TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KHOA HỌC TỰ NHIÊN

KHOA SINH HỌC – CÔNG NGHỆ SINH HỌC

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AVCN3
Animal anatomy
Lớp: 23CS_CLC1
Nhóm
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. Abstract
Different animals have evolved specialized organs to suit their environments and survival needs.
This study examines the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems of grasshoppers,
earthworms, frogs, and birds, highlighting their structural adaptations and functional efficiency.
Earthworms possess a closed circulatory system with aortic arches, respire through their skin,
and have a simple digestive tract for processing organic matter. Grasshoppers rely on an open
circulatory system with hemolymph, a tracheal system for direct oxygen transport, and a
digestive system adapted for plant consumption. Frogs, as amphibians, utilize a three-chambered
heart, dual respiration through lungs and skin, and a digestive system designed for capturing
small prey. Birds, with their high metabolic demands, feature a four-chambered heart, an avian
respiratory system with unidirectional airflow, and a specialized digestive tract including a
gizzard for mechanical digestion. The comparative analysis of these systems underscores how
evolutionary adaptations optimize function according to an organism’s ecological niche and
metabolic requirements.

PART II. Grasshopper

The image depicts the grasshopper's circulatory system as an example of an open circulatory
system. The grasshopper possesses a tubular heart located along its dorsal side. This heart
pumps hemolymph, the grasshopper's equivalent of blood, out into body cavities known
as sinuses. Here, the hemolymph directly bathes the organs, facilitating the exchange of nutrients
and waste. The hemolymph then returns to the heart through pores located along its length, to be

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recirculated. Unlike closed circulatory systems, the hemolymph in a grasshopper is not confined
to vessels throughout its entire journey, instead freely flowing within the body cavities.

The image illustrates the tracheal system of a grasshopper, which is its respiratory system. This
system is composed of a network of branched internal tubes called tracheae that extend
throughout the grasshopper's body. These tracheae connect to the outside environment
through external openings located on the insect's surface. Larger portions of the tracheae can
form expanded air sacs, often found near organs requiring a high oxygen supply. The tracheae
are kept open by rings of chitin and branch into smaller tubes called tracheoles, which deliver air
directly to body cells. In muscle tissue, as shown in the micrograph, tracheoles are located very
close to mitochondria within muscle fibers, ensuring efficient oxygen delivery for cellular
respiration. This system allows for direct gas exchange between the air and the grasshopper's
tissues, independent of the circulatory system.

The image illustrates the digestive system of a grasshopper, which is divided into three main
regions: the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Food enters through the mouth and travels through
the esophagus into the crop, a part of the foregut where food is moistened and temporarily
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stored. Most of the digestion, however, occurs in the midgut. Extending from the beginning of
the midgut are pouches called gastric cecae, which play a crucial role in both digestion and
absorption of nutrients. Finally, undigested material passes through the hindgut, including
the rectum, and is expelled from the body through the anus.
 Grasshopper (function):
o Circulatory System (Open): The open circulatory system is suitable for the
grasshopper's relatively low metabolic rate and smaller size. Hemolymph bathing
tissues directly is sufficient for nutrient and waste exchange in a less demanding
system. The tubular heart is a simple pump adequate for this type of circulation.
o Respiratory System (Tracheal): The tracheal system is highly efficient for gas
exchange in insects. Direct delivery of oxygen to cells via tracheoles bypasses the
need for a complex circulatory system for oxygen transport, which is effective for
their smaller size and exoskeleton structure. External openings (spiracles) allow
for direct air intake.
o Digestive System: The grasshopper's digestive system is adapted for processing
plant matter. The crop allows for storage and initial moistening of food. Gastric
cecae increase surface area for digestion and absorption in the midgut. This system
is sufficient for extracting nutrients from their diet.

PART III. Earthworm

Different from the open circulatory in grasshopper, the circulatory system of an earthworm is a
closed circulatory system, meaning that blood flows within vessels and does not mix freely with
interstitial fluids.It consists of a dorsal blood vessel, which pumps blood anteriorly (toward the
head), and a ventral blood vessel, which carries blood posteriorly (toward the tail). Five pairs
of muscular aortic arches (hearts), located in segments 7–11, pump blood from the dorsal vessel
to the ventral vessel, ensuring continuous circulation. The blood contains hemoglobin dissolved
in plasma, giving it a red color and enabling efficient oxygen transport.

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Earthworms respire through their skin. They lack specialized respiratory organs like lungs or
gills, so gas exchange occurs directly through their thin, moist skin. Their skin must stay moist
for oxygen to dissolve and pass into their blood. The blood carries oxygen to the body, and at
the same time, carbon dioxide moves out through the skin. To stay moist, earthworms produce
mucus and live in damp places. If their skin dries out, they cannot breathe properly and may
die.
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An earthworm’s digestive system is a straight tube that runs from the mouth to the anus and is
specialized for breaking down organic matter in the soil. It consists of several parts, each with a
specific function:

 Mouth: Located at the front end, it takes in soil containing food particles.
 Pharynx: A muscular organ that helps suck in food and push it further.
 Esophagus: A narrow tube that carries food from the pharynx to the crop.
 Crop: A thin-walled organ that stores food temporarily.
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  Gizzard: A muscular organ that grinds food using small soil particles, breaking it down
into smaller pieces.
 Intestine: A long tube where enzymes digest food, and nutrients are absorbed into the
bloodstream. Digested food is then transported to body cells for energy.
 Anus: Located at the rear end, it releases undigested waste as worm castings, which
enrich the soil.

PART IV. Frog

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Frogs - representing amphibians, have a closed circulatory system with a three-chambered
heart (two atria and one ventricle). Their blood follows a double-loop system, meaning it passes
through the heart twice in one cycle.

First, deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium, then moves to the ventricle,
which pumps it to the lungs and skin to get oxygen. Next, oxygenated blood from the lungs
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returns to the left atrium, then moves into the ventricle, which pumps it to the body. When a
frog is underwater, it takes advantage of the incomplete division of the ventricle, largely shutting
off blood flow to its temporarily ineffective lungs. Blood flow continues to the skin, which acts
as the sole site of gas exchange while the frog is submerged.

Since the ventricle is not divided, some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
happens, making their circulation less efficient than in mammals. However, frogs can also
breathe through their moist skin, which helps them get more oxygen, especially in water.

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A frog's respiratory system allows it to breathe through its lungs, skin, and mouth. When on
land, frogs use their lungs to breathe. They take in air through their nostrils, then close their
mouth and push air into the lungs using their throat muscles since they lack a diaphragm. In
water, frogs rely on cutaneous respiration, meaning they breathe through their moist skin by
absorbing oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. They also use buccal respiration, where oxygen
is taken in through the lining of the mouth even when the lungs are not in use. This combination
of lung, skin, and mouth breathing helps frogs survive in both water and land environments.

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A frog's digestive system is adapted for consuming insects and small prey. It follows a one-way
path from the mouth to the anus, passing through several specialized organs.

 Mouth: Frogs have a wide mouth with a sticky tongue that quickly captures prey. Small
teeth help hold the food, but digestion begins further down.
 Pharynx: The back of the mouth, where food is pushed into the esophagus.
 Esophagus: A short tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
 Stomach: A muscular organ where food is stored and mixed with digestive enzymes and
acids to start breaking it down.
 Small Intestine: The main site of digestion and nutrient absorption. It receives
enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver to further break down food. The
absorbed nutrients enter the bloodstream.
 Large Intestine: Absorbs water and forms solid waste.
 Cloaca: A common exit for digestive waste, urine, and reproductive cells.
 Anus: The opening where waste is expelled from the body.

Frogs have a simple but efficient digestive system, allowing them to quickly process their prey
and absorb nutrients for energy.

PART V. Bird

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
273527482_The_Heart_Pressure_Propulsion_Pump_or_Organ_of_Impedance
The image depicts the circulation system of a bird, characterized by a four-chamber heart.
This system is a closed circulatory system, meaning blood is contained within vessels
throughout its circuit. Deoxygenated blood, represented in blue, is pumped from the heart to
the lung where it picks up oxygen and becomes oxygenated blood, represented in red. This
oxygenated blood then returns to the heart and is pumped out to the rest of the body through
the systemic vascular beds, where oxygen is delivered to the tissues. After delivering oxygen
and picking up carbon dioxide, the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart to complete the cycle.
The four-chamber heart ensures complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood,
which is crucial for the high metabolic demands of birds.

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The image illustrates the avian respiratory system, which is unique and highly efficient. It
consists of anterior air sacs, posterior air sacs, and lungs. Airflow through this system requires
two cycles of inhalation and exhalation for a single breath to pass through. During the first
inhalation, air enters and fills the posterior air sacs. In the first exhalation, the posterior air
sacs contract, pushing the air into the lungs. During the second inhalation, air passes through
the lungs and fills the anterior air sacs. Finally, in the second exhalation, the anterior air sacs
contract, pushing the air that entered during the first inhalation out of the body. Within the lungs,
air flows through tiny air tubes called parabronchi, ensuring a continuous, unidirectional flow
of air and maximizing gas exchange.

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The image illustrates the digestive system of a bird. Food enters the mouth and travels down
the esophagus to the crop, which serves as a storage pouch for food. From the crop, food moves
to the stomach and gizzard. The gizzard is specialized for mechanical digestion, grinding food
with the help of grit or small stones that birds often ingest. Chemical digestion and absorption
of nutrients primarily occur in the intestine. Finally, undigested waste is eliminated from the
body through the anus.
 Bird (function):
o Circulatory System (Closed, Four-Chamber Heart): The closed circulatory
system with a four-chamber heart is essential for birds' high metabolic needs,
particularly for flight. The four chambers ensure complete separation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, maximizing oxygen delivery to tissues. This
is crucial for sustained high energy output required for flight and maintaining
body temperature.
o Respiratory System (Avian): The avian respiratory system is incredibly efficient
and uniquely adapted for flight. The air sacs and parabronchi create a
unidirectional airflow through the lungs, ensuring constant oxygen uptake during
both inhalation and exhalation. This efficient system is necessary to meet the high
oxygen demands of flight at various altitudes and activity levels.
o Digestive System: The bird's digestive system is adapted for efficient processing
of food to support high energy demands. The crop allows for rapid food intake and
temporary storage. The gizzard, specialized for mechanical digestion, is vital for
breaking down seeds, insects, or other hard foods that many birds consume,
especially since birds lack teeth. The intestine is where efficient chemical
digestion and nutrient absorption occur, supporting their high metabolic rate.

PART VI. Comparision

Each animal species showcases a remarkable testament to the power of natural
selection, with every structure finely sculpted to be not just functional, but optimally
suited to its specific lifestyle and environment. Consider the grasshopper's tracheal
system, a direct and efficient network for oxygen delivery perfectly tailored for its
smaller size and terrestrial existence, contrasting sharply with the bird's complex avian
respiratory system, equipped with air sacs and parabronchi to meet the immense
oxygen demands of flight. Similarly, the grasshopper's open circulatory system

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 suffices for its metabolic needs, while the bird's four-chamber heart and closed system
are essential for its high-energy lifestyle and endothermy. From the specialized
gizzard of a bird for grinding seeds to the streamlined body of a fish for aquatic
movement, each structural feature reflects an evolutionary journey toward peak
performance within a given niche, demonstrating that form and function are
inextricably linked in the diverse tapestry of life.

QUESTION
1. The view that a closed circulatory system is superior to an open
circulatory system is correct, isn't it?
The answer isn’t a simple “yes” or “no” because each type of circulatory system is
adapted to the needs and lifestyles of different organisms. Here’s a more detailed
explanation:

Closed Circulatory Systems

 Efficiency:
In closed systems (found in vertebrates and some invertebrates), blood is confined
to vessels, which allows for more efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and
waste products. The high-pressure system can deliver these substances rapidly and
precisely, which is particularly beneficial for larger or more metabolically active
organisms.
 Regulation:
The separation of blood from the interstitial fluid enables tighter regulation of the
internal environment (homeostasis), which supports complex body functions.

Open Circulatory Systems

 Simplicity and Energy Efficiency:

Open circulatory systems, which are found in many arthropods and mollusks, are
simpler and require less energy to maintain. Blood (or hemolymph) is not confined
solely to vessels but bathes the organs directly. This setup is generally sufficient
for smaller or less metabolically demanding organisms.
 Evolutionary Trade-offs:
While open systems are less efficient at rapidly transporting nutrients and oxygen,
they work well within the ecological niches of these animals. The simplicity of the
system also means that it can be less costly in terms of developmental and
maintenance resources.

Context Matters

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  Not Universally Superior:
Saying that a closed circulatory system is “superior” might be misleading. In the
context of high metabolic demands and complex body structures (as seen in
vertebrates), a closed system offers clear advantages. However, for many
invertebrates, an open system is entirely adequate and may even be advantageous
due to its lower energy cost and simpler design.
 Adaptation to Needs:
Evolution tends to favor systems that are “good enough” for an organism’s specific
needs rather than an absolute standard of superiority. The closed system’s
efficiency supports the energy requirements of large, active animals, while the
open system suits organisms with lower oxygen demands and simpler body plans.

Conclusion

Thus, while closed circulatory systems provide certain benefits such as efficient and
controlled nutrient delivery and are well-suited to large, active organisms, it isn’t accurate
to say they are universally “superior.” Each system has evolved to meet the specific
demands of the organisms that use them.

2. What type of circulatory system does a grasshopper have, open or closed?

3. What is the name of the fluid that circulates in a grasshopper's open circulatory system?
4. What are the tubes called that carry air directly to the cells in a grasshopper's respiratory
system?
5. In which main region of the grasshopper's digestive system does most digestion occur?
6. Name one organ that is part of the grasshopper's foregut digestive system.
7.

REFERENCES

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