Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

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An indigenous knowledge-based sustainable landscape for mountain

villages: The Jiabang rice terraces of Guizhou, China
Nian Wang a, b, Ming Fang b, Michelle Beauchamp c, Ziyu Jia a, d, Zhengxu Zhou a, *
a
School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
b
School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
c
School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
d
China National Engineering Research Center for Human Settlement, China Architecture Design and Research Group, Beijing, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A robust understanding of the effect of indigenous knowledge systems (IKSs) on spatial patterns of natural
Indigenous knowledge system resource management (NRM) in mountain landscapes could contribute to fostering ecological sustainability and
Natural resource management cultural diversity. This study addresses the mechanisms by which IKSs influence landscape through the man­
Intergenerational transmission
agement of various natural resources. Data was collected through multiple methods: in-depth interviews, a
Agricultural heritage
Jiabang rice terrace
questionnaire survey, and spatial participatory mapping, in Jiabang region, Guizhou China. The results show that
Sustainable landscape 1) local rice farming methods and livelihoods have influenced and been influenced by the creation and appli­
cation of IKSs including resource management knowledge of the mountains, forests, water and agricultural re­
sources; 2) the systems have shaped the communities’ landscape and the resulting spatial diversity through the
interlocking mediation of NRM with IKSs. This study also shows that IKSs continue to be transmitted well to the
following generation. Based on these findings, the mechanism of the influence of IKSs on landscapes through
NRM was discussed, and an ideal diagram of the sustainable landscape of the rice terraces was proposed. This
research can provide reference to the sustainable resource use, mountain protection, and tourism for moun­
tainous agricultural community.

1. Introduction 2016). Combining IKSs and modern scientific knowledge could be one of
the surest ways to solve the social and ecological challenges we are
Indigenous knowledge (IK) reflects the experience and represents the facing (Makondo & Thomas, 2018). Based on years of study and expe­
knowledge that humans have gained from living with and in the natural rience, IKSs offer many insights on both natural and cultural develop­
environment over thousands of years. People from different ethnic ment aspects, with profound implications globally in fields inculding
groups and different regions formulated unique production methods and medicine, food/nutrition sciences, ecosystem services, responding to
lifestyles suited to their region and culture (Armstrong et al., 2010). For climate change, reducing hunger, and maintaining biodiversity, (Cairns,
centuries, indigenous knowledge systems (IKSs) have fundamentally 2007; Cámara-Leret & Dennehy, 2019; Chadare et al., 2008; Corroto
supported the survival and livelihoods of local communities around the et al., 2019; David et al., 2012; Gartaula et al., 2020; Ladio & Lozada,
world, and have recently become increasingly important in addressing 2009; Liao et al., 2016; Min et al., 2016; Reyes-García & Benyei, 2019).
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Gadgil et al., 1993; Magni, The methods of recognizing and utilizing indigenous knowledge reflects
2017; Rajani et al., 2018). Despite that indigenous culture and com­ widespread respect and recognition of indigenous knowledge in the
munities are facing unprecedented challenges in the rapid globalization international community (Pert et al., 2015; UNDP et al., 2010).
and tourism development (Cristancho & Vining, 2009), it is worth For the indigenous peoples themselves, one of the most important
noting that in some cases, an IKS can offer insights into ways to resolve functions of IKS is to provide them with guidances to manage natural
these stakeholder conflicts by evolving with modern-day rural devel­ resources of their communities in order to achieve better survival. There
opment and transitions so as to continue the function in indigenous are evidences showing that IKSs can facilitate local NRM, especially in
communities (Rerkasem et al., 2009; Berkes & Turner, 2006; Jiao et al., remote mountain communities where steep terrain, limited habitat,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhouzhengxu@[Link] (Z. Zhou).

[Link]
Received 31 December 2019; Received in revised form 13 April 2021; Accepted 16 April 2021
Available online 29 April 2021
0197-3975/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

scarce natural resources, and more frequent natural disasters all increase of sustainable landscapes.
the pressures of survival (Altieri, 2002; Warren, 1996, pp. 81–88; Yuan
et al., 2012). Over centuries, indigenous people have accumulated a 2. Materials and methods
great deal of IK on NRM, such as water management, wood gathering,
food collection, cultivation, etc. (Gartaula et al., 2020; Howard, 2017; 2.1. Study area and population
Jiao et al., 2012; Mavhura & Mushure, 2019; Bolland et al., 2006). By
constantly interacting and modifying with natural surroundings under The study was conducted in Jiache Valley, the core area of the Jia­
specific guidelines (or habits) generated from IKS and NRM, indigenous bang rice terraces (latitude 25◦ 31′ –25◦ 40′ N, longitude 108◦ 30′ –108◦ 39′
landscapes with high sustainability were gradually evolved and shaped. E), about 80 km northeast of the seat of Congjiang County in the
(Higgins & Lockie, 2002; Thomas, 2003; Elnokaly & Thomas, 2019). Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou, China
Landscape, defined as the systematic presentation of the physical envi­ (Fig. 1). The site lies in the hinterlands of the Yueliang Mountains, where
ronment, provides a basis for establishing inclusive, safe, resilient, and the average altitude is 800m, and the highest peak is 1,500m. Rainfall is
sustainable settlements (Dayaratne, 2018). Indigenous landscape is the abundant at an annual average of 1,115 mm. The Yueliang Mountains
spatial foundation of a community and one of the most important car­ are one of the main water sources of the Duliujiang River Basin. The
riers of indigenous culture, therefore always regarded as key object in mountains create a turbulent river that flows through a region of rapid
the heritage protection field internationally (Strang, 2004). elevation changes, carrying a large volume of water. The constant
In previous studies, a series of technical routes have been put forward impact of the river and a variety of landforms has shaped the local
to reveal the relationship between natural resources, IKSs, and land­ middle mountain landscape with its numerous narrow valleys. The
scape. Yuan et al. (2012) argue that the IKSs have a deep and direct climate in this region experiences a transition from temperate to sub­
impact on local people’s NRM; Kakoty (2018) found that the NRM tropical, with an average annual temperature of about 18 ◦ C. With
methods interact with the natural pressures and cycles in the traditional relatively high temperatures and sufficient water, the region includes a
Khasi IKS; Jiao et al. (2012) suggest an indirect relationship between large area of dense forest and is rich in natural resources (Yang et al.,
indigenous people’s IKSs and the spatial pattern of their living envi­ 2012).
ronment; Zhou et al. (2016) suggest that the indigenous landscape is The unique local hydrothermal and geological conditions of the
constantly adjusted to account for changing survival pressures through a Yueliang Mountains make large-scale rice farming possible. The Miao
process of natural resource management i.e. adaptation, stress moder­ people, an indigenous ethnic group, have lived in the area for thousands
ation, and communication, which integrated with local people’ s IKS. of years (Weng, 2010; Wu, 2004). The Miao have used their IK of the
Many previous studies has clarified the connections between IKSs, NRM area to create a unique “rice-fish-duck” eco-agricultural system (Zhan &
and the landscape, and pointed out the continuous and adaptive man­ Long, 2014). Due to their knowledge of sustainable local agricultural
agement of natural resources in landscape formation. However, previous practices and the values of their unique culture, this area has been
studies have not focused on detailing the spatial processes, the key link formed into a large-scale mountainous rice farming landscape, which
between IKSs, NRM, and landscape. When it comes to the specific spatial was recognized as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
characteristics and mapping of various important IKSs, as well as the (GIAHS) site by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
spatial relationships of various natural resource management, studies United Nations in 2011 (Min, 2009; Min et al., 2016).
are rare. The largest rice terrace in the heritage area, the Jiabang rice terrace,
The deep understanding of the spatial mechanism and effective in­ is a complete traditional agricultural system, and is one of the most
heritance of IKSs can actively facilitate the maintenance of the indige­ representative examples of concentrated ethnic communities living in
nous culture and landscape even with the addition of modernization and the mountains of this region (Wu, 2010). Miao villages are located on
tourism involvement (Bohensky & Maru, 2011; McCarter et al., 2014). the mountainsides along the Jiache River Valley, where three Miao
The successful evolution and maintance of IKS in modern indigenous villages — Jiache, Jiaye, and Dangniu — are surrounded by the largest
communities largely depends on the younger generations’ recognition terraces. The stilted buildings in these communities stand in tiers along
and acceptance of IKS’s value (Cristancho & Vining, 2009), for they are the terraces as part of this unique landscape.
both rooted in traditional local culture and largely influenced by modern The study population are representative villagers of various occu­
society, and will take the main responsibility for the continued sus­ pations and positions from Jiache, Jiaye, and Dangniu, including local
tainability of their communities. Hence, in order to provide insights on middle-aged farmers, village leaders (village party cadres), tourism
future policy frameworks to assist in IKS inheritance and conserving operators, and young students.
sustainable indigenous landscapes, our study has the following two
purposes: 2.2. Methods

1) First, to identify and clarify the spatial mechanisms of IKSs affecting This study employed a variety of methods: in-depth interviews, a
local landscapes systematically; questionnaire survey, and participatory spatial mapping. Based on a
2) Secondly, to investigate a successful case of IK and NRM, and its literature review and information obtained from local scholars, we
trans-generation inheritance. conducted three field surveys in the Jiabang rice terraces: the initial visit
to the villages was made in April 2016 to complete a pre-survey
A multi-method investigation was conducted at a Globally Important reconnaissance and conceptualize our study; we then mapped the vil­
Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) site, the Jiache Valley of the lages and conducted land-use surveys as well as completing in-depth
Jiabang rice terraces. The hundreds of years of NRM practice by indig­ interviews with key stakeholders in July 2017; and finally we con­
enous people has resulted in the formation of a complete set of IKSs. The ducted on-site interviews and the questionnaire surveys in January
NRM practices is synchronized with and directed reflected in the spatial 2019. The interviews and surveys were integrated with geospatial
layout of their mountain agricultural landscape. This article provides an mapping to reach three goals: first, to summarize the IKS of the Miao
important reference for many agricultural communities around the people, focusing particularly on how they build their homes and manage
world in terms of knowledge transfer, landscape construction, and cul­ natural resources; secondly, to identify practical models of important
tural diversity inheritance to encourage them to cope with the chal­ natural and agricultural spaces; and thirdly, to explore the cognitive
lenges of urbanization, globalization, and global climate change. The influence of and contribution to the local indigenous knowledge systems
paper therefore contributes to the body of knowledge and literature in through intergenerational changes such as changes in livelihood models.
the field of efficient management of natural resources and maintenance The number of valid questionnaires and participatory mapping is shown

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

Fig. 1. Map of the study site.

in Table 1. score, the higher the cognition).; and the fourth part investigated the
main pathways of intergenerational IKS transmission.
2.2.1. In-depth interviews
The main focus of the in-depth interviews was to examine how 2.2.3. Participatory mapping
changes to local livelihood models, the role of NRM, and other related Participatory mapping has become an indispensable tool in the
IKSs have affected the Miao people’s current response to external struggle of indigenous peoples to claim their rights to land and resources
challenges. Due to language barriers and communication difficulties (Roth, 2009), and one of the most important research tools for collecting
with the locals, semi-structured interviews were adapted to allow some the IK of rural communities (Dunn, 2007; Talen, 2000). Respondents
flexibility. The interview questions mainly included intention to work marked important locations on a map based on their own experience.
outside the village, cognition of traditional NRM, and how they thought The resources of the event spaces we used aided us in understanding
IKSs are transmitted through generations. what types of natural resources and geographic spaces were relevant to
the daily operations and wellbeing of the community (O’Laughlin &
2.2.2. Questionnaire survey Brubaker, 1998; Townley et al., 2009).
A structured questionnaire on basic livelihoods and IK of Jiache In order to precisely illustrate the respondents’ intention, a GIS
River Valley was developed to enquire about the livelihood of villagers spatial map containing the landscape elements of settlement distribu­
in the region and the level of local knowledge about NRM, especially tion, contour lines, rice terraces and other landscape elements was made
among different generations. With the support of the local volunteers, prior to the investigation (Fig. 2). Participatory mapping was then
we offered translation for villagers who were not proficient in mandarin. combined with the GIS map to allow the respondents to mark and label
The questionnaire consisted of four parts: the first part obtained the several types of spaces: the spatial distribution of the IKSs on NRM that
interviewees’ basic information, including gender, age, occupation, and they reckoned to be important; delineating the village’s spatial territory;
level of education; the second part involved the impact of tourism to indicate the scope of the farmland belonging to each village group
development on the livelihood of the community; and the third part (each village consists of several groups); and to show the parade paths of
assessed the villagers’ awareness of IK as embodied in NRM. We asked major festivals. Based on this information, cognitive landscape maps
the villagers to score their familiarity with IKSs that may exist in local were created.
NRM based on actual experience (on a scale of 1–5 where the higher the

2.3. Technical research route on the IKS-based sustainable landscape for

Table 1 mountain villages
Composition of respondents.
Village Number of valid Number of valid in- Number of
In order to explain how indigenous people face and adapt to chal­
questionnaires depth interviewees total lenges with gradual changes to their IKS, this paper takes a more inte­
households grated technical route to explore the complex relationships among the
Jiache Village 30 1 262 IKSs, NRM, and the landscape. A combined research route was intro­
Jiaye Village 56 4 132 duced in our study (Fig. 3), inspired by the Driver-State-Impact-
Dangniu Village 29 1 225 Response (DSIR) and Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response
Others (Scholars, 5
– –
(DPSIR) frameworks which have been widely used to analyze the ben­
government staff
etc.) efits or other impacts of changes in natural resources and to explain
environmental resource problems (Dhakal & Kattel, 2019; Melnykovych
Total 115 11 619
et al., 2018).

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

Fig. 2. Participatory map basis (example of Jiache Village), which reflects the distribution of villages, terraces and rivers, serves as the basis for villagers to mark
on them.

Fig. 3. Technical route.

First, a description and summary of the IKS of the Miao people serves the sustainable landscape of the mountain community was gradually
as the basis for analysis, particularly regarding how they build their formed using NRM within the IKSs, and investigate the distribution of
homes and manage their natural resources, and a comprehensive anal­ physical landscape elements and the interrelationships with the Miao
ysis of the agroecological landscape elements/pattern of the mountains, people’s cultural landscape. In addition, we explore the intergenera­
water, woodlands, fields, and villages of the area. Then, we analyze how tional inheritance of the Miao people’s IKSs and the role of cultural

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development in the midst of the transformation of the tourism industry irrigate the fields to maintain the soil’s moisture and prevent it from
in the Jiabang rice terraces. Then, we analyze the landscape construc­ drying and cracking. Wild grassland along the edges of the terraces slows
tion mechanisms of the Jiabang rice terraces. Finally, a possible path is down surface runoff and serves as an additional buffer against disasters
proposed for this mountain community to cope with changes to their such as landslides or floods.
livelihood via tourism and sustainable development within the local
community. 3.1.2. IKS of forest management
Local forestry management techniques are closely related to IKSs as
3. Main findings well as religious beliefs and are managed through village regulations.
The Miao people in the Jiache River Valley developed a deist belief
3.1. IKS on NRM system centered on forest and mountain worship as part of the long
process of constructing and inhabiting their settlements. Rare species of
This Study focused on four particular natural resource types and the trees in the area such as maple are often deified in expectation of their
related IKSs: mountains, forests and woodlands, agriculture, and water. long-term flourishing, and this acts as a sort of preservation order. These
For each resource area, we looked at how IK is used to protect and trees are generally called the Feng Shui Tree or Village Guard Tree and
conserve the resource, indigenous cognition of the landscape pattern are revered by the entire village. As one villager told us, “The old maple
and placement of the resource, the intergenerational transmission of the tree in the middle of the village is a sacred place for our ancestor worship.”
relevant IKS, and how that resource has been or could be affected by the Another villager explained that “People come from the trees and go back to
growth in tourism. In most cases these categories overlap: At transact the trees [after death]. Some old trees in the village are entrusted with our
walks in the agricultural landscapes, we observed that rice terraces spirit and can’t be desecrated.”
(agricultural landscape feature) are built into the mountains. Many re­ Because the forest is considered to be a sacred place among the local
spondents said that they considered integrity of mountain and stability villagers, logging and hunting are prohibited in this area. They believe
of terraces to manage their land resources. They also need to best utilize that this ban helps to guarantee the sustainability of the village. In the
water to grow the rice without the detriment of the woodlands. We also interviews, these villagers also clearly explained that one of the func­
noticed that there are not stretches of deforested lands. The respondents tions of the ancient trees is similar to lighthouses: when walking in the
said that when trees are planted or harvested, the location is carefully foggy Jiache River Valley, people can find the direction of the village by
selected, as removal of too many trees in one area can destabilize the identifying these tall tree outlines in the dense fog.
soil, leading to potentially disastrous landslides. IKSs and indigenous The reverence for nature makes the Miao people fully attend to the
NRM techniques tend to consider the whole as being more than the sum protection of their local ecology and is the basis for many village of the
of the parts, so that all parts might thrive and remain sustainable. One regulations concerning the protection of forests. As the village regula­
villager explained that “Forest, village, terrace, valley is a whole system. tions stipulated that “owners of a field must maintain a boundary of a
Our ancestors can’t separate them and we can’t separate them.” certain width between their fields and forests,” so that tall trees won’t affect
Rice from terraces is the most important food for local residents, and the amount of sunlight that crops receive. There are also rules regarding
rice cultivation as a livelihood is the basis for the local structure of cutting down trees for building and for firewood. The connection be­
culture and society; so most of their IK practices place rice cultivation at tween generations is seen in this rule: “Each family usually plant some
their centre, forming a unique rice farming livelihood model. Therefore, trees in preparation of the material to build wood houses. When the children
we present our findings with consideration for the centrality of rice get married and need new houses, the trees would be cut down, but only those
production. The process of rice farming involves a series of IK and NRM trees were planted by their parents more than ten years in advance would be
techniques, and these are used in all four categories as described below. chosen.” Similarly, when collecting firewood, only certain types of trees
can be cut down: “We can only cut down the small trees that can not become
3.1.1. IKS of mountain protection useful, not the big trees, not the trees planted according to the plan”, thus
The IKS of mountain protection is the basic foundation in shaping a ensuring the integrity of the forest, as well as the sustainability of
sustainable environment for the Miao people. When carrying out traditional practices. The integrity of the community is also important in
mountain reconstruction to prevent disasters such as landslides, the the IKSs. As one villager simply stated, “The forest on the mountain be­
community said they considered local topographic sensitivities and longs to everyone” and all villagers work together to ensure that each
conditions (e.g, soil erosion vulnerability, soil type and intended takes only what they need. Cutting too many trees not only affects the
planting vegetation) to carryout farming, construction and other ecology of the area, but may also anger the local deities. Local officials
development activities for preventing or minimizing disasters in the note that “the people in these villages are very united” and that “traditional
lands. The importance of the intergenerational transmission of IK is knowledge creates a sustainable and productive environment.”
shown in this quote from one of the interviewees: “Our ancestors told us
that some places are obviously not suitable for terracing. After terracing, 3.1.3. IKS of agriculture management
either the rice will not grow well or it will be easily washed down by floods. It’s The respondents said many consideration were taken in development
important to find the right place, not hinder the direction of the water, and and maintenance of the terraces. The primary criteria of determining
leave a place for the woods.” Another local villager described the process whether to make rice terrace is availability of irrigation source including
of choosing a suitable site: “We usually choose steep slopes with loose, thick spring and farming benefits. According to the respondents, sizes and
layers of soil and reform the slopes into tiers of terraces, reinforced with shapes of the terraces was determined by land slop level, potential land
rocks, soil, and cultivated grass that adds stability to the mountainside”. It stability success during heavy rainfall or water accumulation seasons,
was also pointed out that there are certain IK rules to be followed to water flowing convenience and convenient of agricultural operations. As
protect the integrity of the mountain and to maintain the flow of the one villager explained, in addition to the above-mentioned consider­
water: “First, do not dig the main mountain ridge; second, make rice fields ations, “The best terraces are located in the place with good sunshine and
around the mountains; third, do not destroy or block the karst cave”. irrigation water.” Once the site is chosen, excavation of terraces should
Another added that IK tells them it is best to “conform to the shape of the “conform to the shape of the mountain instead of breaking it” and the ter­
mountain instead of breaking it. The fill should be balanced with the exca­ races are excavated from bottom to top. The lower layer of raw soil is cut
vation.” These aspects of their IK allows them to construct without into squares and these soil bricks are then laid back on to the surfaces
destruction, so that the balance and integrity of the overall mountain that were excavated earlier to form a relatively flat surface.
ecosystem is maintained. In other words, the rice terraces become part of The Miao ancestors knew that the rice terraces had to become part of
the ecosystem, rather than an imposition on it. In the winter, people the mountain, and accordingly, the terraces encircle the mountain and

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are constructed with attention to local karst caves and the natural di­ torrential floods. The villagers use stones to form weirs to control the
rection of the water flow. The respondents said that the maintenance of flow of water. This method adjusts the speed of the water flow, forming a
the terraces is also important to prevent disasters. “Terraces are main­ relatively gentle pond as a habitat for the fish and ducks. The stone weirs
tained every year. If they are not planted for a few years, they will collapse.” also collect a certain amount of water, which helps prevent drought
In addition, a series of ceremonies and cultural activities such as sacri­ conditions during the dry season. “The water [source] needs to stable,”
ficial ceremonies centre on the opening of the fields to pray for a good said one villager, “It’s better not to stop during the dry season, and it can
harvest. Other festivals also centre on natural elements. For example, flow all the way to the bottom of the field.” The interrelationships between
“During festivals, such as the Miao New Year Festival, the ceremony will all elements shows up in the IK regarding water as well. One interviewee
cover the whole village, the terraces and the woods on the mountain.” said “Water is related to the forest. It flows from the forest above the
The rice-fish-duck agroecological system constitutes a complex food mountain.“Another added that “The water is as high as the mountain is. So
chain network with rice, weeds, fish, and ducks and also forms part of don’t be surprised to see that our terraces are on high mountains. As long as
the traditional IK. “The fish is raised in the rice terraces, and ducks are also the trees grow well in higher places, there will always be water.”
raised together. This system has a long history,” said one interviewee,
adding that it works well because “Fish and ducks eat pests in rice fields to 3.1.5. The connection between spatial elements and IKS on NRM
make rice grow better. The fish and ducks grow fast, too.” Based on the IK The results show that almost every NRM technique as well as the IKSs
understanding the habits of fish and ducks, different farming sections are directly related to and affect the arrangement of all the elements of
are divided on the basis of topography, roads, and canals. Ducks and fish the village landscape. As we have seen, this spatial system is divided into
are released at different time periods as the rice grows. Three relatively four categories: mountain, woodland, rice terraces, and water, which
independent food chain networks with dominant species of rice, fishes relates to the NRM categories of mountain protection, forest manage­
and ducks allows the village to maintain greater stability against the ment, agriculture management, and water management. The unique IKS
impact of any dramatic changes in the external environment. Harvesting of the Miao was formed to ensure their survival and influences many of
of the fish and the rice is done in tandem. One villager explained that IK their particular cultural traditions. Overall, the Miao people’s settle­
and experience shows that “Generally, when the rice is harvested, the fish ments in Jiabang have focused on co-prosperity with nature, focusing on
has grown enough to eat as well. When we gathered the rice in the harvest stability and sustainability. As one villager put it, “We are very clear that
season, we caught the fish in the field to roast at lunchtime.” the village includes not only houses, but also forests, terraces and rivers,
Due to the dense coverage of forest, relatively short day lengths, which together constitute our home.” The various types of IK and NRM
cloudy weather, and lower average temperatures in the mountainous mainly affect the surrounding landscapes of the village and play a syn­
areas, some typical rice varieties are difficult to grow. However, there ergistic role in different ecological spaces (Table 2). Such IKSs interact
are “more than ten kinds of rice handed down by our ancestors,” one with the religious system of nature worship of the Jiabang Miao, who
villager said, adding that “Each kind of rice has different characteristics believe that everything has a spirit, including the mountains, trees, and
and adapts to the soil, water, light and height of different terraces.” The most streams.
common is a glutinous rice with strong ecological adaptability, high
resistance, high yield, and a unique taste. The growth cycle of glutinous 3.2. Spatial cognition and practice of NRM and landscapes
rice is long, which is conducive to raising fish and ducks in the rice
paddies. Nevertheless, as one villager noted, “Now we also use some rice After clarifying the influence of IKSs on NRM through in-depth in­
seeds bought from outside, but each family still needs to grow some traditional terviews, the results of participatory mapping further revealed the
rice. Each kind of rice has a different taste, and sometimes we prefer tradi­ spatial distribution of each item of NRM with sufficient IK, and the
tional rice.” For this, a set of unique farming techniques of planting, spatial connections among the elements. This allowed us to map out the
harvesting, drying, warehousing, and threshing has been created and villagers’ overall spatial perception of the village landscape (Fig. 4).
forms a significant part of the IKSs. The agricultural landscapes based on IK regarding agriculture man­
agement are concentrated around the villages, are continuous, and are
3.1.4. IKS of water management large scale. The large villages are gathered together, with smaller vil­
The villagers regard the construction of a mountain irrigation system lages scattered around. The forest landscape based on IK of forest
as an important aspect of the agricultural ecosystem. IKSs related to management is evenly distributed throughout the river valley, with the
water also take account of other water needs – that of the trees and other Fengshui forest above the village being the most concentrated area.
uncultivated vegetation, as well as water for drinking, cooking, and Generally, the Fengshui forest is a dense woodland above the settle­
washing. The villagers understand the need for careful conservation and ments and often contains sacred trees. The water landscapes based on IK
work together to ensure adequate supplies. One respondent told us that on water management are mainly divided into two types; the natural
“Several families have to discuss which family will use water first and which stream landscapes represented by rivers on the surface, and the water
family will use water later. This involves management issues, but generations conservancy landscapes represented by ditches, pits, and ponds used in
have negotiated very well.” The IK related to water management involves the settlements and agricultural life. Due to the high mountain range and
different components, such as “wells, canals, ponds and paddy fields inside
and outside the village.” Diversion via canals and trenches to control Table 2
water flow effectively combines with vertical and horizontal channels The local IKS of NRM.
and paddy fields to form a three-dimensional water network. At the Spatial category NRM IK
same time, water inlets and outlets were reserved in both upper and
Mountain Mountain protection Mountain disaster avoidance
lower fields, taking advantage of the elevation difference to complete
Soil rotation and fertilization
automatic irrigation. One villager said this variety of forms is central in Woodland Forest management Planting forests for firewood and
their NRM for water, and is based on their IK. Once again, the centrality building
of rice is emphasized: One interviewee told us simply that “Growing rice Water conservation for forest
depends on water, so the choice of water source is the most important.” maintenance
Agriculture (rice Agriculture Traditional crop planting
The towering, continuous Yueliang Mountains are often wreathed in terraces) management Rice-fish-duck management
mist, which brings an abundance of precipitation to the region. Some of Rice harvesting and processing
the rainwater permeates the ground in the forests and forms a rich water Water Water management Deep-water rice paddy
source for the Miao villagers. However, the abundant rainwater is hard construction
Water conservation and storage
to retain in natural conditions, and may increase the potential of

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Fig. 4. Cognitive landscape map based on the participation and perception of the villagers.

abundant precipitation, the rainwater follows the mountain formation Agriculture management” scored the highest among the four di­
and carves numerous pathways on the surface. Meanwhile, the forests mensions. Table 3 shows that although the three generations of the old,
collect and hold the water, which flows underground and becomes an middle-aged and young people in the Jiache Valley currently have
inexhaustible and abundant water source for residents. As noted above, different degrees of mastery of the local knowledge system in NRM, the
the local villagers use stone barriers to form mountain weirs to control cultural transmission between generations on agriculture management,
water flow, which allows water to be retained and the volume adjusted water management, mountain protection and forest management is still
for daily use. effective.
The accumulation of spatial distribution and patterns of NRM with Typical approaches for transmitting IK on NRM through generations
IKs constitutes the villagers’ cognition of the overall village landscape. are illustrated in Table 4. The most chosen means of transmission of IKSs
As can be seen from Fig. 4, the villagers’ cognition scope of the land­ between generations are cultural practices in specific spaces (71), village
scape in the three villages generally contains the following: a village as regulations (43), and administrative regulations (27). The practice of
the landscape core, with a radius of about 2–4 km, including landscape each specific IKS will always take place in a specific space, and the
elements such as terraces, forests, and water systems, showing evenly cultural practices carried out in this space often greatly contribute to the
arranged small clusters adjacent to each other in the valleys. Combining intergenerational transmission of IK. One young interviewee told us,
the spatial cognition map and the GIS map, a landscape map of Jiache “When I was young, I did some farm work with the older generation, so now I
Valley was finally created (Fig. 5), showing the distribution and spatial know some knowledge. For example, if you ask me to recognize some kinds of
form of the whole landscape and its settlements, especially the forest, grains, I can tell you the common ones, I even know where to grow them. I
agriculture fields, mountain and water systems. know some common trees on the mountain as well.” A young girl said: “I
would like to come back to work with my parents in the field when I am on
3.3. Intergenerational inheritance of IKS during tourism transformation holiday, so I know the knowledge of planting rice in case I stand in the field”.
Still, there are some gaps in knowledge transmission. The first inter­
Like many agricultural landscapes and systems around the world, the viewee quoted above added that while they had some knowledge of
Jiabang rice terraces face severe challenges from economic globalization plant identification, “If you want me to rebuild terraces or build wooden
and urbanization. Particularly after the FAO released its list of GIAHS in houses, I can’t do it, Special study is needed.”
2011, the rapid development of tourism has considerably impacted local The interviews also showed that many of the younger generation
livelihoods. Before the nomination and tourism development, the young currently attend schools in cities and towns outside the river valley and
and middle-aged villagers were rarely seen at home. There families said thus their practice of NRM has been reduced. While one young villager
that many of them went out to work. In contrast, based on our obser­ said that “primary and junior high schools teach some traditional culture,”
vation, many villagers are now returning to their hometowns and the transmission of IK still mainly comes from various practical activities
starting local businesses, such as homestays, restaurants, and photog­ led by their grandparents and parents. These family traditions remain
raphy agencies. the main pathway of intergenerational transmission of IK on NRM. In
To investigate the younger generation’s understanding of IKSs on the addition, the closely related social structure in the village means the
NRM of the Jiache River Valley, we assessed the cognition of IK systems younger generation have to abide by some village regulations in daily
by villagers of different ages (Table 3). The results show an overall trend life, which is another source of learning IK. A local official confirmed
that awareness of the IKSs increases with age. Although cognition in the this, saying “The village culture is well preserved. The way of life and
under-30 age group is lower than that of middle-aged and older people, agricultural production, including the rice-fish-duck ecosystem, are well
it is still at a medium-high level and in some cases even exceeded the preserved. So the landscape is very complete and beautiful.”
middle-aged group. It is particularly noteworthy that the younger gen­
eration’s ecological awareness in certain aspects is higher than that of 4. Discussion
the middle-aged generation, which means that this younger generation
has a deeper understanding of IKSs in some important aspects. When In this study, IKSs are proven to contribute to the effective and long-
comparing the figures of different dimensions of diverse IKSs, the “IKS of term sustainable management of the rice terraces agroecosystem.

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

Fig. 5. The landscape and its elements in Jiache Valley influenced by NRM.

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

Table 3 villagers, and the IKS on NRM is directly reflected in the construction of
Cognition assessment of IK system by villagers of different ages. spatial elements and landscapes (Fig. 6). With this spatial process of IKSs
Four IKS Average Age and NRM, the local Miao people have created a steep, large scale
Dimensions Cognition terraced landscape in extreme conditions, demonstrating clear
≤30 31–49 ≥50
Assessment livelihood-oriented construction principles. This is a useful addition to
IKS of Forest Planting forests 3.2 3.17 2.95 3.42 the field of IKS research.
management for firewood With such mechanisms, the villagers have adopted unique NRM
Water 3.4 3.51 3.15 3.6 measures based in traditional IK to shape each landscape element. In
conservation for
forest
previouss studies on terrace agroecosystem, the importance of villagers’
maintenance adaptive utilization of water, land, topography and vegetation had been
IKS of Mountain Soil rotation and 3.37 3.25 2.92 3.85 well emphasized (Jiao et al., 2012; Min et al., 2016; Neyra-Cabatac
protection fertilization et al., 2013), this paper further supports this point of view. The Miao
Mountain disaster 2.98 2.77 2.79 3.39
people fully understand the value of each part of the landscape system,
recovery
IKS of Water Deep-water rice 3.85 3.42 3.96 4.17 make use of the structure of the vertical ecosystem, conform to natural
management paddy changes in elevation, and respond to changes in the conditions of hy­
construction drothermal and material distribution caused by altitude differences
Ditch construction 3.3 3.05 3.21 3.66 (Fig. 7). The elevation boundary between the village and the river buffer
and maintenance
IKS of Rice-fish-duck 4.26 3.88 4.56 4.45
zone is 600m above sea level. Due to the considerable potential water
Agriculture management energy of the Jiache River, there are large undeveloped primeval forests
management Traditional crop 3.96 3.64 3.92 4.26 on either side of the banks to mitigate the potential impact of water flow
planting and flooding. Building villages above 600m elevation could also prevent
Glutinous rice 3.79 3.74 3.82 3.76
flood damage, although attention has to be paid to the stability of the
collection and
processing soil. Rice terraces generally start from the foot of the mountain and
spread up the mountainside onto slopes suitable for reclamation or onto
AVG 3.57 3.38 3.48 3.84
the shoulders of the mountain to form a continuous layer of belt terraces.
Terraces at an altitude lower than 1,000m are planted mainly with
tradtional rice varieties, and the terraces at higher altitude are planted
Table 4 mainly with glutinous rice. In the winter, vegetables are grown around
Typical approaches for transmitting IKS on NRM (multiple choices). the village for general consumption. The forests, which grow mostly on
Means of transmission Cumulative number of Percentage of the total either side of the river nearer the ridgeline of the mountains and in deep
choices of respondents number of respondents valleys, function as a natural base for water conservation and soil sta­
Village regulations 43 37.39% bilization. The villages are distributed mainly amongst the terraces and
Religious taboos 7 6.09% are also closely connected to woodland areas, forming a top-down ver­
Cultural practices in 71 61.74%
tical landscape consisting of the forest, settlement, rice terrace, and river
specific spaces
Administrative 27 23.48%
buffer zone as the altitude changes (see Fig. 8).
regulations Hence, a sustainable landscape model based on IKSs was formed.
Did not know 0 0.00% Previous studies have shown the key role of indigenous people in
N(Sample Size) 115 – shaping local landscape and its sustainability, especially in livelihood
patterns and natural resource management (Min et al., 2016; Bolland
Compared with the settlements in plains or terraces (Camacho et al., et al.). This study provides new evidence for this conclusion. Moreover,
2012; Jiao et al., 2012; Neyra-Cabatac et al., 2012; Oldekop et al., it contributes to explaining the formation mechanism of characteristic
2012), the Miao people living in the mountains face challenges such as landscape. The landscape of the Jiabang Terraces agroecosystem show
scarce arable land, frequent natural disasters, and water shortages. The clear principles of livelihood-oriented construction, intensive
results shows that the IKSs on NRM categorized as mountain protection, three-dimensional mountain agricultural construction and maintenance
forest management, agriculture management, and water management, based on ecological capacity, and an overall landscape formed from the
play a key role in the sustainable livelihoods of indigenous people in multiple elements of mountains, water, forests, fields and settlements.
high mountain areas. This study adds a piece of reliable evidence con­ The results show that Miao people fully understand the value of each
cerning the continuing global importance of IKSs in sustainable part of the landscape system, take advantage of the structure of the
development. vertical mountain ecosystem, conform to the natural undulating terrain,
The study explored the role of IKSs in a specific holistic agro­ and make adequate responses to changes in the conditions of water,
ecosystem in more depth, especially in the field of spatial practices and heat, and material distribution caused by altitude differences. The
how the Miao people see all systems (mountain, forest, agriculture and mountain and woodland, as the base of the entire mountain agricultural
water) as being inextribably linked. Some studies have noted the influ­ cultural landscape, surround and support the internal settlement land­
ence of IKSs on landscape formation, such as distribution of settlements scape, and provide a material basis for the sustainable development
and IK, the relationship between population and landscape pattern, within the overall environment. The water landscape serves as a link
environment and form shaping (Bohensky & Maru, 2011; Camacho that connects the entire cultural landscape, closely connecting moun­
et al., 2012; David et al., 2012; Elnokaly & Thomas, 2019), yet some tains, forests and villages. In the end, it constitutes a top-down
studies have demonstrated that IKSs can indirectly affect the formation mountainous agricultural landscape of mountain-forests-settlements
of terrace landscapes (Jiao et al., 2012; Pert et al., 2015; Shaker, 2018; -terraces-rivers.
Thomas, 2003; Yuan et al., 2012). But previous studies of IKSs rarely Finally, this article discusses the intergenerational transmission of IK
investigated the impacts on spatial forms and landscapes, nor the in this unique agroecosystem. Most previous studies have suggested that
in-depth study of the role of spatial practices in this process. In this the IK of younger generation in the indigenous communities is declining
study, the spatial mechanism of IKSs related to NRM in the formation of due to complicated reasons (Cristancho & Vining, 2009; Liu, 2007; Yuan
the landscape of Miao people has been illustrated directly, and could be et al., 2012). They attributed this declining trend to the overwhelming
summarized thus: IKSs impact on the livelihood and NRM practices of modernization process, which result in biodiversity loss, urbanization,
changes in social norms and lack of motivation to teach and learn.

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

Fig. 6. Mechanism of the influence of IKSs on landscapes through NRM. Note the intricate interrelatedness of the elements.

Fig. 7. Vertical landscape of Jiache River Valley showing the changes in the landscape based on altitude.

However, in our case, the results show that the Miao people still main­ the elderly, which indicates that more knowledge could promote un­
tain a medium-high intergenerational transmission of IKSs. The opposite derstanding of the deeper ecosystem texture. Furthermore, this study
findings could be due to their unique social-cultural status and the suggested that effective intergenerational transmission of NRM has
positive actions that the officials has taken. Cultural practices related to contributed to maintaining the sustainable agroecosystem. Based on our
specific spaces play an important role, followed by village regulations, interviews, local schools are now developing creative courses that make
which shows that culture and common living space have a huge impact the transmission of this knowledge mandatory after the FAO released its
on the transmission of IKSs, and that the acquisition of IK mainly relies list of GIAHS sites in 2011. In addition to the cultural practices and
on daily life and cultural exposure. In particular, the study found that the village regulations, we consider mandatory education in schools to be
younger generation’s ecological awareness of IK is higher than that of important for the transmission of IK in the future.

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N. Wang et al. Habitat International 111 (2021) 102360

2. In the process, their IKSs have had a considerable influence on the

formation of the communities’ landscape through the mediation and
integration of NRM.
3. The intergenerational inheritance of IKSs is relative successful in the
younger generations, thanks to numerous avenues of transmission
including cultural practices synchronized with specific spaces.

We also discussed policies necessary to ensure the renaissance, pro­

tection, and transmission of IKSs in the context of rapid globalization
and urbanization, and we believe it will shed light on the future path of
development for the mountain villages, especially intergeneration in­
heritance. Therefore, this study contributes to the body of knowledge
theoretically and practically, in the field of efficient management of
natural resources and maintenance of sustainable landscapes.
We have noticed that cultural diversity is closely related to biodi­
versity in indigenous areas, and there is a symbiotic relationship be­
tween the management of indigenous culture and the local ecosystem,
which still needs to be further studied. In addition, in the future, the
landscape of local NRM can be evaluated based on ecosystem service
Fig. 8. Landscape diagram of Jiabang rice terraces. indicators. Through this study, we firmly believe that a deeper under­
standing of IKSs can provide a reference for the formulation of fair and
Therefore, the Jiabang rice terraces, a GIAHS site, could act as a effective indigenous community protection policies, and thus provide a
successful case study of the impact of IKSs on NRM and its trans-gen­ reference for sustainable development on a global scale.
eration inheritance, and could be used to create future policy frame­
works to assist in the appropriate management of natural resources and Funding
a sustainable legacy landscape. Although the communities of the Jia­
bang rice terraces are currently undergoing many challenges in the National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFD1100705).
process of transformation and development, we believe the following
policy issues should provide points of reference for many mountain CRediT authorship contribution statement
communities at the global level. First, the government, the local au­
thorities, and every individual household should fully comprehend and Nian Wang: Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Visualiza­
utilize the wisdom of their local IKSs to ensure the sustainability of their tion, Writing – original draft. Ming Fang: Investigation, Writing – re­
communities. This is important in maintaining cultural confidence and view & editing. Michelle Beauchamp: Writing – review & editing. Ziyu
diversity as the tourism industry gradually grows. Second, the revival, Jia: Writing – review & editing. Zhengxu Zhou: Supervision, Concep­
protection, and transmission of IKSs in regards to NRM should be tualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
emphasized in future development strategies and practices. This is editing.
critical to control or reduce damage to the original communities and the
surrounding environment, which ensures sustainable rural development Acknowledgment
in these communities. Third, although the development of tourism and
the attendant infrastructure will inevitably affect the livelihood model, Thank the scholars, villagers, cadres and local young students who
NRM, and even landscape elements/patterns of these communities, the helped us in field investigation, especially Prof. Luo Kangzhi of Kaili
policy should ensure protection of the tradtional spaces and lifestyle. College and Dr. Zhang Qiang of Guizhou Medical University.
IKSs are an evolutionary system, so policies should advocate IKSs which
inherit and reflect the characteristics of the times. A villager summed it Appendix A. Supplementary data
up thus: “Before becoming a GIAHS site, the landscape here was like this.
After becoming GIAHS, transportation, water and electricity have Supplementary data to this article can be found online at [Link]
changed a lot, but agricultural production is still basically the same as org/10.1016/[Link].2021.102360.
before. Therefore, terraces, forests, villages and river valleys are basi­
cally maintained. I think the original landscape is the most important.” References

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