Commitment and the Organization: The Organization Man Revisited

Author(s): Donna M. Randall

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp. 460-471
Published by: Academy of Management
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? Academy of Management Review, 1987, Vol. 12, No. 3, 460-471.

Commitment and the Organization:

The Organization Man Revisited

DONNA M. RANDALL
Washington State University

The potential positive and negative consequences of varying levels

of commitment both for employees and for the organization are dis-
cussed. It is argued that high levels of commitment to the orga-
nization may have severe negative consequences for individuals
within the organization and for organizations themselves.

I would urge each individual to avoid total in- This sentiment persisted for years. One fea-
volvement in any organization: to seek to what- ture of interest to American managers today is
ever extent lies within his power to limit each the apparent ability of the Japanese to maintain
group to the minimum control necessary for per-
forrnance of essential functions; to struggle against a highly committed workforce (Lincoln & Kalle-
the effort to absorb; to lend his energies to many berg, 1985). It is commonly assumed that Japan-
organizations and give himself completely to none; ese workers are more committed to organizations
to teach children, in the home and in the school, than are American workers and that this level of
'to be laws to themselves,' as Walt Whitman urged commitment explains the greater productivity of
us many years ago-for that is the well source of
the independent spirit (Kerr, cited in Whyte, 1956, the Japanese workforce (Luthans, McCaul, &
p. 51). Dodd, 1985). Manifestations of the assumption of
the more, the better can be found in commit-
Thirty years ago Whyte (1956) published a ma- ment literature (e.g., Bateman & Strasser, 1984;
jor treatise on 'the dangers of overcommitment Logan, 1984; Ouchi & Wilkins, 1985) in which the
entitled The Organization Man. Whyte described positive impact that commitment has on the or-
the organization man as a person who not only ganization is described.
worked for the organization, but also belonged Only occasional references to the possible dan-
to it. Organization men believed in the group as gers of high levels of commitment have surfaced
the source of creativity and in belongingniess as (see Mowday, Porter, and Steers, 1982, for an
the ultimate need of the individual. overview). With the exception of studies about
Since Whyte, the topic of commitment has been decision making (Janis, 1972; Salancik, 1977;
explored extensively. For the most part, these Staw, 1976; Staw & Fox, 1977; Whyte, 1986), re-
explorations have been based on the assump- search about the dangers of high levels of com-
tion that high levels of commitment are good. mitment remains sparse, sporadic, and scattered
Two years after The Organization Man was throughout various disciplines. Findings from di-
published, Paul R. Lawrence (1958, p. 208) verse literatures indicate that high commitment
claimed.: "Ideally, we would want one sentiment may be linked to a lack of creativity and resis-
to be dominant in all employees from top to tance to change (March & Simon, 1958; Merton,
bottom, namely a complete loyalty to the organi- 1938; Thompson, 1965), excessive stress and ten-
zational purpose." sion in nonwork relationships (Mowday et al.,
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1982), overzealous conformity (Hoffer, 1963), inef- overlooked area in commitment research, are
fective use of human resources (Rowan, 1981), discussed in depth.
and a willingness to engage in corporate crime
for the benefit of the firm (Clinard & Yeager, Low Levels of Commitment
1980; Geis, 1967).
Because the relationship between commitment Positive Consequences for the Individual
and negative work-related outcomes is not fully
Undercommitment can have indirect, positive
understood, more attention should be paid to
consequences for both individuals and the or-
the potential negative aspects of high levels of
ganization. Low levels of commitment can be a
commitment for both organizational members
source of individual creativity and innovation
and the organization itself.
(Merton, 1938). By engendering an environment
Organizational Commitment of conflict and uncertainty, a minimally commit-
ted workforce can promote originality and inno-
Commitment to an organization reflects the rel- vation (Steiner, 1965; Thompson, 1965). Also,
ative strength of an individual's identification with minimally committed individuals may seek alter-
and involvement in that organization (Steers, native employment (Angle & Perry, 1981); this
1977). Organizational commitment can be por- may be a more effective use of human resources,
trayed as having three major components: (a) a and it may improve the mental health of those
person's strong belief in and an acceptance of who leave the firm (Mowday et al., 1982).
the organization's goals, (b) a person's willing-
ness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the Positive Consequences for the Organization
organization, and (c) a person's definite desire to On an organizational level, the higher turn-
maintain membership (Porter, Steers, Mowday, over and absenteeism typical of individuals with
& Boulian, 1974). The stronger the commitment, minimal commitment may be functional if those
the stronger is the person's predisposition to be employees are either disruptive or poor per-
guided in actions by internalized standards formers. The potential damage done by these
(Kelman, 1961). employees may be limited; attitudes of others in
Roughly in the middle of the commitment con- the organization may improve if the undercom-
tinuum is a moderate level where individuals mitted employees are absent; and replacements
experience strong, but not total identification and may bring in employees with new skills (Mow-
involvement with the organization. Allport (1933) day et al., .1982).
referred to such limited involvement of people in Low levels of commitment to the firm also may
social groups as partial inclusion, implying that result in whistle-blowing which can have long-
people can be involved in the functioning of a term positive consequences for the firm (Dozier
system on a segmented or partial basis. At this & Miceli, 1985; Ewing, 1983): The organization
level, no single organization commands their full may benefit from an informd[l internal audit sys-
involvement. The organization can only tap seg- tem, thereby avoiding public outcry, expensive
ments of behavior or psychological slices (Katz & lawsuits, and regulatory reform (Dozier & Miceli,
Kahn, 1966) of the individual. 1985; Ewing, 1983; Near & Miceli, in press).
Potential positive and negative consequences
of each level of organizational commitment for Negative Consequences for the Individual
individuals and for the employing organization Low levels of commitment can affect individ-
are portrayed in Table 1 and discussed in the uals' careers negatively. Kanter (1977) main-
following sections. The negative consequences tained that managers choose others wvhocan be
of high levels of commitment, representing an trusted and exclude those who are incapable of

461

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single-minded attachment. Thus, without a con- involvement in crime against the organization,
vincing demonstration of commitment, promo- such as embezzlement (Meier, 1975), and limited
tion to the top may be unlikely (Hacker, 1978). extra-role behavior to protect or advance organi-
Whistle-blowers in particular may suffer se- zational interests (Mowday et al., 1982).
vere negative consequences to their careers by If the low level of commitment results in whistle-
making known illegal or harmful conditions to a blowing, the organization may suffer damage to
governmental agency, a news reporter, or me- its reputation, loss in clientele trust, forced resti-
dia personnel (DeGeorge, 1982). While the moti- tution, and a loss in revenue (Near & Jensen,
vation behind such actions is under dispute 1983; Walters, 1975). Through whistle-blowing,
(Dozier & Miceli, 1985; Farrell, in press; Graham, the organization's authority structure may be
1986;Miceli & Near, 1985), top management com- threatened and the legitimacy of top manage-
monly views whistle-blowing as an indication of ment's operations may be questioned (Weinstein,
limited organizational loyalty (Elliston, 1982; 1979).
Hacker, 1978). Whistle-blowers often are cast in Low levels of commitment among profession-
the roles of Judas Iscariot (Walters, 1975) or als also can create problems for the organization.
muckrakers from within (Peters & Branch, 1972). Due to their outside referent groups, individuals
They commonly experience heavy personal costs with a cosmopolitan orientation may be more
including loss of income, loss of job security, difficult to control than those with a local orienta-
isolation, defamation of character, exclusion from tion (Gouldner, 1957; Gouldner, 1958). Further,
staff meetings, lost perquisites, less desirable commitment and identification to a profession
work assignments, heavier workload, harass- may be inconsistent with the requirements for
ment, and more stringent criticism of work (Er- success and advancement in an organization
mann & Lundman, 1982; Miceli & Near, 1984; (Raelin, 1984). (However, Bowen, 1982, pointed
Parmerlee, Near, & Jensen, 1982). out that at times a strong professional orienta-
Realizing the implications of their actions, tion by individuals can benefit the firm if the
whistle-blowers rarely have lofty career ambi- externally rated activities concurrently serve or-
tions; they do not aspire to rise much higher than ganizational goals.)
their current level (Hacker, 1978). Exit from the Finally, if managers have low levels of com-
firm may be an option if individuals' values are mitment, the attitudes and performance of the
in strong disagreement with organizational pol- whole organization may be damaged (Mowday
icy (Hirschman, 1970). More typically, rebellious et al., 1982).
employees are either expelled from the organiza-
tion or they turn their energies toward defeating Moderate Levels of Commitment
organizational goals (Schein, 1968).
Positive Consequences for the Individual
Negative Consequences for the Organization
As the employees' commitment to the firm is
Low levels of commitment in the general work strengthened, individuals experience greater
force have been linked with high turnover (Koch feelings of loyalty and duty to the organization
& Steers, 1978; Porter, Crampon, & Smith, 1976; (Wiener & Vardi, 1980). More commitment also
Steers, 1977; Wiener & Vardi, 1980), high absen- enhances employees' feelings of belonging,
teeism (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979; Smith, security, and efficacy (Mowday et al., 1982).
1977; Steers, 1977), greater tardiness (Angle & However, a moderate level of commitment
Perry, 1981), a lack of intention to stay with the does not mean unbounded loyalty to the firm; at
firm (Angle & Perry, 1981; Mowday et al., 1979; this level, individuals avoid being swallowed by
Steers, 1977; Wiener, 1982), low quantity of work the system and are able to fight for their identi-
(Steers, 1977), disloyalty to the firm (Schein, 1968), ties as persons (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Thus, a

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moderate level of commitment reflects an ability Moderate levels of commitment also may cause
to accept some values of the organization, but employees to balance the organization's de-
not all. Individuals maintain integrity and per- mands with those outside the work force. Faced
sonal values while meeting requirements of the with a conflict between responsibility to the pub-
organization. Employees express what Schein lic or loyalty to the firm, moderately committed
(1968) called creative individualism-accepting individuals may, for a variety of motives (Near &
only pivotal values and norms and rejecting Miceli, in press), opt for prosocial behavior in
those that are nonessential or harmful. which they feel they are justified in risking harm
to the organization in order to avoid harming
Positive Consequences for the Organization others.
The consequences of increased commitment
can be noteworthy. The organization benefits di- High Levels of Commitment
rectly from the feelings of loyalty and duty ex-
Positive Consequences for the Individual
pressed by its employees. Positive consequences
for employees and therefore for the organization In certain situations, high levels of commitment
could include longer tenure (Mowday et al., can advance individual careers and compensa-
1982), limited intention to quit (Steers, 1977), tion. Loyalty to the organization despite outside
limited subsequent turnover (Stumpf & Hart- pressure is highly desirable (Ermann & Lund-
man, 1984), and greater job satisfaction (Hall & man, 1982) and is rewarded: "Be loyal to the
Schneider, 1972; Porter et al., 1974). company and the company will be loyal to you"
(Whyte, 1956, p. 143).The organization commonly
Negative Consequences for the Individual rewards employees for their obedience with
A moderate level of commitment to the organi- grants of power (Biggart & Hamilton, 1984). High
zation is not always optimal for individuals. Indi- levels of commitment also provide organizational
viduals who do not give their employers first pri- members with an ardent dedication, "some pas-
ority may find progress to the top slow and sionate pursuit in which they can lose them-
uncertain (Mowday et al., 1982). These individu- selves" (Hoffer, 1963, p. xxi).
als also may find themselves making uneasy
Positive Consequences for the Organization
compromises in their many segmental commit-
ments (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Employees with high levels of commitment can
provide the organization with a secure and sta-
Negative Consequences for the Organization ble work force (Steers, 1977). Some organizations
Employers need to encourage spontaneous co- (e.g., military units) view total and unquestion-
operation (Feldman, 1981). Individuals who are ing commitment as not only desirable but also
not committed fully to the organization may limit essential for accomplishing their goals (Hoffer,
their extra-role work for the organization (Katz, 1963). Due to their excessive devotion, highly
1964;Scholl, 1981). Smith, Organ, and Near (1983) committed employees willingly accept the organ-
maintained that citizenship behaviors such as ization's demands for greater production (Etzioni,
cooperation, helpfulness, suggestions, gestures 1975). Thus, the organization is assured of high
of goodwill, and altruism are important because levels of performance and task completion (Mow-
they provide the organization with the flexibility day, Porter, & Dubin, 1974; Van Maanen, 1975).
needed to cope with unforeseen contingencies Indeed, in a critique of The Organization Man,
and to enable participants to cope with their Cartwright (cited in Argyris, 1964) alleged that
interdependencies. These spontaneous gestures Whyte did not give sufficient consideration to this
are essential for a smoothly functioning organi- highly attractive phenomenon of productive
zation (Angle & Perry, 1981). conformity.

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Negative Consequences for the Individual committed individuals devote to other organiza-
tions may be limited (Larson & Fukami, 1984).
High levels of commitment to an organization Moreover, if high levels of commitment result in
may stymie individual growth and limit opportu- increased productivity, compliant individuals
nities for mobility (Mowday et al., 1982); it also may be perceived as rate-busters by peers
may stifle creativity and innovation (Thompson, (Etzioni, 1975) and may have fewer opportunities
1965;Wright, 1980). Whyte (1956, p. 152)observed to learn patterns of peer solidarity (Whyte, 1956).
that in corporations fostering high levels of com- For the overcommitted, the organization is
mitment, "the basic creative work is done, so the dominant in life. A victim of role overload, these
man you need-for every kind of job-is a prac- corporate employees may be unable to compart-
tical, team-player fellow who will do a good shirt- mentalize their lives and may have little energy
sleeves job." Further, if the individual becomes left for their personal lives (Korman, Wittig-
highly committed to institutional norms, a bu- Berman, & Lang, 1981). There may be no life/
reaupathic resistance to change may result work balance: "Unlike the Catholic Church, the
(March & Simon, 1958; Merton, 1938; Thompson, corporation cannot require celibacy, and be-
1961). Durkheim (1951) also warned of the dan- cause its members are subject to the diversions
gers of individuals being too strongly integrated of family ties, the corporation does fall short of
into the group. He noted that insufficient individ- complete effectiveness. But not so very far short,
uation can lead to altruistic suicide in which and if it officially praises the hearth and family,
group welfare supersedes any personal con- it is because it can afford the mild hypocrisy"
cerns. (Whyte, 1956, p. 162). The highly committed can-
High levels of commitment can lead to stress not shut out the "business stream of conscious-
in family relationships (Margerison & Kakabadse, ness" (Whyte, 1956, p. 162).
1984) since work and family roles are highly
Negative Consequences for the Organization
interdependent (Kanter, 1977). Because achiev-
ing success in a career requires extensive time Even though the organization may benefit from
and commitment to the work role, this frequently the higher levels of productivity and unquestion-
contributes to family conflict or to a denial of ing loyalty on the part of the employees, Rowan
family life (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Korman (1981, pp. 54-55) asserted that "too much loyalty
& Korman, 1980). Schein (1978) determined that of the wrong kind might be injurious to profits.
academics and scientists who were highly in- Young executives who were blindly devoted to
volved in their organization tended to have low their employer might waste their talents and en-
family involvement, although engineers had the ergies in jobs they didn't enjoy, and that would
reverse pattern. Bartolome and Evans (1979) be unprofitable for company and society alike."
found that managers could have both high in- Thus, the firm may attract individuals who are
volvement in the organization and their families, strongly tied to the organization, but not suited
but managers reporting such a pattern put twice to organizational needs.
the time and energy into their professional as Too much commitment also can reduce an
opposed to personal life. Further, while the fam- organization's flexibility. It can result in too much
ily concerns of managers rarely interfered with trust in past policies and procedures and an en-
work, job concerns pervaded their family lives trenchment of traditional practices (Salancik,
and leisure time (Bartolome & Evans, 1979). 1977). Schein (1968) advised organizations to
High levels of commitment also can create ten- avoid hiring conformists if the organization sought
sion in other relations. Employees may lose a to maintain an adaptive structure and innova-
sense of self (personal alienation) and the ability tion.- Individuals who are totally committed to
to relate to others (social alienation) (Korman & the organization may not be able to carry out
Korman, 1980). The time and energy that highly alternative lines of action (Coser, 1974).
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 Excessive devotion by employees to the orga- son to believe or suspect that the motive of the
nization may burden it with true believers (Hoffer, employee or officer involved in such use of cor-
1963). Overzealous behavior on the part of these porate funds was anything other than a desire to
employees can create problems for the employer, act solely in . .. the best interests of Gulf and its
may irritate other employees, or may antago- shareholders" (Ermann & Lundrnan, 1982, P. 119).
nize people outside the organization (Mowday et Similarly, at the time of the Watergate break-in,
al., 1982). Individuals who so willingly suspend "the climate within which the White House aides
judgment are what Schein (1968) ironically called worked was one of total loyalty to the man at the
failures of socialization and what Feldman (1981) top and willingness to do anything to serve him.
labeled ineffectively socialized. Charles Colson, a senior White House staffer,
Finally, one of the most significant and unrec- announced that he would 'walk over his grand-
ognized negative consequences of high levels of mother to reelect Richard Nixon' " (Mullen, 1976,
commitment is that highly committed employees p. 21 1). The Watergate defendants felt that any
may be more willing to commit illegal or unethi- activity which advanced the cause of the Presi-
cal behavior on behalf of the organization. Often, dent was justified (Mullen, 1976).
if there is a conflict, highly committed individu- It is clear that the organization may benefit
als put corporate dictates above their own per- from the proceeds of undetected crime commit-
sonal ethics or societal dictates. Meier (1975, p. ted on its behalf. However, the potential conse-
10) maintained, "if operative goals take on quali- quences of such actions in terms of a tarnished
ties of normative requirements for organizational corporate image; loss of present or future cus-
behavior, and if these norms conflict with those tomers, stockholders, and employees; criminal
of the legal order, then corporate crime may be liability for the acts of corporate employees; and
indigenous to organizational processes." a public outcry for stringent government regulq-
Case studies of illegal behavior illustrate the tion (Clinard & Yeager, 1980; "White-Collar
relationship of high levels of commitment to cor- Crime," 1980) are such that sanctioning corpo-
porate crime. Investigations into the General rate crime clearly is inadvisable.
Electric price-fixing conspiracy (Geis, 1967, 1982),
the cover-up of the side-effects of anticholesterol Discussion and Conclusions
drug HE/14 (Carey, 1978), Lockheed's involve-
ment in foreign and domestic illegal payoffs It appears that low levels of commitment are
(Clinard & Yeager, 1980) and the folding carton largely dysfunctional for both the individual and
price conspiracy lasting from 1960 to 1974 (Clin- the organization; individual career advancement
ard & Yeager, 1980) revealed employees so com- may be severely hampered, while the organiza-
mitted to the firm that illegal behavior to benefit tion may suffer from an unstable, disloyal work
the employer was viewed as acceptable. Any force. The primary redeeming features of low
deviations from standard operating procedures levels of commitment are enhanced creativity of
were not questioned by those employees. employees and a "purging" function that may
Typically, employees who committed illegal rid the organization of misfits and provide dis-
acts willingly put organizational interests above contented employees with an opportunity to find
their own. The executives who participated in more compatible workplaces. In some circum-
the electrical price-fixing conspiracy were de- stances, undercommitted employees engaging
scribed as good organization men who "surren- in whistle-blowing may protect the corporation
dered their own individualities to the corporate from severe external legal and regulatory reper-
gods they served" (Cook, 1966, p. 38). In prose- cussions.
cuting Gulf Oil, the Securities and Exchange The advantages of moderate levels of commit-
Commission stated, "further . .. [there is] no rea- ment generally outweigh the disadvantages. The

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 work force is more stable and satisfied without whole is distinguishable from commitment to spe-
being consumed by the organization. Individu- cific values, policies, or goals (Simon, Smithburg,
als are able to adjust to behavioral settings by & Thompson, 1950). Gouldner (1960) later demon-
varying their degrees of commitment according strated empirically that commitment to specific
to the perceived attractiveness and the require- values was independent of commitment to the
ments of the settings. Under such conditions, the organization as a whole and that commitment to
relationship between individuals' needs and or- one value was independent of commitment to
ganizational needs may be balanced. It is true another. In the early 1980s, Morrow (1983) re,
that these individuals may not advance as quick- viewed and compared major forms of work
ly and as far in the organization as those demon- commitment, exploring their theoretical and em-
strating higher levels of commitment, but many pirical interrelationships. Reichers (1985) recon-
of the negative consequences that occur at higher ceptualized organizational commitment as a col-
levels of commitment can be avoided. lection of multiple commitments to various groups
At high levels of commitment, it appears that both inside and outside the organization.
the costs of commitment outweigh the advan- In future research, the effects of a web of vary-
tages. Individuals may advance more rapidly in ing levels of commitment to different goals and
their careers, and the organization's production groups both within and outside the organization
demands may be met with greater ease. How- should be examined. The multiple commitments
ever, individuals also may suffer an array of of employees within an organization could be
personal, family, social, and work-related prob- measured and linked to specified outcomes. The
lems. In such circumstances, the requirements consequences of comrnitment to competing groups,
of organizational life may no longer be satisfac- values, and goals within the organization as well
tory to its members (Scott & Hart, 1981). Further, as competing work and nonwork ties demand
the firm may lose flexibility and find itself bur- consideration.
dened with overzealous employees, and it may Second, and more immediate, hypothesized
become vulnerable to a variety of unethical and relationships between level of commitment and
illegal behavior. nature of consequences should be specified and
In brief, the commonly assumed linear rela- tested empirically. If a direct link between higher
tionship between commitment and desirable con- levels of commitment and negative consequences
sequences should be questioned. An inverted U- is established, the threshold at which an increas-
shaped curve between these variables with an ing level of organizational commitment ceases
apex at a moderate level of commitment may be to be primarily positive must be identified. This
a more accurate description of the relationship. threshold could vary across a range of outcome
'Individual and organizationaI needs appear to variables.
be in balance with moderate levels of commit- Since the effect of individual, situational, and
ment. outcome variables may be interactive, the hy-
pothesized relationship between levels of com-
Implications for Research
mitment and nature of consequences should be
Four major implications for research emerge tested across a variety of settings and organiza-
from the perspective on commitment proposed tions. It is likely that the threshold at which in-
here. First, the idea of multiple commitments creasing levels of commitment ceases to be posi-
should be introduced into the empirical analysis. five will not be the same for all individuals across
Over the years, the concept of commitment has all types of organizations. Further research may
undergone a natural development from a gen- identify situations in which a specified level of
eral to a more specific orientation (Reichers, commitment will lead to positive outcomes for
1985). Herbert Simon was one of the first to sug- individuals but negative consequences for the
gest that commitment to the organization as a organization and vice versa.
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 Third, the effects that varying levels of commit- either to increase that level or to minimize the
ment for employees have on society should be potential damage. To do so, organizations can
considered since there are minimal empirical rely on extensive research about commitment,
data. It appears that some degree of organiza- particularly the recent Japanese management
tional commitment by employees is necessary literature. However, if managers wish to devel-
for organizations to function effectively within so- op general strategies for reducing levels of com-
ciety. Some would even argue that what is good mitment, current research literature will not be
for the company should coincide with the values much help.
of society (Saul, 1981). Salancik (1977)discussed two techniques which
Finally, the relationship between commitment reduce the level of commitment (giving the indi-
of employees and nature of consequences should viduals justification for their behaviors and elimi-
be examined over time. Past research has re- nating those individuals who resist change). Staw
vealed that the longer employees stay with an (1982) also presented several counterbalancing
organization, generally the higher their level of strategies to prevent commitment escalation ten-
commitment (Angle & Perry, 1981; Morris & dencies, including using outsiders to evaluate
Sherman, 1981; Sheldon, 1971). It appears that problem situations and promoting high turnover
competing nonwork commitments may decline to facilitate needed change. Since these studies
over time while organizational commitment is focus on commitment to decisions and not com-
strengthened. Dysfunctional consequences of mitment to the organization, more research is
commitment may be more prevalent with in- needed before organizations can react strategi-
creased levels of employee tenure. cally to high levels of commitment. Managers
may need to implement individual, career, and
Implications for Practice
family counseling programs and to encourage
A significant amount of empirical research will workers to respond to personal, social, and legal
be necessary before the hypothesized relation- demands.
ship between commitment levels of employees In the future, reducing the level of employees'
and the consequences of such levels has practi- commitment to an organization may not be a
cal implications. However, a full exploration of managerial perogative. Managers may be forced
the hypothesized relationship promises great to accommodate employees with reduced levels
utility. Managers will be provided knowledge of of corrmmitmentalthough they believe that high
likely outcomes at each level of commitment. levels of organizational commitment are desir-
Once existing levels of commitment have been able. Currently, greater numbers of employees
diagnosed, managers can analyze the likely costs are refusing to commit totally to the firm, and
and benefits accruing to those levels. If a sub- executive mobility between firms has been ob-
optimal level of commitment exists, the feasibil- served at an unprecedented high level (Kor-
ity of managing the level of commitment through man, Wittig-Berrnan, & Lang, 1981; Mowday et
an appropriate change strategy can then be al., 1982; Thackray, 1981). Thus, by choice or by
explored. design, American managers may need to learn
If employees have lower than desired levels of how to cope with and how to manage the re-
commitment, organizations could take action duced commitment levels of their emnlove-es
References
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Donna M. Randall is an Assistant Professor of Man-

agement at WashingtonState [Link] received
her Ph.D. degree in sociology from WashingtonState
[Link] this articlemay
be sent to her at: Department of Management and
Systems, Washington State University,Pullman, WA
99164-4726.
The author thanks the members of the Management
Research Seminar at WSU for their helpful sugges-
tions and constructivecomnmentsregarding this man-
uscript.

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