PAPER 1:

Title: Progress and challenges in adaptive robotics

Abstract: Adaptive robotics achieved tremendous progress during the last few years (see Nolfi (2021) for an
introduction and review). The term adaptive robotics refers to methods which permit the design of robots
capable of developing their skills autonomously through an evolutionary and/or learning process. It focuses on
approaches requiring minimal human intervention in which the behavior displayed by the robots and the
control rules producing such behavior are discovered by an adaptive process automatically on the basis of a
reward or fitness function which rates how well the robot is doing. It focuses on end-to-end learning, i.e. on
systems which receive as input directly the state of robot’s sensors and determine directly the state of the
robot’s actuators, without involving any type of hand-designed pre-processing. Finally, it focuses on model-
free methods, i.e. on systems which do not have an internal model of the environment, or in which the
internal model is acquired automatically during the adaptation process. In this article I will review the major
advances and the research challenges.
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PAPER 2:
Title: A methodical interpretation of adaptive robotics: Study and reformulation
Abstract: The recent development of industrial manufacturing and social services has witnessed a significant
trend of automation and intelligentization due to the wide application of robots and the technology of artificial
intelligence (AI). While robots liberate humans from tedious and dangerous work in hazardous environments,
AI simplifies the programming of robots by automatically inferring patterns and models from the interaction
between the robots and the environment. Nevertheless, the application of robots and AI to more general
manufacturing and social tasks is still limited by the lack of flexibility and adaptability to the changes in the
task and the environment. Thus, a new concept, adaptive robotics, has been proposed to address the desire
that an AI-powered robot should be able to properly reprogram itself to these changes without human
intervention. Nevertheless, this concept is yet too abstract to provide any specific guidance to the
development of robot programs. In this paper, we attempt to provide methodical redefinition and
reformulation of adaptive robotics both in conceptual and mathematical manners based on the study of
previous results. First of all, we introduce the essential motivation and the conceptual origination of
adaptability of mechanical systems. Then, we review the previous literature and explore the related work of
adaptive robotics. Based on this, we provide a uniform mathematical formulation of adaptive robotics based
on adaptive and robust Markov-decision process (MDP). Through this work, we attempt to inspire the generic
framework of adaptive robotics incorporating the existing immature paradigms, by which we are aiming at a
clarified and well-defined context of adaptive robotics for future research on related domains.
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PAPER 3:
Title: Multi-Modal and Adaptive Robot Control through Hierarchical Quadratic Programming
Abstract: This paper proposes a novel Hierarchical Quadratic Programming (HQP)-based framework that
enables multi-tasking control under multiple Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) scenarios. The proposed
controllers’ formulations are inspired by real-world contact-rich scenarios, which currently constitute one of
the main limitations in terms of widespread practical deployment. Indeed, HRI can occur through different
modalities, based on human’s needs. The objective is to create a unique framework for various types of
possible interactions, avoiding the necessity of switching between different control architectures, which
requires dealing with discontinuities. To achieve this, we firstly propose a HQP-based hybrid Cartesian/joint
space impedance control formulation. Based ontherobot’sdynamics,thiscontroller enables anadaptive
compliance behaviour, whileachieving hierarchical motion control. This is validated through a series of
experiments that show the accuracy of trajectory tracking, which remains in the order of 10mm during fast
motions thanks to the addition of the robot dynamics. Besides, the hybrid compliance behaviour allows to
deviate from such accuracy when aninteraction is present. We then consider the case in which the human
needs to move the robot directly, by proposing a hybrid admittance/impedance controller, that is again based
on a HQPformulation and provides inherent softening when conflicting tasks are present, or in close-to-limit
and near-singular configurationsa. This is validated through several experiments in which the human easily
moves the robot in the workspace via direct physical interaction. Next, we formulate an additional hierarchy
that enables force control and allows to maintain a specific interaction force at the end effector. We then
extend this to simultaneous force and trajectory tracking. Overall, we obtain a multi-purpose HQP-based
control framework, that seamlessly switchwes between interaction modes, enabling multiple hierarchical
behaviours, and covering a wide spectrum of interaction types, essential for synergistic HRI.
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PAPER 4:
Title: On the Adaptive Control of Robot Manipulators
Abstract: A new adaptive robot control algorithm is derived, which consists of a PD feedback part and a full
dynamics feedfor ward compensation part, with the unknown manipulator and payload parameters being
estimated online. The algorithm is computationally simple, because of an effective exploitation of the
structure of manipulator dynamics. In particular, it requires neither feedback of joint accelerations nor
inversion of the estimated inertia matrix. The algorithm can also be applied directly in Cartesian space.
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PAPER 5:
Title: Recent advances in evolutionary and bio-inspired adaptive robotics: Exploiting embodied dynamics
Abstract: This paper explores current developments in evolutionary and bio-inspired approaches to
autonomous robotics, concentrating on research from our group at the University of Sussex. These
developments are discussed in the context of advances in the wider fields of adaptive and evolutionary
approaches to AI and robotics, focusing on the exploitation of embodied dynamics to create behaviour. Four
case studies highlight various aspects of such exploitation. The first exploits the dynamical properties of a
physical electronic substrate, demonstrating for the first time how component-level analog electronic circuits
can be evolved directly in hardware to act as robot controllers. The second develops novel, effective and highly
parsimonious navigation methods inspired by the way insects exploit the embodied dynamics of innate
behaviours. Combining biological experiments with robotic modeling, it is shown how rapid route learning can
be achieved with the aid of navigation-specific visual information that is provided and exploited by the innate
behaviours. The third study focuses on the exploitation of neuromechanical chaos in the generation of robust
motor behaviours. It is demonstrated how chaotic dynamics can be exploited to power a goal-driven search for
desired motor behaviours in embodied systems using a particular control architecture based around neural
oscillators. The dynamics are shown to be chaotic at all levels in the system, from the neural to the embodied
mechanical. The final study explores the exploitation of the dynamics of brain-body-environment interactions
for efficient, agile flapping winged flight. It is shown how a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm can be used
to evolved dynamical neural controllers for a simulated flapping wing robot with feathered wings. Results
demonstrate robust, stable, agile flight is achieved in the face of random wind gusts by exploiting complex
asymmetric dynamics partly enabled by continually changing wing and tail morphologies.
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PAPER 6:
Title: A Novel Recursive Algorithm for the Implementation of Adaptive Robot Controllers
Abstract: In this paper, a novel recursive and efficient algorithm for real-time implementation of the adaptive
and passivity-based controllers in model-based control of robot manipulators is proposed. Many of the
previous methods on these topics involve the computation of the regressor matrix explicitly or non-recursive
computations, which remains as the main challenge in practical applications. The proposed method achieves a
compact and fully recursive reformulation without computing the regressor matrix or its elements. This paper
is based on a comprehensive literature review of the previously proposed methods, presented in a unified
mathematical framework suitable for understanding the fundamentals and making comparisons. The
considered methods are implemented on several processors and their performances are compared in terms of
real-time computational efficiency. Computational results show that the proposed Adaptive Newton-Euler
Algorithm significantly reduces the computation time of the control law per cycle time in the implementation
of adaptive control laws. In addition, using the dynamic simulation of an industrial robot with 6-DoF, trajectory
tracking performances of the adaptive controllers are compared with those of non-adaptive control methods
where dynamic parameters are assumed to be known.
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PAPER 7:
Title: Adaptive Robot Coordination: A Subproblem-Based Approach for Hybrid Multi-Robot Motion Planning
Abstract: This work presents Adaptive Robot Coordination (ARC), a novel hybrid framework for multi-robot
motion planning (MRMP) that employs local subproblems to resolve inter-robot conflicts. ARC creates
subproblems centered around conflicts, and the solutions represent the robot motions required to resolve
these conflicts. The use of subproblems enables an innovative, cost-effective hybrid exploration of the multi-
robot planning space by dynamically coupling and decoupling necessary subsets of robots only when required
and in specific physical locations. This allows ARC to adapt the levels of coordination efficiently by planning in
decoupled spaces, where robots can operate independently, and in coupled spaces, where coordination is
essential. ARC is probabilistically complete, can be used for any robot, and produces cost-efficient solutions in
reduced planning times. Through extensive evaluation across representative scenarios with different robots
requiring various levels of coordination, ARC demonstrates its ability to provide simultaneous scalability and
precise coordination. ARC is the only method capable of solving all the scenarios and is competitive with
coupled, decoupled, and hybrid baselines.
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PAPER 8:
Title: Experimental Results on the Robust and Adaptive Control of Robot Manipulators Without Velocity
Measurements
Abstract: To achieve accurate tracking control of robot manipulators, many schemes have been proposed.
Some common approaches are based on robust and adaptive control techniques, while when necessary
velocity observers are employed. Robust techniques have the advantage of requiring few prior information of
the robot model parameters/structure or disturbances while tracking can be achieved, for instance, by using
sliding mode control. On the contrary, adaptive techniques guarantee trajectory tracking but under the
assumption that the robot model structure is perfectly known and it is linear in the unknown parameters,
while joint velocities are also available. In this letter, some experiments are carried out to find out whether
combining a robust and an adaptive controller may increase the performance of the system, as long as the
adaptive term can be treated as a perturbation by the robust controller. The results are compared with an
adaptive robust control law, showing that the proposed combined scheme performs better than the separated
algorithms, working on their own and then the comparison laws.
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PAPER 9:
Title: Adaptive Position Feedback Control of Parallel Robots in the Presence of Kinematics and Dynamics
Uncertainties
Abstract: Uncertainties in the kinematic and dynamic parameters of a parallel robot are unavoidable. The
problem is more crucial in the cases where the manipulator interacts with the environment and when it is
large–scale or deployable. Furthermore, precise measurement of the velocity of the end-effector is almost
inaccessible in practice. This paper addresses the above shortcomings by designing of an adaptive trajectory
tracking controller with merely position feedback of joint and task space variables. Simplicity of
implementation, separation of adaptation laws of dynamic and kinematic parameters, and reduction of the
number of adaptation laws such that in some cases, e.g., cable-driven robots, it is identically equivalent to the
number of unknown parameters are some advantages of the proposed controller. The method’s efficiency is
shown via implementation on a cable-driven parallel manipulator and an intraocular surgery robot. Note to
Practitioners—In order to achieve a suitable response in parallel robots with traditional controllers, a precise
knowledge of kinematic and dynamic parameters, together with accurate measurement of velocity, is
required. In practice, these values are usually derived by robot calibration and identification. Since the
system’s parameters may alter or depend on external factors such as temperature, these time-consuming
methods should be implemented repeatedly while the robot is out of duty. Additionally, precise velocity
measurement is a prohibitive task and requires expensive instruments. This article presents a controller to
address the above shortcomings. By this means, a simple adaptive controller based on position feedback is
designed such that via suitable estimation of kinematic and dynamic parameters, trajectory tracking is
obtained without the need for accurate initial estimates of the parameters. The proposed method has a
number of advantages, including separation of the adaptation laws of kinematic parameters and dynamic
parameters, simple representation of the Jacobian matrix in regressor form, and there is no requirement for
velocity feedback. Furthermore, a force distribution method is introduced for redundant robots. Hence, the
proposed controller is an appropriate alternative to traditional controllers widely used in industries.
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PAPER 10:
Title: Introducing Switched Adaptive Control for Self-Reconfigurable Mobile Cleaning Robots
Abstract: Reconfigurable robots provide an attractive option for cleaning tasks, thanks to their better area
coverage and adaptability to changing environment. However, the ability to change morphology creates drastic
changes in the reconfigurable robot dynamics, and existing control design techniques do not take this into
account. Neglecting configuration changes can lead to performance degradation and, in the worst scenarios,
instability. This paper proposes to embed the changes arising from reconfiguration in the control design, via a
switched uncertain Euler-Lagrangian model. Accordingly, a novel switched adaptive design is proposed for
trajectory tracking. Closed-loop stability is assured using the multiple Lyapunov function framework, and the
design is implemented and validated on a self-reconfigurable pavement cleaning mobile robot (PANTHERA).
Note to Practitioners—Self-reconfigurable mobile cleaning robots, which can change their configurations as
per the application requirements, are now predominantly used for cleaning and maintenance operations
because of their better area coverage, less manpower requirement and consistent performance. However, the
state-of-the-art control strategies for conventional robots cannot always ensure stability and performance
under the simultaneous effects of configuration changes and uncertainties. The switched Euler-Lagrange
model formulated in this work can capture the configuration changes of the robot and the proposed switched
adaptive controller can tackle uncertainties of each configurations of the robot. The simulation and
experimental results clearly show the potential issues of the state-of-the-art methods and the remarkable
benefits of the proposed approach.
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PAPER 11:
Title: Decentralized Ability-Aware Adaptive Control for Multi-Robot Collaborative Manipulation
Abstract: Multi-robot teams can achieve more dexterous, complex and heavier payload tasks than a single
robot, yet effective collaboration is required. Multi-robot collaboration is extremely challenging due to the
different kinematic and dynamics capabilities of the robots, the limited communication between them, and
the uncertainty of the system parameters. In this letter, a Decentralized Ability-Aware Adaptive Control (DA3C)
is proposed to address these challenges based on two key features. Firstly, the common manipulation task is
represented by the proposed nominal task ellipsoid, which is used to maximize each robot's force capability
online via optimizing its configuration. Secondly, a decentralized adaptive controller is designed to be
Lyapunov stable in spite of heterogeneous actuation constraints of the robots and uncertain physical
parameters of the object and environment. In the proposed framework, decentralized coordination and load
distribution between the robots is achieved without communication, while only the control deficiency is
broadcast if any of the robots reaches its force limits. In this case, the object's reference trajectory is modified
in a decentralized manner to guarantee stable interaction. Finally, we perform several numerical and physical
simulations to analyse and verify the proposed method with heterogeneous multi-robot teams in collaborative
manipulation tasks.
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PAPER 12:
Title: Adaptive Control of Soft Robots Based on an Enhanced 3D Augmented Rigid Robot Matching
Abstract: Despite having proven successful in generating precise motions under dynamic conditions in highly
deformable soft-bodied robots, model based techniques are also prone to robustness issues connected to the
intrinsic uncertain nature of the dynamics of these systems. This letter aims at tackling this challenge, by
extending the augmented rigid robot formulation to a stable representation of three dimensional motions of
soft robots, under Piecewise Constant Curvature hypothesis. In turn, the equivalence between soft-bodied and
rigid robots permits to derive effective adaptive controllers for soft-bodied robots, achieving perfect posture
regulation under considerable errors in the knowledge of system parameters. The effectiveness of the
proposed control design is demonstrated through extensive simulations.
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PAPER 13:
Title: Novel Adaptive Control for Flexible-Joint Robots With Unknown Measurement Sensitivity
Abstract: For the existing tracking control schemes of flexible-joint robots, precise sensor measurement is an
implicit premise. However, idealized sensors are difficult to achieve due to manufacturing technology or other
external factors. To this end, this paper further investigates the tracking control problem for flexible-joint
robots with unknown measurement sensitivity. Specifically, for such multi-input multi-output Euler-Lagrange
systems with completely unknown system dynamics, a novel measurement values-based adaptive control
method is proposed by fusing sensitivity information and system variables into Lyapunov function candidates,
where the restriction on system states in other the approximation lemma-based results is removed, since
unknown nonlinearities are scaled by the structural characteristics of system variables. Above all, even if there
are measurement errors, satisfactory tracking performance can be obtained by adjusting the design
parameters, which is proved by rigorous theoretical analysis. Finally, hardware experiments further verify the
effectiveness of the proposed method. Note to Practitioners—This work is motivated by the trajectory tracking
control problem for flexible-joint robots under imprecise sensor measurements. Due to manufacturing
technology limitations and component aging, there is inevitably a deviation between the measured values of
sensors and real values, and this problem may become more prominent as the working environment of
flexible-joint robots tends to become more complex. To our knowledge, most of the existing solutions for
flexible-joint robots are developed based on precise sensor measurements, and they may fail to achieve
satisfactory performance when real state information is not available. Moreover, the prior knowledge about
model parameters and measurement sensitivity is difficult or impossible to exactly obtain in practice, which
seriously hinders the further application of control methods that are dependent on system dynamics. To this
end, this paper proposes a novel tracking control scheme based on measurement information for flexible-joint
robots with unknown measurement sensitivity, where the dependence on model information is eliminated
with the elaborately constructed Lyapunov function candidates, and the real tracking error is still adjusted to
an acceptable range even if there are measurement errors. Preliminary experiments on a flexible-joint robot
developed by Quanser company demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method. In
future studies, designing an effective scheme to achieve direct preset tracking control is the focus of the work.
References:
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PAPER 14:
Title: Matsuoka’s CPG With Desired Rhythmic Signals for Adaptive Walking of Humanoid Robots
Abstract: The desired rhythmic signals for adaptive walking of humanoid robots should have proper
frequencies, phases, and shapes. Matsuoka’s central pattern generator (CPG) is able to generate rhythmic
signals with reasonable frequencies and phases, and thus has been widely applied to control the movements
of legged robots, such as walking of humanoid robots. However, it is difficult for this kind of CPG to generate
rhythmic signals with desired shapes, which limits the adaptability of walking of humanoid robots in various
environments. To address this issue, a new framework that can generate desired rhythmic signals for
Matsuoka’s CPG is presented. The proposed framework includes three main parts. First, feature processing is
conducted to transform the Matsuoka’s CPG outputs into a normalized limit cycle. Second, by combining the
normalized limit cycle with robot feedback as the feature inputs and setting the required learning objective,
the neural network (NN) learns to generate desired rhythmic signals. Finally, in order to ensure the continuity
of the desired rhythmic signals, signal filtering is applied to the outputs of NN, with the aim of smoothing the
discontinuous parts. Numerical experiments on the proposed framework suggest that it can not only generate
a variety of rhythmic signals with desired shapes but also preserve the frequency and phase properties of
Matsuoka’s CPG. In addition, the proposed framework is embedded into a control system for adaptive
omnidirectional walking of humanoid robot NAO. Extensive simulation and real experiments on this control
system demonstrate that the proposed framework is able to generate desired rhythmic signals for adaptive
walking of NAO on fixed and changing inclined surfaces. Furthermore, the comparison studies verify that the
proposed framework can significantly improve the adaptability of NAO’s walking compared with the other
methods
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PAPER 15:
Title: Adaptive CLF-MPC With Application to Quadrupedal Robots
Abstract: Modern robotic systems are endowed with superior mobility and mechanical skills that make them
suited to be employed in real-world scenarios, where interactions with heavy objects and precise
manipulation capabilities are required. For instance, legged robots with high payload capacity can be used in
disaster scenarios to remove dangerous material or carry injured people. It is thus essential to develop
planning algorithms that can enable complex robots to perform motion and manipulation tasks accurately. In
addition, online adaptation mechanisms with respect to new, unknown environments are needed. In this
work, we impose that the optimal state-input trajectories generated by Model Predictive Control (MPC) satisfy
the Lyapunov function criterion derived in adaptive control for robotic systems. As a result, we combine the
stability guarantees provided by Control Lyapunov Functions (CLFs) and the optimality offered by MPC in a
unified adaptive framework, yielding an improved performance during the robot’s interaction with unknown
objects. We validate the proposed approach in simulation and hardware tests on a quadrupedal robot carrying
un-modeled payloads and pulling heavy boxes.
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PAPER 16:
Title: Set-Membership Adaptive Robot Control With Deterministically Bounded Learning Gains
Abstract: As a powerful set-membership adaptive identification algorithm, the optimal bounded ellipsoid
(OBE) enables fast convergence speeds because it exploits a priori information about system dynamics by
estimating sets of feasible solutions rather than single-point solutions. However, its learning gain matrix suffers
from vanishing or unbounded growth, which seriously limits its practical performance. In this article, a novel
OBE algorithm is proposed to ensure that the learning gain matrix is constrained by upper and lower bounds,
which are unaffected by the hardly predictable excitation levels and can be determined before implementing
the algorithm. Thus, the system robustness and tracking capability for time-varying dynamics can be improved.
In light of the proposed OBE identification algorithm, an adaptive robot control strategy is further proposed,
where the robot dynamics are reconstructed through neural networks. The practical partial asymptotic
stability of the closed-loop system is demonstrated using the Lyapunov method. Furthermore, noisy
acceleration signals and the inversion of the inertial matrix are eliminated with the proposed control strategy.
Experimental results on a robot manipulator validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
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PAPER 17:
Title: A Novel Adaptive Controller for Robot Manipulators Based on Active Inference
Abstract: More adaptive controllers for robot manipulators are needed, which can deal with large model
uncertainties. This letter presents a novel active inference controller (AIC) as an adaptive control scheme for
industrial robots. This scheme is easily scalable to high degrees-of-freedom, and it maintains high performance
even in the presence of large unmodeled dynamics. The proposed method is based on active inference, a
promising neuroscientific theory of the brain, which describes a biologically plausible algorithm for perception
and action. In this work, we formulate active inference from a control perspective, deriving a model-free
control law which is less sensitive to unmodeled dynamics. The performance and the adaptive properties of
the algorithm are compared to a state-of-the-art model reference adaptive controller (MRAC) in an
experimental setup with a real 7-DOF robot arm. The results showed that the AIC outperformed the MRAC in
terms of adaptability, providing a more general control law. This confirmed the relevance of active inference
for robot control.
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PAPER 18:
Title: Neural Network-Based Adaptive Learning Control for Robot Manipulators With Arbitrary Initial Errors
Abstract: In this paper, a neural network-based adaptive iterative learning control scheme is developed to
solve the trajectory tracking problem for rigid robot manipulators with arbitrary initial errors. Time-varying
boundary layers are used to relax the zero initial error condition which must be observed in traditional
iterative learning control design, and adaptive learning neural networks are constructed to approximate
uncertainties in robotic systems, whose optimal weights are estimated by using partial saturation difference
learning method. For arbitrary bounded initial state errors, the tracking error of robot manipulators will
asymptotically converge to a tunable residual set as the iteration number increases. An illustrative example
and the comparisons are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed neural network-based
adaptive iterative learning control scheme.
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PAPER 19:
Title: Adaptive Time-Delay Balance Control of Biped Robots
Abstract: This paper presents an adaptive time-delay control method to handle the balance of a class of biped
robots. Considering model uncertainties and unknown external disturbances, a high-dimensional integral
Lyapunov function has been developed, then time-delay estimation technique (TDE) is utilized, and in order to
compensate for the errors produced by TDE, an adaptive control law is designed. Based on the evolution of
the error trajectories, the adaptive control law can automatically regulate the control gains without any
threshold value. By the Lyapunov synthesis, the semiglobally uniformly ultimately boundness (UUB) of the
closed-loop control system has been theoretically proved. We have conducted the experimental studies on
biped robot to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control method.
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PAPER 20:
Title: Adaptive Admittance Tracking Control for Interactive Robot with Prescribed Performance
Abstract: An adaptive control approach is presented in this paper for tracking desired trajectories in interactive
manipulators. The controller design incorporates prescribed performance functions (PPFs) to improve dynamic
performance. Notably, the performance of the output error is confined in an envelope characterized by
exponential convergence, leading to convergence to zero. This feature ensures a prompt response from
admittance control and establishes a reliable safety framework for interactions. Simulation results provide
practical insights, demonstrating the viability of the control scheme proposed in this paper.
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