The scheme however is extremely simple, and is in fact used in some

transmissions of numbers stations.

Parity Schemes : A parity bit is an error detection mechanism . A parity bit is an

extra bit transmitted with a data item, chose to give the resulting bits even or odd

parity.

Parity refers to the number of bits set to 1 in the data item. There are 2 types of

parity

Even parity - an even number of bits are 1

Even parity - data: 10010001, parity bit 1

Odd parity - an odd number of bits are 1

Odd parity - data: 10010111, parity bit 0

The stream of data is broken up into blocks of bits, and the number of 1 bits is

counted. Then, a "parity bit" is set (or cleared) if the number of one bits is odd (or

even).This scheme is called even parity; odd parity can also be used.

There is a limitation to parity schemes. A parity bit is only guaranteed to detect

an odd number of bit errors (one, three, five, and so on). If an even number of

bits (two, four, six and so on) are flipped, the parity bit appears to be correct,

even though the data is corrupt.

For exapmle

Original data and parity: 10010001+1 (even parity)

Incorrect data: 10110011+1 (even parity!)

Parity usually used to catch one-bit errors

Checksum : A checksum of a message is an arithmetic sum of message code

words of a certain word length, for example byte values, and their carry value.

The sum is negated by means of ones-complement, and stored or transferred as

an extra code word extending the message. On the receiver side, a new checksum

may be calculated, from the extended message. If the new checksum is not 0,
error is detected.Checksum schemes include parity bits, check digits, and

longitudinal redundancy check.

Suppose we have a fairly long message, which can reasonably be divided into

shorter words (a 128 byte message, for instance). We can introduce an

accumulator with the same width as a word (one byte, for instance), and as each

word comes in, add it to the accumulator. When the last word has been added,

the contents of the accumulator are appended to the message (as a 129th byte, in

this case). The added word is called a checksum.

Now, the receiver performs the same operation, and checks the checksum. If the

checksums agree, we assume the message was sent without error.

Finally, if the Hamming distance is four, then we can correct a single-bit

error and detect a double-bit error. This is frequently referred to as a

SECDED (Single Error Correct, Double Error Detect) scheme.

Cyclic Redundancy Checks : For CRC following some of Peterson & Brown's

notation here . . .

k is the length of the message we want to send, i.e., the number of

information bits.

n is the total length of the message we will end up sending the

information bits followed by the check bits. Peterson and Brown call this a

code polynomial.

n-k is the number of check bits. It is also the degree of the generating

polynomial. The basic (mathematical) idea is that we're going to pick the

n-k check digits in such a way that the code polynomial is divisible by the

generating polynomial. Then we send the data, and at the other end we

look to see whether it's still divisible by the generating polynomial; if it's

not then we know we have an error, if it is, we hope there was no error.
The way we calculate a CRC is we establish some predefined n-k+1 bit number P

(called the Polynomial, for reasons relating to the fact that modulo-2 arithmetic is

a special case of polynomial arithmetic). Now we append n-k 0's to our message,

and divide the result by P using modulo-2 arithmetic. The remainder is called the

Frame Check Sequence. Now we ship off the message with the remainder

appended in place of the 0's. The receiver can either recompute the FCS or see if

it gets the same answer, or it can just divide the whole message (including the

FCS) by P and see if it gets a remainder of 0.

As an example, let's set a 5-bit polynomial of 11001, and compute the CRC of a 16

bit message :

---------------------

11001)10011101010101100000

11001

-----

1010101010101100000

11001

-----

110001010101100000

11001

-----

00011010101100000

11001

-----

0011101100000

11001

-----

100100000
11001

-----

10110000

11001

-----

1111000

11001

-----

11100

11001

-----

0101

In division don‘t bother to keep track of the quotient; we don't care about the

quotient. Our only goal here is to get the remainder (0101), which is the FCS.

CRC's can actually be computed in hardware using a shift register and some

number of exclusive-or gates.

Q.6. Describe the MAC Layer Protocols?

Ans.: The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also

known as the Medium Access Control, is a sub-layer of the data link layer

specified in the seven-layer OSI model. The medium access layer was made

necessary by systems that share a common communications medium. Typically

these are local area networks. In LAN nodes uses the same communication

channel for transmission. The MAC sub-layer has two primary responsibilities:

Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and

frame parsing/error detection during and after reception.

Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and

recovery from transmission failure.

ALOHA : ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a

shared communication channel. It was developed in the 1970s at the

University of Hawaii. The original system used terrestrial radio

broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite

communication systems. A shared communication system like ALOHA

54. The HDLC procedure uses a flag synchronous system, these are

a. Bit order of transmission (information frame)

b. Bit order of transmission (supervisor frame)

c. Both a & b

d. None of these

55. FCS (frame check sequence) is a _______ sequence for error control

a. 4bit

b. 16bit

c. 32bit

d. 64bit

56. The disadvantage of SLIP are as follows

a. No error check function is available

b. Protocols other than IP cannot be used

c. No function is available to authenticate link level connections

d. No function is available to detect loops

e. All of these

57. PPP has several advantages over non-standard protocol such as

a. SLIP

b. X.25

c. Both a & b
d. None of these

e.

58. PPP was designed to work with layer 3 network layer protocols including ___________

a. IP

b. IPX

c. Apple talk

d. All of these

59. PPP can connect computers using _________

a. Serial cable, phone line

b. Trunk line, cellular telephone

c. Specialized radio links

d. Fiber optic links

e. All of these

60. Most dial-up access to Internet is accomplished by using _____

a. HDLC

b. PPP

c. IP

d. IPX

61. RAS has an important role in the proliferation of Internet based services in the form of

_________________

a. VoIP

b. Data over IP

c. Both a & b

d. None of these

62. Which is opening new challenges in the development of RAS where VoIP enabled RAS

are the need of time

a. Voice convergence
b. Data convergence

c. Voice and data convergence

d. None of these

63. Remote access is possible through an __________________

a. Internet service provider

b. Dial up connection through desktop

c. Notebook over regular telephone lines

d. Dedicated line

e. All of these

64. A remote access server also known as ____________________

a. Communication

b. Communication server

c. Layer

d. None of these

65. RAS technology can be divided into two segments _________

a. Enterprise

b. Infrastructure