in the homes and at our workplace require electric-
range 450 to 2100 MHz; ity.
l Line of sight microwave systems use frequen- u All the industries and factories run on elec-
cies in the range 2 to 80 GHz to carry long tricity. There is a variety of sources that
distance telephone traffic, television channels provide us energy for different purposes.
and data up to a distance of about 50 km. A
network of repeater stations is used to give Fossil Fuels Conventional Source of Energy
nationwide coverage;
l Satellite communication systems, using fre- u A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural
quencies in the range 1 to 300 GHz, for global processes, such as anaerobic decomposition
positioning systems (GPS), voice and video of buried dead organisms, containing energy
transmission, satellite TV, radio astronomy originating in ancient photosynthesis.
and space research.
u Fossil fuels contain high percentages of car-
l Microwaves: Microwaves (short-wavelength bon and include petroleum, coal, and natural
gas.
radio waves), with frequencies in the giga-
hertz (GHz) range, are produced by special u Coal, crude oil and natural gas are common
vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons examples of fossil fuels.

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u They are used to run the vehicles, cooking, u The reaction continues rapidly and is known
lighting, washing, to generate electricity, for as the chain reaction.
making plastics and paints etc.
u In this process a large amount of energy is
Table 7.1: Advantages and disadvantages of released.
fossil fuels
u This energy is used for boiling water till it
becomes steam. Steam so generated is used
to drive a turbine which helps in generating
electrical energy.
Table 7.2: Advantages and disadvantages of
nuclear energy

Energy from the Atom Nuclear Energy

Table 7.3: Advantages and disadvantages of
u Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions solar energy
that release nuclear energy to generate heat,
which most frequently is then used in steam
turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear
power plant.
u Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear
fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion.
Sun - The Ultimate Source of Energy
u The atoms of a few elements such as radium
and uranium act as natural source of energy.
u Solar energy is energy derived from sun in the
u In fact atoms of these elements spontaneously form of solar radiation.
undergo changes in which the nucleus of the
atom disintegrates. u It is hardness by either direct sources (like so-
lar cooker, solar steam systems, solar dryer,
u The energy stored in the nuclei of atoms can solar cells, etc.), or indirect sources (biomass
be released by breaking a heavy nucleus such production, wind, tidal, etc.). The output of
as uranium into two lighter nuclei. the sun is 2.8 × 1023 Kwy −1 .
u The splitting of the nucleus of an atom into u The energy reaching the earth is 1.5 ×
fragments that are roughly equal in mass
with the release of energy is called nuclear 108 Kwy −1 . It is used for drying, cooking,
fission. heating, generating power etc.
Wind Energy
u When a free neutron strikes a Uranium (235)
nucleus at a correct speed, it gets absorbed.
u A Uranium (235) nucleus on absorbing a
neutron becomes highly unstable and splits Self Diagnostic Test
into nuclei of smaller atoms releasing huge * Where does wind come from?
amount of energy in the process.
u During this process, a few neutrons are also u Wind power is another alternative energy
released. These neutrons split other nuclei of source that could be used without producing
the Uranium (235). by-products that are harmful to nature.

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u Wind is caused by the uneven heating of u As the wind blows across the surface of the
the atmosphere by the Sun, the irregulari- ocean, it creates waves and thus they can also
ties of the Earth’s surface, and rotation of be referred to as energy moving across the
the Earth. surface of the water

u Like solar power, harnessing the wind is l Tides are defined as the rise and fall of sea
level caused by the gravitational pull of the
highly dependent on weather and location. moon and the sun on the Earth. They are
not only limited to the oceans, but can also
u However, it is one of the oldest and cleanest occur in other systems whenever a gravita-
forms of energy and the most developed of tional field exists.
the renewable energy sources.
l Ocean thermal energy (OTE) is the tem-
Table 7.4: Advantages and disadvantages of
wing energy perature differences (thermal gradients) be-
tween ocean surface waters and that of ocean
depths. Energy from the sun heats the sur-
face water of the ocean. In tropical regions,
surface water can be much warmer than deep
water. This temperature difference can be
used to produce electricity and to desalinate
ocean water
Table 7.5: Advantages and disadvantages of
geothermal energy
Geothermal Energy

u Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth

and the energy derived by tapping the heat
of the earth itself like volcano, geysers, hot
springs (etc.).

u These volcanic features are called geothermal Table 7.6: Advantages and disadvantages of
hotspots. ocean energy
u Basically a hotspot is an area of reduced
thickness in the mantle which expects excess
internal heat from the interior of the earth to
the outer crust.
u The heat from these geothermal hotspots is
altered in the form of steam which is used to Hydropower
run a steam turbine that can generate elec-
tricity.
u Hydropower (from the Greek word hydor,
Ocean Tidal and Wave energy meaning water) is energy that comes from the
force of moving water. The fall and move-
ment of water is part of a continuous natural
u Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hy- cycle called the water cycle.
dropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly u As people discovered centuries ago, the flow
electricity. of water represents a huge supply of kinetic
energy that can be put to work.
l Wave energy also known as ocean energy
is defined as energy harnessed from oceanic u Water wheels are useful for generating mo-
waves. tion energy to grind grain or saw wood, but

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they are not practical for generating electric- u As water flows from a high potential en-
ity. ergy (high ground) to lower potential energy
(lower ground), the potential energy differ-
u Water wheels are too bulky and slow. ence thereby created can be partially con-
verted into kinetic, and in this case electric,
u Hydroelectric power plants use modern energy through the use of a generator.
turbine generators to produce electricity, just
as thermal (coal, natural gas, nuclear) power
plants do, except they do not produce heat
to spin the turbines.
How a Hydropower Plant Works

v A typical hydropower plant is a system with

three parts:
Chapter Review Questions and Problems
l a power plant where the electricity is pro-
duced; 1. What is Soil Texture?
2. What factors affect soil permeability?
l a dam that can be opened or closed to control 3. Explain the difference between AC and DC
water flow; and motors?
l a reservoir (artificial lake) where water can 4. On what principle electric motor works?
be stored. 5. How many types of electric motors are there?
6. Which of the following is most responsible for
u To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates nuclear medicine imaging?
to allow water from the reservoir above to A. Proton
flow down through large tubes called pen- B. Neutrino
stocks. C Neutron
D X-ray
u At the bottom of the penstocks, the fast- 7. Radiation safety and protection, including:
moving water spins the blades of turbines. A. Radiation safety and emergency measures in
radiotherapy
u The turbines are connected to generators to B. Compliance with local legislative and licensing
produce electricity (Shown in Figure Below). requirements, code of practice and local rules
C. Room shielding design and calculation for
u The electricity is then transported via huge radiotherapy equipment and facilities
transmission lines to a local utility company. D. Optimization
8. What is radioactivity and why is it
dangerous?
9. What are the sustainable energy sources?
10. What are the major electrical systems in
hydropower plant?

Figure 9: Hydroelectric Dam

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Chapter Summary:
v Physics generates fundamental knowledge REFERENCES
needed for the future scientific and technological l Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C., 2018, College Physics,
advances that will continue to drive the 11th ed., Cengage Learning, Boston, USA
economic engines of the world. And also it
contributes to the technological infrastructure l University Physics with Modern Physics by Young,
and provides trained personnel needed to take freedman and Lewis Ford
advantage of scientific advances and discoveries. l Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern
v Agro physical knowledge can be helpful in Physics by Douglas C. Giancoli
evaluating and improving the quality of soils and l Fundamentals of physics by David Halliday, Robert
agricultural products as well as the technological Resnick and Gearl Walker
processes. One of the important applications of l College Physics by Hugh D. Young Sears
electromagnetism is the electric motor. Zemansky, 9th edition
v A motor is a machine that converts electrical l Herman Cember and Thomas A. Johnson,
energy into mechanical energy. A generator does Introduction to Health Physics, 4th ed., (2008).
exactly the opposite: it converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. l William R. Hendee and E. Russell Ritenour,
v Electric motors generate magnetic fields with Medical Imaging Physics, 4th ed., (2002).
electric current through a coil. l Tayal D.C. Basic Electronics. 2nd ed. Himalaya
v The contribution of physics to medicine and Publishing House Mumbai, (1998).
health science can be described at various levels. l Theraja B.L., R.S. Sedha. Principles of Electronic
v The impacts of basic discoveries of physic on Devices and Circuits, [Link] and Company Ltd,
medicine, which is, among other descriptors, an New Delhi, (2004).
applied science; the discovery of x-ray diffraction l Introduction to Space Physics, M. G. Kivelson and
is example for this. C. T. Russell, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
v Medical practice utilizes a broad range of l Stacey, Frank D.: Physics of the earth. 2nd
devices that contain microelectronics. Ed.,Wiley, 1977.
v In fact, diagnostic imaging modalities, such as [Link]
x-ray, Computer tomography scanner, magnetic
resonance imaging, and ultrasound have been l [Link]
revolutionized medical practices.
v Radiation is classified as ionizing or
non-ionizing. Our life has evolved in an
environment which has significant levels of
ionizing radiation. It comes from outer space
(cosmic), the ground (terrestrial), and even from
within our own bodies.
v It is present in the air we breathe, the food we
eat, the water we drink, and in the construction
materials used to build our homes.
v Ionizing radiation has enough energy to
electrically charge or ionize matter. Radiocarbon
dating is used to estimate the age of a wide
variety of carbon-containing materials.
v Energy plays a very important role in our lives,
providing comfort, increasing productivity and
allowing us to live the way we want to.
v All the industries and factories run on
electricity.
v There is a variety of sources that provide us
energy for different purposes.
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