OM REVIEWER

STAFFING CHAPTER 5

DEFINITION AND NATURE OF STAFFING

-is the human resource function of identifying, attracting, hiring, and retaining people with future jobs in the
organization. Dyck and Neubert, (2012)

THE PROCESS OF STAFFING

• Manpower Planning

• Job Analysis

• Recruitment

• Selection

• Placement

• Induction

• Training and Development

• Performance Appraisal

• Compensation

• Promotion and Transfer

STAFFING HAS TWO MAIN COMPONENTS:

• Recruitment
- The process of identifying and attracting the people with the necessary qualifications is called recruitment.

- Recruitment by external means may follow if there are no qualified successors.

• Selection
- Selection is the process of choosing the most suitable candidates from those who apply for the job.
- According to Harold Koontz, “Selection is the process of choosing from the candidates, from within the organization or from
outside, the most suitable person for the current position or for the future positions.”

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES AFFECTING PRESENT AND FUTURE NEEDS FOR HUMAN NEEDS

EXTERNAL FORCES- include economic, technological, social, political, and legal factors.

INTERNAL FORCES- The firm’s goals and objectives, technology, the types work that have to be done, salary scales, and the kinds of
people employed by the company are among the internal factors or forces that affect staffing.
RECRUITMENT Lesson 2

-A set of activities designed to attract qualified applicants for job positions vacancies in an organization.
-Recruitment may either be external or internal

External Recruitment
-In external recruitment, outside sources are considered in the process of locating potential individuals who might want
to join the organization and encouraging them to apply for actual or anticipated job vacancies.

Internal Recruitment
-In internal recruitment, filling job vacancies can be done through promotions or transfer of employees who are already
part of the organization. In other words, recruitment is within the organization.

METHODS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RECRUITMENT

Advertisements- Through websites, newspapers, trade journals, radios, televisions, billboards, posters, and e-mails
among others.

Unsolicited applications- received by employers from individuals who may or may not be qualified for the job openings

Internet recruiting- independent job words on the web commonly used by job seekers and recruiters to gather and
disseminate job opening information

Employee referrals- are recommendations from the organizations present employees who usually refer friends and
relatives who they think are qualified for the job.

Executive search firms- also known as “head hunters;” help employers find the right person for a job. such firms seek out
candidates with qualifications that match the requirements of the job openings that their client company hopes to fill.

Educational institutions- good sources of young applicants or new graduates who have formal training but with very
little work experience. for technical and managerial positions, schools may refer some of their alumni who may have the
necessary qualifications needed for the said job position.

Professional associations- may offer placement services to their members who seek employment. Employers may make
use of listings that they publish in their journals regarding members who are available for possible recruitment or hiring.

Labor unions- possible sources of applicants for blue-collars and professional jobs.

Public ang private employment agencies- may also be good sources of applicants for different types of job vacancies for
they usually offer free services while private ones charge fees from both the job applicant and both the employers
soliciting referrals from them.

EXTERNAL RECRUITMENT ADVANTAGES

1. Advertising and recruiting through the internet reach a large number of possible applicants, thus, increasing the
possibility of being able to recruit applicants suited for the job.
2. Applicants who submit applications and resumes through their own initiative are believed to be better potential
employees because they are serious about getting the job.
3. Employee referrals from outside sources are believed to be high quality applicants because employees are generally
hesitant to recommend persons who are not qualified for job openings.
4. Executive search firms usually refer highly qualified applicants from outside sources because they try to check
applicants’ qualifications before recommending them to client firms who pay for their services.

5. Educational institutions know the capabilities and qualifications of their graduates, hence, increasing the chances of
their ability to refer qualified applicants to potential employers.

EXTERNAL RECRUITMENT DISADVANTAGES

1. The cost and time required for internal recruitment method. Advertisement job openings and the orientation and
training of newly hired employees from outside sources, as well as sorting out large volumes of solicited or unsolicited
job applications present challenges in budgeting time and money.
2. The possibility of practicing bias or entertaining self-serving motives in the referral of friends and relatives by current
employees and in the recommendation of private employment agencies of job applicants.

INTERNAL RECRUITMENT ADVANTAGES

1. Less expenses are required for internal recruitment advertising news letters, bulletin boards, and other forms of
internal communication may disseminate information to current employees interested to apply for job openings within
the company.
2. Training and orientation of newly promoted or transferred current employees are less expensive and do not take too
much time since they are already familiar with company policies.
3. The process of recruitment and selection is faster because the candidate for transfer or promotion is already part of
the organization.

INTERNAL RECRUITMENT DISADVANTAGES

1. The number of applicants to choose from is limited.
2. Favoritism may influence a manager to recommend a current employee for promotion to a higher position.

3. It may result in jealousy among other employees who were not considered for position some may also accuse the
management of bias for choosing an employee who is perceived to be less qualified for the job opening

SELECTION
The process of choosing individuals who have the required qualifications to fill present and expected job openings.

THE SELECTION PROCESS TYPICALLY INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING:

1. Establishing the selection criteria- selecting human resources in an organization requires understanding of the
nature and purpose of the job position which has to be filled.
2. Requesting applicants to complete the application form- application forms must be completed because these
provide the needed information about the applicant.
3. Screening by listing applicants who seem to meet the set criteria- this involves the preparation of a shortlist of
applicants who meet the minimum requirements of the job position to be filled.
4. Screening interview to identify more promising applicants- here, a shortlist of applicants is prepared. included in
the list are the applicants who will be asked to undergo formal interview by the supervisor/manager.
5. Interview by the supervisor/manager or panel interviewers- through formal interview of the most promising
applicants is prepared, other characteristics of the applicants may be revealed or observed by the
supervisor/manager or panel interviewers.
6. Verifying information provided by the applicant- to make sure that the applicant has not given false information
about himself or herself, verification is necessary.
7. Requesting the applicant to undergo psychological and physical examination- having a healthy mind and a healthy
body is important for good performance. hence, applicants must be requested to undergo psychological and
physical examination prior to hiring.
8. Informing the applicant that he or she has been chosen for the position applied for- informing the applicant may
be done verbally or in writing by the managers who give the final decision regarding the applicants hiring. final
instructions regarding the company’s rules and regulations for hiring an applicant must be given in this step.

TYPES OF JOB INTERVIEWS

• Structured interview- the interviewer asks the applicant to answer a set of prepared questions—situational, job
knowledge, job simulation, and worker requirement questions
• Unstructured interview- the interviewer has no interview guide and may ask questions freely
• One-on-one interview- one interviewer is assigned to interview the applicant
• Panel interview- several interviewers or a panel interviewer may conduct to the interview of applicants; three to
five interviewers take turns in asking questions.

TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT TESTS

• Intelligence test- designed to measure the applicants mental capability, test his or her cognitive capacity, speed of
thinking and ability to see relationships in problematic situations
• Proficiency and aptitude tests- tests his or her skills and potential for learning other skills
• Personality tests- designed to reveal the applicants personal characteristics and ability to relate with others
• Vocational tests- tests that show the occupation best suited to an applicant.

LIMITATION OF THE SELECTION PROCESS

• In reality, there is no perfect way to select a firm’s human resources. Predicting performance is difficult as there is a
difference between what individuals can do at present and what they will do in the future.
• This is because a persons’ needs and wants changes, and do an organization’s climate and environment.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

• Training- refers to learning given by organizations to its employees that concentrates on short-term job
performance and acquisition or improvement of job-related skills

• Development- refers to learning given by organization to its employees that is geared toward the individual’s a
• cquisition and expansion of his or her skills and preparation for future job appointment and other responsibilities.

CONDUCTING THE TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

• Training needs assessment must be done systematically in order to ASCERTAIN IF there really is a need for training.
• Managers must first try to observe the business condition and the economic, strategic, and technological changes
that are happening In the organization’s environment before proceeding into the analyses of the organization, tasks,
and persons/individuals, as all these are determinants of training types required for the maintenance of the firm’s
stability.

DESIGNING THE TRAINING PROGRAM

• This phases involves stating the instructional objectives that describes that knowledge, skills, and attitudes that have
to be acquired or enhanced to be able to perform well.
• In short, these are performance-centered objectives that must be aligned with the firm’s objectives. Another thing
to be considered is trainee readiness and motivation.

IMPLEMENTING THE TRAINING PROGRAM

• Various types of training program implementation include: on-the-job training, apprenticeship training,
classroom instruction, audio-visual method, simulation method, and e-learning.

EVALUATING THE TRAINING

• The positive effects of the training program may be seen by assessing the participants’ reactions, their acquired
learnings, and their behavior after complementing the said training.
• The effects of training may also be reflected by measuring the return on investment (roi) or through the benefits
reaped by the organization, which were about by their training investment.

EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT
• Developing employees is a part of an organizations career management program and its goal is to match the
individual’s development needs with the needs of the organization.
• The individual employee must know himself or herself well, identify his or her own knowledge, skills, abilities,
values, and interest, so that he or she could also identify the career pathway that he or she would like to take.

COMPENSATION/WAGES AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

• Compensation/wages- all forms of pay given by employers to their employees for the performance of their jobs
• Performance evaluation- a process undertaken by the organization, usually done once a year, designed to
measure employees’ work performance

Types Of Compensation
• Direct compensation- includes workers’ salaries, incentive pays, bonuses, and commissions
• Indirect compensation- includes benefits given by employers other than financial remunerations; for example:
travel, educational and health benefits, and others
• Nonfinancial compensation- includes recognition programs, being assigned to do rewarding jobs, or enjoying
management support, ideal work environment, And convenient work hours

Bases For Compensation

• Employees must be compensated based on the following:
• Piecework basis- when pay is computed according of units produced
• Hourly basis- when pay is computed according to the number of work hours rendered
• Daily basis- when pay is computed according to the number of work days rendered
• Weekly basis- when pay is computed according to the number of work weeks rendered
• Monthly basis- when pay Is computed according to the work months rendered

Connecting compensation to organizational objectives

• Worker compensation/wages had tremendously changed in the 21st century due to increased market competitions
(both local and global), required skills from workers, and changes in technology, among others. Along with these,
organizations’ pay philosophies have also changed.

Compensation: a motivational factor for employees

• Compensation pay represents a reward to an employee receives for good performance that contributes to the
company’s success. In relation to this, the following must be considered:

• Pay equity- related to fairness; to equity theory is a motivation theory focusing on employees’ response to the
pay that they receive and the feeling that they receive less or more than they deserve. Employees generally feel
that their pay must be commensurate to the effort exerted In the performance of their job.

• Expectancy theory- another theory of motivation which predicts that employees are motivated to work well
because of the attractiveness of the rewards or benefits that they may possibly receive from job assignment.

• Compensation rates are influenced by internal and external factors. Among the internal factors are the
organizations compensation policies, the importance of the job, the employees’ qualifications meeting
the job requirements, and the employer’s financial stability.

External Factors
 • Include local and global market conditions, labor supply, area/regional wage rates, cost of living, collective
bargaining agreements, and national and international laws, among others.

PURPOSES OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: ADMINISTRATIVE AND DEVELOPMENTAL

• Improving individual job performance through performances evaluation is just one of the reasons why
employees are subjected to assessment to a continuous basis. There are other purposes behind employee
assessment that are beneficial to the company and the employees:
• Administrative purposes
• Developmental purposes

Administrative Purposes
- these are fulfilled through appraisal/evaluation programs that provide information that may be used as basis for
compensation decisions, promotions, transfers, and terminations.

Developmental purposes
-These are fulfilled through appraisal/evaluation programs that provide information about employees’ performance and
their strengths and weaknesses that may be used as basis for identifying their training and development needs.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL METHODS

• Methods evaluating workers have undergone development in order to adapt new legal employment
requirements and technical changes. Some appraisal methods used today are the following:
• Trait methods
• Graphic rating scales
• Forced-choice method
• Behavioral anchored rating scales (bars)
• Behavior observation scale (bos)

Trait methods
-performance evaluation method designed to find out if the employee possesses important work characteristics such as
conscientiousness, creativity, emotion stability, and others.

Graphic rating scales

-performance appraisal method which each characteristic to be evaluated is represented by a scale on which the
evaluator or rater indicates the degree to which a employee possesses that characteristic.

Forced-choice method
-performance evaluation that requires the rater to choose from two statements purposely designed to distinguish between positive
or negative performance; for example: works seriously—works fast; shows leadership—has initiative.

Behaviorally anchored rating scale (bars)

-a behavioral approach to performance appraisal that include five to ten vertical scales, one for each important strategy
for doing the job and numbered according to its importance.

Behavior observation scale (bos)

-a behavioral approach to performance appraisal to measure the frequency of observed behavior.

WHY SOME PROGRAMS EVALUATION PROGRAMS FAIL

Performance appraisals (such as manager/supervisor appraisal, self-appraisal, subordinate appraisal, customer appraisal, peer
appraisal, team appraisal, or 360- appraisal) may sometimes fail due to various reasons including the following:
• Inadequate orientation of the evaluates regarding the objectives of the program;
• Incomplete cooperation of the evaluates (e.g. proper answering of evaluation questionnaire);
• Bias evaluated by evaluators;
• Inadequate time for answering the evaluation forms;
• Ambiguous language used in the evaluation questionnaire;
• Employee’s job description not properly evaluated by the evaluation questionnaire used;
• Inflated ratings resulting from evaluator’s avoidance of giving low scores;
• evaluator’s appraisal is focused on the personality of the evaluate and his or her performance;
• Unhealthy personality of the evaluator; and
• Evaluator may be influenced by organizational politics.

EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

• Employee relations- the connection created among employees/workers as they do their assigned tasks for the organization
to which they belong.

EFFECTIVE EMPLOYER RELATIONS AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

• Social support is the sum total of perceived assistance or benefits that may result from effective social employee
relationships. The quantity and quality of an employee’s relationship with others determine social support (esteem support,
informational support, or financial support).

Below are some barriers to good employee relations:

• Anti-social personality; refusal to share more about oneself co-employees; being a loner
• Lack of trust in others
• Selfish attitude; too many self-serving motives
• Lack of good self-esteem
• Not a team player
• Being conceited
• Cultural/subcultural differences
• Lack of cooperation
• Communication problems; refusal to listen to what other seek to communicate
• Lack of concern for others’ welfare

Here are some ways to overcome barriers to good employee relations:

• Develop a healthy personality to overcome negative attitude and behavior
• Find time to socialize with co-workers
• Overcome tendencies of being dependent on electronic gadgets
• Develop good communication skills and be open to others’ opinions
• Minimize cultural /subcultural tension.

THREE TYPES OF
 EMPLOYEE MOVEMENTS
• A series of actions initiated by employee groups toward an end or specific goal
• A. financial needs- complaints regarding wages or salaries and benefits given to them by the management are
the usual reasons why employees join labor union
• B. unfair management practices- perceptions of employees regarding unfair or biased managerial action are also
reasons why they join mass movements;
• C. social and leadership concerns- some join unions for the satisfaction of their need for affiliation with a group
and for the prestige associated with coworkers’ recognition of one’s leadership qualities

STEPS IN UNION ORGANIZING (SNELL AND BOHLANDER 2011)

1. Employee/union contract- to explore unionization possibilities employees weigh the advantages and
disadvantages of seeking labor representation while the union officers gather more data about the employees’
complaints, as well as data of the employer’s management, styles, financial stability, policies, etc. these actions
by employees and union officers are necessary to build a case against a employer and a defense for employees
decision to unionize.
2. Initial organizational meeting- this is conducted to attract more supporters and select potential leaders among
employees who can help the union organization.
3. Formation of in-house organizing committee- this starts with identification of employees who are ready to act
as leaders in campaigning for their goals, in trying to get the interest of the other employees to join their
movement, and in convincing employees to sign an authorization card to show their willingness to be
represented by a labor union in collective bargaining with their employee.
4. If a sufficient number of employees support the union movement, the organizer requests for a representation
election or certification election- a representation petition is filled with the nlrc asking for the holding of a
secret ballot election to determine the employees’ desire for unionization .
5. End of union organizing- when the sufficient number of votes is garnered, the nlrc certifies the union as the
legal bargaining representative of the employees.

MOTIVATION LESSON 2

Motivation encourages individuals to work enthusiastically, often performing more work than what is required.

QUESTIONS?
What could managers do to ensure such motivated and enthusiastic performance among their subordinates?
What could be done to inspire employees whose work performance is limited to the minimum need?

ANSWER
Understanding individual human needs, perceptions, thoughts, and beliefs may provide good answers to such questions
that are often asked in different work settings.

MOTIVATION & THEORY

Motivation–refers to psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior.

• Are ways to explain changes in the behavior of individuals.

5 Psychological Processes (Gonzales Rey, 2017)

• sensation, perception, attention, memory and learning.

Theory – a body of fundamental principles verifiable by experiment or observation.

 • Set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION ACCORDING TO KREITNER AND KINICKI (2013)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

-It was published by Abraham Maslow in 1943.
-Refers to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Five Human Needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization.

1.Physiological Needs refer to the human need for food,

water, shelter, and other physical necessities.

2.Safety Needs refer to human need for security and

protection from physical and psychological harm.

3.Social Needs refer to human desire to be loved and to love,

as well as the need for affection and belongingness.

4.Esteem Needs include the human need for self-respect,

self-fulfillment, and becoming the best according to one’s
capability. The need for respect from others and respect for
oneself.

5.Self-actualization Needs are the final needs in Maslow’s hierarchy. These are met when an individual engages in
self-development and personal growth.

RECOGNITION- ESTEEM NEEDS BELONGINGNESS- SOCIAL NEEDS LOVE - SOCIAL NEEDS

SHELTER - BUILDING EMOTIONAL

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS SECURITY – SAFETY NEED

SELF-IMPROVEMENT – SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS

FOODS – PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
 PHYSICAL SECURITY SENSE OF
– SAFETY NEED ACCOMPLISHMENTS
– ESTEEM NEED

THEORIESOF MOTIVATION ACCORDING TO KREITNER AND KINICKI (2013)

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
-Refers to the theory that was proposed by Douglas McGregor.

Theory X is a negative view of workers which assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, and avoid
responsibilities; they need to be closely monitored or controlled for them to work effectively.
Theory Y is a positive view of workers which assumes that employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and
are self-directed.
Managers must be guided by Theory Y, so McGregor proposed that they must give employees a chance to participate in
decision-making, assign them challenging jobs to exercise their responsibility in handling complex situations.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Proposed by Frederick Herzberg.

-This theory is also known as the Motivation- Hygiene Theory which states that intrinsic factors (achievement,
recognition, growth, and responsibility) are associated with job satisfaction.
Extrinsic factors (company policy, salary, security, and supervision) are associated with job dissatisfaction.
Intrinsic factors are the motivators while the extrinsic factors are called hygiene factors.

McClelland’s Three Needs Theory

Proposed by David McClelland and states that individuals have three needs that serve as motivators at work.
The need for achievement (nAch), the need for power (nPow), and the need for affiliation (nAff).

The need for achievement (nAch).

• The aim of this theory is to explain why certain individuals are more motivated to achieve than others.
• It is based on two psychological principles: the motive of an individual to achieve success and the motive of an
individual to avoid failure.
The need for power (nPow).
• The need to control and influence the behavior of others.
• People with a high nPow tend to make more suggestions, try to bring others around to their way of thinking, and
seek positions of leadership.
The need for affiliation (nAff).
• It describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group.
• Example: You might have another team member who never speaks during meetings. They always agree with the
group, work hard to manage conflict when it
occurs, and visibly become uncomfortable when
you talk about doing high-risk, high-reward
projects. This person is likely to have a strong
need for affiliation.

Managers are advised to be observant of these needs

among their subordinates so that they could be given
job assignments that would satisfy their highest needs,
if possible. In doing so, they may be more motivated to
work well.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Developed by Clayton Alderfer in the 1960s.
Existence needs, Relatedness need, and Growth needs.

The needs or desire for physiological and materialistic well-being, to have meaningful relationship with others, and to
grow as a human being are like the needs presented in Maslow’s Theory.

MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Focus on the notion that motivation is a function of employees’ perceptions, thoughts, and beliefs.

 Goal Setting Theory

 Reinforcement Theory
 Job Design Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory

 Goal Setting Theory

a theory stating that specific goals motivate performance and that more difficult goals, when accepted by employees,
result in greater motivation to perform well, as compared to easy goals.

 Reinforcement Theory
a theory which states that behavior is a function of its consequences. Using this theory, managers can motivate
employees’ positive behavior by using positive reinforcement for actions that help the company achieve its goal.

 Job Design Theory

-a theory which states that employees are motivated to work well by combining tasks to form complete jobs.
-Job enlargement – the horizontal expansion of a job by increasing job scope.
-Job enrichment – the increasing of job depth by empowering employees to assume some tasks usually done by their
managers.
-Job characteristics model – where employees are motivated to perform well because the task assigned to them have the
five core job dimensions that serve as motivators.

 Equity Theory
-a theory developed by J. Stacey Adams which states that employees assess job outcomes in relation to what they put
into it and them compare these with their co-workers.
-If the employee perceives that his job is equitable in comparison to those of his coworkers, there is no problem.
However, if the opposite is true, this will become a demotivator to his/her job performance. Managers must see to it
that they exercise fairness or equity in their company.

 Expectancy Theory
-states that an individual tends to act in a certain way, based on the expectation that the act will be followed by an
outcome which may be attractive or unattractive to him or her.
-Managers are advised to understand an employee’s goal so that he/she would be able to link the rewards or outcomes
to be offered with the said goals.
LEADING
 A management function that involves inspiring and influencing people in the organization to achieve a common goal.

MANAGING

 The process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives efficiently and ethically amid
constant change.

PERSONALITY

• Pertains to the unique combination of physical and mental characteristics that affect how individuals react to
situations and interact with others.

• A person is said to possess a healthy personality if he or she fully functions in mind, body, and spirit.

DO YOU AGREE OR NOT?

 Leading individuals in organizations becomes effortless for the manager and leader, especially if he or she has a
healthy and fully functioning personality.

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS

• According to Robbins and Coulter (2009),”research has shown that five basic personality dimensions underlie all
others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality.

THE FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS IN THE BIG FIVE MODEL ARE:

• EXTRAVERSION – the degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.
• AGREEABLENESS – the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
• CONSCIENTIOUSNESS – the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-
oriented.
• EMOTIONAL STABILITY – the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive), or tense,
nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).

• OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE– the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

The Big Five Model provides more than just a personality framework. Research has shown important relationships
between these personality dimensions and job performance.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI) pertains to the ability to manage one’s self and interact with others in a positive way.
4 COMPONENTS OF EI: (Kreitner and Kinicki (2013)
• Self-awareness
 • Self-management
• Social awareness
• Relationship management

Key work attitudes exhibited by groups/teams of workers must be taken into consideration in leading organizations
because of the diversity of their attitudes toward things and events at work.

Managers and leaders must focus their leadership strategies on the following key work attitudes in order to avoid
distraction caused by varied reactions and behaviors.

KEY WORK ATTITUDES

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)

• Refers to employee behavior that exceeds work role requirements and also behaviors that go beyond the call of duty.

Organizational Commitment
• Refers to the extent to which an individual employee identifies with an organization and its goals.
• Leading employees with organizational commitment is a plus factor for managers and leaders.

Job Satisfaction and Productivity

• Refers to employees’ general attitude toward their respective jobs.
• Those with high levels of job satisfaction have a positive attitude toward their respective jobs. On the other hand,
those with low level of job satisfaction have a negative attitude toward their respective jobs.

LEADERSHIP STYLE AND THEORIES

LEADERSHIP – the process of inspiring and influencing a group of people to achieve a common goal.

EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES BY KREITNER AND KINICKI (2013)

1. Trait Theory – a theory based on leader traits or personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from
followers. This theory evolved from the earlier Great ManTheory, which was based on the assumption that
leaders were born with some innate ability to lead.

Trait theorists, however, had a contrasting assumption that leadership traits were not inborn and could be
learned through experience and knowledge gained through studies.

Traits like intelligence, self-confidence, assertiveness, high energy and activity level, task-relevant knowledge,
honesty and integrity, being charismatic, being visionary, and others were proposed as leadership traits by
researchers from the 1940s to the present.

2. Behavioral Theory – a theory that focuses on the behavior, action, conduct, demeanor of a leader instead of
his/her personality traits.

Studies on this theory began during the Second World War or in the early 1940s because of the belief that the
leader’s behavior affects work group effectiveness.

Further studies on this theory emphasized that since behavior is learned, leader behaviors can also be learned.
In short, leaders are made and not born.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Fiedler Model
2. Hersey-Blanchard Model
3. Path-Goal Theory

FIEDLER MODEL
• It is a situational leadership theory proposed by Fred Fiedler, an organizational behavior scholar.
• This theory is based on the assumption that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent or dependent on the extent to
which a leader’s style is fitted to actual situations in the organization’s internal and external environment.
HERSEY-BLANCHARD MODEL
• Proposed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard.
• Focused on subordinates’ readiness or extent to which the said subordinates have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific work assignment.

FOUR STAGES OF SUBORDINATES READINESS

• Where the subordinates are both and unwilling to accomplish the task.
• Where the subordinates are unable but willing to do the task.
• Where the subordinates are able but unwilling to do their assigned task.
• Where the subordinates are both able and willing to do the task.

PATH-GOAL THEORY
• Developed by Robert House which states that the leader’s task is to lead his other followers in achieving their goals
by providing them direction needed in order to ensure compatibility of these said goals with the organization’s goal.

House identified 4 LEADERSHIP Behaviors

1. Directive Leadership
2. Supportive Leadership
3. Participative Leadership
4. Achievement-Oriented Leadership

APPLICATION LETTER

• An application letter is merely another name for a cover letter, the official business letter often included with a job
application and/or resume and sent to a prospective employer.

PARTS OF APPLICATION LETTER

HEADING
• Include your street address, the city, state and ZIP code, and today's date.
INSIDE ADDRESS
• The name of the person to whom you are writing, that person's
professional title, their company name, their work street address, and the
city, state and ZIP code of their work.

SALUTATION
• Although many application letters open with a simple "sir or madam:", the more successful application letters are
addressed personally to the hiring manager

BODY
• The body of a good application letter, usually 3 to 4 paragraphs,
explains why the applicant is a good fit for the job, explains
relevant experience, and shows how that experience would be
useful if selected for the career opportunity.
• Include in the first paragraph: the reason for your letter, the
position you are applying for, where you saw the job posted, a
few core strengths that demonstrate your suitability for the
position.

• Include in the second paragraph: mention your education, a

description of how your past skills will enable you to do the
work of the job you are applying for. Be sure to mention any
skills listed in the advertisement, and reference your attached
resume.
• Include in the third paragraph: the best way to get in touch
with you, your availability, your eagerness at the opportunity
for a job and a thank you for taking the time to read your
letter of
application.

COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE
• Customary expressions used to close a formal letter.
• Respectfully yours,
• Sincerely yours,

SIGNATURE
• The name and signature of the applicant.