Cell- The Basic Unit of Life

Introduction
 The body of all organisms is made up of tiny microscopic units called cell.
 The cell is a fundamental, structural and functional unit of living organisms and basic unit of life.
 All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells make tissues, tissues together make organ, organs
make organ system and organ systems make body of organisms. So cell is called structural unit of
life.
 All the basic functions of the body like respiration, excretion etc. are carried out by cell
through its cell organelles, so cell is called functional unit of life.
 Cell biology is the study of cells in all aspects of structure and functions.

Discovery of cell:
 Cell was first discovered by Robert Hook in 1665. He observed the cell in a cork slice with the
help of a primitive microscope.
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first to observe free cells, like bacteria, protozoa, red
blood cells and sperms in his home made microscope.

Important Discoveries
Scientist Discovery
Robert Hooke Discovered cells
Anton Van Leuwenhoek Discovered protozoa and bacteria
Robert Brown Discovered cell nucleus
Albert Von Kolliker Discovered mitochondria
Schleiden and Schwann Proposed cell theory
Evans and Kauffman Discovered Embryonic Stem Cells from mice
James Thomson Discovered Embryonic Stem Cells from humans
Camillo Golgi Golgi apparatus
Joseph Beinaime Caventou and Pierre Discovered chlorophyll
Joseph Pelletier

Cell theory:

 The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is basic unit
of life, was presented by two biologists, M. Schleiden (1838) and T. Schwann (1839).
 The cell theory was further expanded by a german physiologist, Rudolf Virchow (1855). He gave
the phrase Omnis cellula-e-cellula, i.e., all cells arises from pre-existing cells.

Modified cell theory is termed as cell principle or modern cell theory which postulates that:
 All living organisms are composed of cells or cell products.
 All living cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic processes.
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  The functions of an organism as a whole is the result of the activities and interaction of the
constituent cells

Shape, size and number of cells:

Cell shape:

 The shape of cells is related to the specific function they

perform.
 Some cells like Amoeba and WBCs have changing
shapes.
 In some cases the cell shape could be more or less fixed
and peculiar for a particular type of cell; for example,
nerve cells have a typical shape.
Cell size:
 The size of the cell also varies considerably in different
animals and plants.
 The average cell size varies from 0.5 to 20µ (µ =
micrometer).
 In human body, the smallest cell is RBC and the longest
one is the nerve cells.
Cell number:
 The number of cells in living beings differs from the one in unicellular organisms to many in
multicellular forms.
 The number of cells in not definite in multicellular organisms, and may increase along with the
growth and volume of organism.

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Types of Cells:

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells:

S. No. Prokayotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1 primitive and incomplete cells Advance and complete
Unicellular and multicellular
Prokaryotes are always unicellular
2 Unicellular - Chlamydomonas,
organisms.
Paramoecium, Amoeba
Nucleus is not well defined and known as
3 Well defined nucleus is present
nucleoid
membrane bound organelles, such as
membrane bound organelles, such as
4 Mitochondria, Golgi complex etc. are also
Mitochondria, Golgi complex etc. are absent.
present.
Ribosomes are bigger. They are either
Ribosomes are smaller and scattered
5 attached to endoplasmic reticulum or are
randomly in the cytoplasm.
found free.
The prokaryotes include archaebacteria,
Eukaryotes include all living organisms,
6 bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue green
except bacteria and blue-green algae
algae).

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Structure of cell:
Structurally the cell is formed of three major parts:

1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm and its contents
3. Nucleus

PLASMA MEMBRANE (CELL MEMBRANE):

 Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from
its external environment.
 Plasma membrane is living, thin, delicate, elastic, selectively permeable membrane.
 The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins.
 The structure of the plasma membrane can be observed only through an electron microscope.
 The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material
from its external environment. Such processes are known as ENDOCYTOSIS. Amoeba acquires
its food through such processes.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Endocytosis and pinocytosis (Intake of liquid) allows a cell to take up
large amounts of molecules or even whole bacteria from the extracellular fluid. Exocytosis occurs
when the cell removes the waste materials. The cell membrane plays an important role in both
processes.

Functions:
 Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of some materials in the cells. It also prevents
movement of some other material. Therefore, the plasma membrane is called a selectively
permeable membrane.
Transport of Substances across Plasma Membrane
There are three basic mechanisms, namely diffusion, osmosis, active transport and bulk transport.

1. Passive transport: Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require energy
to move substances across cell membranes. There are three passive transportation methods –
diffusion and osmosis.

a. DIFFUSION: Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell
membrane by a process called diffusion.
“Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of its higher
concentration to a region of its lower concentration.”
Example: movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen during respiration in organisms.
Diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cell
and its external environment
b. OSMOSIS:
Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through a
selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region
of lower water concentration is called osmosis.

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 2. Active transport
Sometimes substance need to be moved against the concentration gradient, from lower to
higher concentration. Different molecules move in and out of the cell through a type of transport
requiring use of energy

A. Let us see what will happen if you put an animal cell or plant cells into solution of sugar or
salt prepared in water?
1. If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, i.e., if solution
is a very diluted solution, the cell will gain water by osmosis. Such a dilute solution is
called hypotonic solution.
Water molecule will pass across the plasma membrane in both directions, but more water
molecules will enter the cell than will leave. The cell will therefore, swell up and increase in
volume. This process is called endosmosis.

2. If the medium surrounding the cell is exactly the same water concentration as the cell, there will
be no net movement of water across the plasma membrane resulting in no change in the size of
the cell. Such a solution is called isotonic solution.
3. If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, i.e., if it is very concentrated
solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a concentrated solution is called hypertonic
solution.
In this case too, water crosses the plasma membrane in both the directions, but this time more
water leaves the cell than enter it. The cell will therefore, shrink and reduce in volume. This
process is known as exosmosis.

CELL WALL:
 In plant cells, there occurs a rigid cell wall which lies outside the plasma membrane.
 Cell wall is thick, non-living and permeable covering made up of cellulose. Cellulose is a kind of
carbohydrate (polysaccharide) and it provides structural strength to the plant.
Functions:
1. Cell wall protects cell membrane and the internal structures of the cell.
2. It provides rigidity and determines the shape of the plant cell.
3. It prevents drying of the cell and helps it to bear unfavourable conditions.
4. It provides mechanical strength to the plant cells.

Plasmolysis Deplasmolysis and Cytolysis or osmotic lysis.

Plasmolysis
1. It refers to the shrinking and seperation of the cell membrane from the cell wall due to exosmosis.
2. Water Molecules move out of the cell.
3. Occurs during exosmosis.
4. Occurs when cell are placed in a "Hypertonic solution".
5. Occurs when the solute concentration of the Surrounding solution is higher than that of the Cytoplasm.
6. Occurs when the water potential of the surrounding solution is less than that of cytoplasm
7. The Cells may Shrink.
8. Osmotic Pressure of the cell is very Low.

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 Deplasmolysis
1. It refers to the entrance of water into a plasmolysed plant cell, causing the cell membrane to return to
the cell wall.
2. Water Molecules move into of the cell.
3. Occurs during Endosmosis.
4. Occurs when cells are placed in a Hypotonic Solution.
5. Occurs when the solute concentration of the surrounding solution is less than that of cytoplasm.
6. Occurs when the water potential of the surrounding solution is higher than that of cytoplasm.
7. The cells may Swell.
8. Osmotic Pressure of the Cell wall is very High.

Cytolysis or osmotic lysis.

1. When a cell bursts due to excess water, it's called cytolysis or osmotic lysis.
2. This happens when a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, where water moves from the solution into
the cell.
3. The cell swells and expands until it eventually bursts

PROTOPLASM:
All cells contain living substance called protoplasm. It is jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid
substance in which various cell organelles and inclusion remains in colloidal form.
Protoplasm can be distinguished in two forms:
1. Cytoplasm: it is that part of protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus.
2. Nucleoplasm: it is that part of protoplasm which is located inside the nucleus.
Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleoplasm

CYTOPLASM
 The part of the cell which occurs between the plasma membrane and nucleus envelop is called the
cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm consists of an aqueous ground substance, the cytosol, containing a variety of cell
organelles and other inclusions such as insoluble waste and storage product (starch, lipid, etc.).
 Chemically cytoplasm contains about 90% water,, 7% proteins, 2% carbohydrates and lipids and
1% inorganic minerals, minerals vitamins, etc.

CELL ORGANELLES:
 A cell has to perform different functions with the help of its various membrane- bound cell
organelles.
 Cell organelles are “small organs” of the cell and are found embedded in the cytosol. They form
living part of the cell and each of them has a definite shape, structure and function.

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NAME OF THE
STRUCTURE FUNCTONS
ORGANELLE
It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured 1. It forms intracellular
RBCs of mammals. transporting system.
ER occurs in three forms: 2. SER takes part in the
Cisternae (i.e., closed, fluid-filled sacs), synthesis of lipids.
vesicles and tubules. 3. RER is concerned with the
ENDOPLASMIC
ER is of two types: transport of proteins which
RETICULUM
1.Rough endoplasmic reticulum are synthesized by
(RER) with ribosomes attached on its ribosomes on their
surface. surface.
2.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER) which is without ribosomes.

They are present both in prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells.
Ribosomes are dense, spherical and granular
particles which occur freely in cytoplasm or Ribosome is the site of protein
remain attached to the endoplasmic reticulum synthesis so it is known as protein
(RER). factory of the cell.
Chemically ribosomes are made up of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
Ribosomes are of two types: 70S and 80S
RIBOSOMES

GOLGI Golgi complex was discovered by Caomillo 1. It is known as packaging and

COMPLEX Golgi (1898). dispatching unit of the cell.
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 (GOLGI It occurs in almost all eukaryotic cells. It is 2.It is involved in the synthesis of
APPARATUS OR not found in prokaryotic cells. cell wall, plasma membrane and
GOLGI BODY) lysosomes.
Golgi apparatus consists of a set of
3.It is involved in the formation of
membrane-bounded, fluid-filled vesicls,
cell plate during cell dividion.
vacuoles and flattened cisternae.

1. Mitochondria generate energy

They are present in eukaryotic cell but absent
in the form of ATP (Adenosine
in prokaryotic cells.
Tri Phosphate), that is why it is
Mitochondria exist in variable shapes.
called powerhouse of the cell.
It is a double membranous organelle. Outer
2. Mitochondria have their own
membrane is smooth and inner membrane
ribosomes and DNA, they can
forms folds like structure called cristae.
synthesize their own proteins, and
The cristae consist of F1 particles on its
they are self-duplicating units. So,
surface.
they are regarded
The matrix inside it contains ribosomes,
as semiautonomous organelles.
repiratory enzymes and a circular DNA.

MITOCHONDRIA

Lysosomes are dark, spherical, single 1. Lysosomes are involved in

LYSOSOMES
membrane bound sacs containing several intracellular digestion.

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 digestive enzymes. These enzymes are 2. During starvation or aging,
capable of digesting or breaking down all the cell digests its own
organic materials. organelles through lysosomal
enzymes, a process
Lysosomes are formed by Golgi complex. called autophagy.
They are found in the cytoplasm of 3. Lysosomes help to keep the
eukaryotic cell, mostly in animal cells. cell clean by digesting any
foreign material as well as
worn out cell organelles.
4. When a cell is destined to die,
the lysosomal enzymes digest
the whole cell, a process
called autolysis. Therefore
lysosomes are also known
as ‘suicide bags’ of the cell

They are spherical or discoidal in shape and are enclosed in double membrane.
Inside a plastid, two definite regions are clearly visible- Grana and Stroma.
Grana are stacks of membrane-bounded, flatterened discoid sacs containing the
molecules of chlorophyll. Stroma is the homogeneous matrix in which grana are
embedded. Plastids contain their own DNA and ribosomes i.e., they have their
PLASTIDS own protein synthesizing machinery. They are also self-replicating organelles.
(The term ‘plastid’
was given by
Haeckel in 1866.
Plastids occur in
most plant cells and
are absent in animal
cells.

On the basis of colour, plastids are of following three types

Chloroplasts are photosynthetic
organelles. The chlorophyll
1. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids
present in them trap solar energy
containing chlorophyll.
for the purpose of synthesizing
food for the plant. So chloroplasts
are the ‘Kitchens of the cells’

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 Leucoplasts help in storing food
2. Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids
products like starch, protein and
lipids.

3. Chromoplast; Blue, red, and yellow

Chromoplasts provide colour to
colour plastids.
flower which in turn attracts
insects for pollination.

The centrosome organelle is made up of two

mutually perpendicular structures known as 1. Centrosome helps in cell
centrioles Most plant cells do not contain division in animal cells. During
centrosomes. Alternatively, plant cells cell division centrioles migrate to
contain other microtubule-organizing centers the poles of animal cells and are
that act as an alternative for centrosomes. involved in the formation of the
spindle.
It is not bounded by any membrane but 2. They produce basal bodies
consists of two granule-like centrioles. from which cilia and flagella
Centrioles are hollow cylindrical structures arise.
which are made up of microtubules.

 The centrosome is a spherical structure

located near the nucleus of a eukaryote cell
The centrosome replicates and
that helps organize cell division:
divides during early cell division,
CENTROSOMES The centrosome contains centrioles
or mitosis, to help separate the
AND  In plant cells, centrosomes produce spindle
cell's chromosomes
CENTRIOLES fibers directly.


Vacuoles are fluid-filled or solid-filled and 1. Vacuoles are meant for the
membrane bound spaces in the cytoplasm. storage of food, water and
Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells other substances.
VACUOLES while plant cells have very large vacuoles. 2. Vacuoles help to maintain
The vacuole is bounded by a membrane, the osmotic pressure in a
called tonoplast. The vacuole is filled with cell (osmoregulation).
cell sap which is watery solution rich in 3. Vacuoles provide turgidity

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 sugar, amino acids, proteins, mineralsand and rigidity to the plant
metabolic wastes. cells.

A microbody is a cell organelle present in

both plant and animal cells. Glyoxysomes, Peroxisomes are specialized for
peroxisomes are included in the microbodies carrying out some oxidative
family. reactions, such as detoxification
Peroxisomes are small and spherical or removal of toxic substances
organelles containing powerful oxidative from the cell.
enzymes.
MICROBODIES They are bounded by a single membrane.
(PEROXISOMES)

Cell- diagram –(GENERAL)

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NUCLEUS:
 The nucleus is a major, centrally located spherical cellular component. It is the centre from where
all cellular activities are controlled. It is the carrier of hereditary material in the cell.
 It is bounded by two membranes, both forming a nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope
contains many pores known as nuclear pores and encloses the liquid ground substance,
the nucleoplasm.
 The nucleopores allow transfer of materials between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. Within
nucleoplasm are embedded two types of nuclear structures- nucleolus and chromatin material.

Nucleolus:

 The nucleolus may be one or more in number ad is not bounded by any membrane.
 Nucleolus consists of DNA, RNA and protein.
 It is the site of ribosome formation. Nucleolus is known as factory of ribosomes.

Chromatin material:
 The chromatin is a thin, thread-like intermingled mass of chromosome material and composed of
the genetic substance DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins (i.e., histones).
 DNA stores all the information necessary for the cell to function (metabolism), to grow and to
reproduce further cells of the next generation.
 The chromatin is condensed into two or more thick ribbon-like chromosomes during the division
of cell.
 Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
 Genes carry information for protein synthesis, which in turn control the development of
characters. Since genes are present on chromosomes and chromosomes
pass from one generation to the next through, genes are
called hereditary units.

Chromatin, chromatids, and chromosomes are related in the

following ways:

Chromatin

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  In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin
material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures.
 Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes.

Chromosomes
 The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell
is about to divide.
 Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from parents to next generation in
the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
 Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. DNA molecules contain the information
necessary for constructing and organising cells.
 Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
 Rod-like structures that are formed when chromatin condenses during cell division. Each
chromosome has two chromatids, which are identical halves of the chromosome.
Chromatids
 The two identical halves of a chromosome that are held together at the centromere. Each
chromatid becomes a chromosome in a new cell that forms after cell division.

Functions of nucleus:
1. The nucleus controls all metabolic activities of the cell. If the nucleus is removed from the cell,
the protoplasm ultimately dries up and dies.
2. It regulates the cell cycle.
3. It is the storehouse of genes which are concerned with the development and manifestation of all
the body characters.
4. Nucleus helps in the formation of ribosomes and RNA.
5. It helps in the transmission of characters from one generation to the next.
6. The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell
divides and forms two new cells.
7. It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell will
develop and what form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell.

Cytoskeleton
It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run throughout the cytoplasm,
from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. The primary functions include providing the shape and
mechanical resistance to the cell against deformation, the contractile nature of the filaments helps in
motility during cytokinesis.

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia are hair-like projections, small
structures, present outside the cell wall
and work like oars to either move the
cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella
are slightly bigger and are responsible
for the cell movements.

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Differences Between Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Diagram showing the Difference between Plant cell and Animal cell

As stated above, both plant and animal cells share a few common cell organelles, as both are eukaryotes.
The function of all these organelles is said to be very much similar. However, the major differences
between the plant and animal cells, which significantly reflect the difference in the functions of each cell.
The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
Cell Wall Present Absent
Plasma/Cell Membrane Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum Present Present
Nucleus Present and lies on one side of Present and lies in the centre of
the cell the cell
Lysosomes Present but are very rare Present
Centrosomes Absent Present
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present
Plastids Present Absent
Vacuoles Few large or a single, centrally Usually small and numerous
positioned vacuole
Mitochondria Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
Cilia Absent Present in most of the animal
cells
Mode of Nutrition Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

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Both plant and animal cells comprise membrane-bound organelles, such as endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes. They also have similar membranes,
such as cytoskeletal elements and cytosol. The plant cell can also be larger than the animal cell. The
normal range of the animal cell varies from about 10 – 30 micrometres and that of plant cell range
between 10 – 100 micrometres.

MITOSIS & MEOSIS

Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where each
parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells.
Differences
Mitosis Meiosis

Involves one cell division? Involves two successive cell divisions

Results in two daughter cells Results in four daughter cells

Results Results in haploid daughter cells

in diploid daughter cells (chromosome number (chromosome number is halved from the
remains the same as parent cell) parent cell)
Daughter cells are genetically identical Daughter cells are genetically different
Occurs in all organisms except viruses Occurs only in animals, plants and fungi
Creates all body cells (somatic) apart from Creates germ cells (eggs and sperm) only
the germ cells(eggs and sperm)
No recombination/crossing over occurs Involves recombination/crossing over of
chromosomes
Similarities

Mitosis Meiosis

Diploid parent cell Diploid parent cell

Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase, Consists of interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase anaphase and telophase (but twice!)

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