Structural Organization in Animals

A. Animal Tissues:
In multicellular organisms their basic functions are carried
out by different groups of cells in an organized manner.
A group of similar cells along with intercellular substances
which perform a similar function is called Tissue. Tissues
are organized in specific pattern to form organs and latter
organ systems. They are formed from primary germ layers
Ectoderm, Endoderm or mesoderm.
The term tissue was coined by Francis Xavier Bichat. The
branch of science that deals with the study of tissues is
called Histology. Marcello Malpighi is regarded as the
founder of Histology.

Tissues vary according to their function. In animals based

on their function there are four basic types of tissues, they
are-
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue
4. Neural tissue
Epithelial tissue:
They are specialized group of cells which covers or lines the
body parts (Epithelium). They are formed of compactly
packed cells with little intercellular matrix. They formed from
all the three germ layers (Ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm).
In epithelial tissue cells are resting on a noncellular membrane
called basement membrane. Basement membrane is formed of
mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins. It helps in absorption
of nutrients from adjacent tissues. All cell in epithelium are
held together with little intercellular material. All animal
tissues have specialized cell junctions. There are three types
of cell junctions, they are –
a. Tight junctions-helps to stop substances from leaking
across a tissue
b. Adhering Junctions-They help in cementing and keeps
neighboring cells together.
c. Gap Junctions-They help cells to communicate with each
other for transfer of ions and small molecules.

Blood vessels are absent in epithelial tissues, nutrients are

absorbed through basement membrane.
Based on the number of layers of cells above the basement
membrane there are two types of epithelial tissues-

1. Simple Epithelium and

2. Compound epithelium.

1. Simple Epithelium:
Only single layer of cells seen above the basement membrane,
functions as lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes. Based
on the shape of cells above the basement membrane there are
different types of simple epithelial tissues, they are –
a. Squamous epithelium
b. Cuboidal epithelium
c. Columnar epithelium
d. Ciliated epithelium
e. Pseudostratified epithelium
 a. Simple Squamous epithelium-
They are also called Pavement epithelium. It is made up of
single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular edges. Cells
are provided with a prominent centrally placed nucleus.

They are seen in regions where exchange of substances occurs

(diffusion boundary). squamous epithelium is seen in the
walls of blood vessels (endothelium) , air sacs of lungs etc.

b. Simple Cuboidal epithelium-

They are formed of single layer of cube shaped cells. Nucleus
is prominent and centrally placed. They are commonly found
in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephron; the main
function of cuboidal epithelium is secretion and absorption.

Brush bordered cuboidal epithelium Some cuboidal epithelial

cells have brush bordered free surface (folded surface), these
surface increases absorptive area. They are seen in the inner
lining of proximal convoluted tubule of nephron.
Brush bordered columnar epithelium Certain columnar cells
have brush bordered free surface to increase the surface area.
They are seen in the inner lining of intestine to increase
surface area (villi).

c. Simple Columnar epithelium-

They are formed of single layer of tall and slender cells. They
have prominent nucleus located towards the base. They are
found in the lining of stomach and intestine. The free surface
of columnar epithelium may have microvilli to increase
absorptive area. The main function is secretion and
absorption.

d. Simple Ciliated epithelium-

They are formed of cuboidal or columnar cells but their free
surface possesses small hair like cilia. Their main function is
to help in movement of mucus and particles in a specific
direction. They are mainly present in the inner surface of
hollow organs like fallopian tube and bronchioles.
 e. Pseudostratified Epithelium-
They are formed of single layer of cells. The
term pseudostratified is derived from the appearance of this
epithelium in section they appear to be multi layered. The
nuclei of these cells, however, are placed at different levels,
thus they appear multi-layered. They are seen in the lining of
trachea and bronchi.
 2. Compound epithelium-
They have more than one layer of cells above the basement
membrane. Their main function is to provide protection
against chemical and mechanical stresses.

There are different types of compound epithelium bases on

the nature of cells above the basement membrane.
i. Stratified keratinized squamous epithelium-
They are formed of multiple layers of squamous cells
with their outer free surface has a layer of keratin.
They provide protection, seen on the dry surface of
skin, hair, nails etc.

ii. Stratified nonkeratinized epithelium-

They are compound epithelium without outer keratin
coating. Seen on the moist lining of buccal cavity and
pharynx.
 iii. Transitional epithelium-
Transitional epithelium is a type of
stratified epithelium. This tissue consists of
multiple layers of epithelial cells which can
contract and expand in order to adapt to the
degree of distension needed (change
shape). Transitional epithelium lines the organs
of the urinary system and is known here as
urothelium (ureter and urinary bladder).

Epithelial tissues are modified to perform special functions,

there are different types of epithelial tissue modifications.

Modifications of epithelial tissues-

There are three main type of epithelial tissue modifications
they are
1. Germinal epithelium- Special epithelium seen in
reproductive organs. They are specialized for the
production of gametes.
2. Sensory epithelium-They are epithelial cells seen in
sense organs. they are specialized to perform sensory
function. Sensory cells in tongue and nasal epithelium
3. Glandular epithelium-
 They are epithelial tissue modified as Glands. They
produce and release secretions.
Based on the number of Cells which form glands there
are two types of glands, they are –

a. Unicellular glands- Glands formed of single cell.

Goblet cells or mucus glands
b. Multicellular glands- Glands formed of many cells.
Eg. Salivary glands, Liver, etc.
Based on the presence or absence of duct there are three types
of glands-
i. Exocrine gland- they are glands with ducts, contents
are released through a duct. Eg. Salivary gland, Tear
gland, sweat gland, etc.
ii. Endocrine gland- They are glands with out duct, also
called ductless glands. Their secretions are called
hormones. Secretions are released directly to the blood
and blood carries hormones to the target regions.
Based on how the contents are released from a gland there are
three type of glands, they are –
a. Merocrine Gland: Merocrine glands are those glands in
which cells secrete their substances by exocytosis from
secretory cells. The gland can be reused They are also
known as eccrine. Examples include some
sweat glands and the salivary glands
b. Apocrine Gland: The apical portion of the secretory cell
of the gland pinches off or raptures and contents are
released. Example mammary gland cell.
c. Holocrine Gland: These glands secretions contents by
the rupture of the plasma membrane, which destroys the
 cell and results in the secretion of the product. Examples
sebaceous gland.

Based on the shape of the gland there are different type of

glands:-

1. Tubular glands have cells of a consistent shape that

form a uniform tubular lumen
2. Alveolar glands have cells of a similarly uniform size
within a large, sac-like lumen.
3. Acinar glands have secretory cells arranged as expanded
ovoids or spheres

Functions of Epithelial tissues: Some of the main function of

epithelial tissues are-
a. Diffusion
b. Secretion
c. Sensory
d. Reproduction (production of gametes)
 e. Protection
f. Movement
g. Absorption

Connective Tissue-
It is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the
body of complex animals. They are formed from mesodermal
layer. Connective tissue connects different tissues or organs in
the body. Connective tissue is formed of three major
components, they are Matrix, fibers and cells.
Matrix is the ground substance along with fibers which
contains cells.
There are three type of fibers seen in a connective tissue, they
are Collagen Fiber-White in color, thick and flexible. It
contains protein collagen. Elastin Fiber- Yellow in color,
Flexible and elastic, they are thin fibers and contain a protein
elastin. Reticulin fiber- reticulin is a type of fibre in
connective tissue composed reticulin protein

Cells in connective tissue are

A.Mast cells: They produce Histamine (Histamine is
involved in the inflammatory response), serotonin
(serotonin, an important neurotransmitter and trophic
 factor, is synthesized by both mast cells and neurons) and
heparin (an anticoagulant (blood thinner) that prevents
the formation of blood clots.)
B. Fibroblast cells: They are specialized to produce fibers
and matrix
C. Plasma cells: they are specialized for the production and
storage of antibodies
D.Adipose cells: Special cells that helps in the storage of
fat.
E. Macrophages: they are phagocytotic cells in the
connective tissue.

Based on the nature of matrix there are three different types of

connective tissue: -
1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Special connective tissue

Loose connective tissue:

They have cells and fibers loosely arranged in the matrix.
There are two types of loose connective tissue. They are-

Areolar tissue- They function as support framework for

epithelium. They help in connecting skin to muscles.it can be
considered as a typical connective tissue
Adipose tissue-These type of loose connective tissue is seen
beneath the skin. They are specialized for the storage of fats.

Dense connective tissue: Fibers and fibroblasts are

compactly packed in this tissue. Based on the orientation of
fibers there are two types of Dense connective tissue they are-
Dense regular and dense irregular tissue.
Dense regular connective tissue- There is regular pattern of
arrangement of fibers where collagen fibers parallelly
arranged. There are two types of dense regular tissue they are,
Ligaments- Have regular pattern of arrangement of elastin
fibers they mainly connect bones to bones. And Tendons-
They have regular pattern of arrangement of collagen fibers
they mainly connect muscles to bones.

Dense irregular connective tissue- they have fibroblasts and

many fibers mostly collagen oriented differently. They are
seen in skin , periosteum, perichondrium, tunica albuginea
etc..

Special connective tissue-

They are connective tissues are made up of a series of similar
cells put together to perform a specific function. The different
special connective tissues are Fluid connective tissue, bones
and cartilage.
Fluid connective tissue: blood and lymph are fluid connective
tissue.it helps in transport of various substances within the
body. Blood is formed of plasma and formed elements.
Lymph is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a
system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and
intervening lymph nodes whose function is to return fluid
from the tissues to the central circulation.

Bones: they are hard and non-pliable and is rich in calcium

and is rich in calcium salts(calcium phosphate) and collagen
fibres. They contain a protein called ossein. It is the main
tissue that provide structural frame work to the body. Bones
support and protect softer tissues and organs. Bone cells are
called osteocytes, they are seen in the spaces called lacunae.
Bones associate with skeletal muscles and helps in movement.
Bones have an outer covering called periosteum. Bone
canaliculi are tiny canals contains cytoplasmic process of
bone cell it helps in nutrition.
Osteoblast-are cells with a single nucleus that synthesize bone
A group of organized osteoblasts together with the bone made
by a unit of cells is usually called the osteon.
Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products
of mesenchymal stem cells. Osteoclasts break down bone
tissue.
Special longitudinal channels present in bones through which
blood vessel passes are called Haversian canal. Haversian
canals are interconnected by transverse connective called
Volkmann’s canal.
Osteons are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral
matrix and living osteocytes connected by canaliculi, which
transport blood. They are aligned parallel to the long axis of
the bone. Each osteon consists of lamellae, which are layers of
compact matrix that surround a central canal called the
Haversian canal. They are also called haversian system.
Cartilage: They are solid and pliable and can resist
compression. Cartilage cells are called Chondrocytes. They
contain a protein called Chondrin. Blood vessels are normally
absent in cartilage.

There are different types of cartilage they are –

a. Hyaline cartilage-Hyaline cartilage is the glass-like
(hyaline) but translucent cartilage found on many joint
surfaces. It is also most commonly found in the ribs,
nose, larynx, and trachea.
b. Elastic cartilage- sometimes referred to as yellow
fibrocartilage, is a type of cartilage that provides both
strength and elasticity to certain parts of the body, such
as the ears. Within the outer ear, it provides the skeletal
basis of the pinna, as well as the lateral region of the
external auditory meatus.
c. Fibrous cartilage- Fibrocartilage is the tough, very
strong tissue found predominantly in the intervertebral
disks and at the insertions of ligaments and tendons; it is
similar to other fibrous tissues but
contains cartilage ground substance and chondrocytes.
 Difference between Bone and Cartilage
Bones and cartilage differ by structure, types, and function.
The main difference between bone and cartilage are listed
below.

Bones Cartilage
Bones are the hard, inelastic and Cartilage is a soft, elastic and
a tough organ that forms part of flexible connective tissue that
the vertebral skeleton. protects the bone from rubbing
against each other.
Bones are of two types: compact Cartilage is of three types:
or spongy. Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage,
and elastic cartilage.
Bone cells are known as Cartilage cells are known as
osteocytes. chondrocytes.
Presence of blood vessels. Absence of blood vessels.
The matrix is both organic and The matrix is completely organic.
inorganic.
Has deposits of calcium salts. May or may not have deposition
of calcium salts.
The bones have a rich blood Lacks blood supply except in few
supply. cartilages.
The growth pattern of the bone is The growth pattern of the
bidirectional. cartilage is unidirectional.
 Presence of calcium phosphate in Has no calcium phosphate in the
the matrix. matrix.
Haversian canal system is Haversian canal system is absent.
present.
Volkmann canal is present. Volkmann canal is absent.
Protect the body from Supports the respiratory tract, acts
mechanical damage, provide a as shock absorbers between
framework and shape for the weight-bearing bones, maintains
body, helps in the movement of the shape and flexibility of fleshy
the body, store minerals, and appendages and reduces friction at
produce both RBC – red blood joints.
cells and WBC – white blood
cells.

Muscular tissue-
They are mesodermal in origin. Basic unit of muscle tissue is
called muscle cell or muscle fibre. Each muscle is made up of
many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel manner.
Muscle fibres can contract in response to stimulus. Muscles
help in all type of movements. There are three types of
muscles, they are –
a. Skeletal muscle
b. Visceral muscle
c. Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle: it is one of three major muscle types,. It is a
form of striated muscle tissue, which is under the voluntary
control of the somatic nervous system. They are
multinucleated
Visceral muscle: or smooth muscle, is tissue associated with
the internal organs of the body. They are spindle shaped and
unnucleated. They are involuntary muscles.
Cardiac muscles: also called heart muscle or myocardium. It
is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main
tissue of the walls of the heart. They are branched and can
conduct feeble electric current. They have special structures
called intercalated disc for faster conduction and transmission
of impulses.

Nervous tissue-
This type of tissue exerts greatest control over the body’s
responsiveness to changing conditions. They are ectodermal
in origin. The basic unit of nervous tissue is called Nerve cell
or neuron. Neurons can conduct and transmit nerve impulses.
Special cells that support and protect neurons are called
neuroglial cells.
Based on the shape of neuron there are three types of neuron,
they are
a. Unipolar neuron- A unipolar neuron is a neuron in
which only one process, called a neurite, extends from
the cell body. Seen in embryos.
b. Bipolar neuron- extend just one axon and dendritic
process from the cell body. Examples of bipolar neurons
include most invertebrate sensory neurons and bipolar
cells of the vertebrate retina.
c. Multipolar neuron- Multipolar neurons extend multiple
processes extend from the cell body, including dendrites
and axon

Based on function there are different types of neurons, they

are
• Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and
organs into the central nervous system and are also
called sensory neurons.
• Efferent neurons (motor neurons) transmit signals from the
central nervous system to the effector cells.
• Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the
central nervous system.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------