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Write - Ways - (PG - 49 82)

The document discusses the various purposes, types, and formats of written language, emphasizing the importance of teaching students to create and use diverse texts for different purposes. It highlights the need for authentic writing experiences and the consideration of audience when crafting texts. Additionally, it introduces the concept of multigenre products, which combine various text types to represent information cohesively.

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Write - Ways - (PG - 49 82)

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2

TEXTS

PURPOSES, TEXT TYPES AND FORMATS

Language is used for many purposes, and texts result from or are used for each language
purpose.
While this book is about teaching about written text, information about visual and
multimodal texts is interwoven into the content. The interrelatedness and relevance of
different communication modes, the rapid growth of technologies and the multiple
ways in which information can be represented and interpreted have enhanced our
understanding of what it means to be literate in today’s society and thus influenced how
writing is taught and learnt. As teachers, we need to provide authentic experiences that
help students create and use a variety of written, visual and multimodal texts for a range
of purposes. Students need to be taught how to create, critique, locate, comprehend,
respond to and use texts for a range of purposes, in a variety of ways and formats
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

(Zammit & Downes, 2002).

Table 2.1 includes the common purposes of written language used within schools,
some of the processes involved; examples of the text types to meet each purpose and
ways the texts can be presented (formats). When reading this table, keep in mind that
each language purpose could also be used for imaginative (fiction) and informative
(factual) text types while persuasive texts could be based on real or imagined situations.
With the advent of NAPLAN (National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy),
some language purposes are privileged over others and sadly, for some students in some
classrooms, too great an emphasis is placed on students writing a specific text type rather
than on developing motivated, innovative, independent and capable writers who are
able to select text structures and language features to suit their own writing purposes.

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24 PART 1 PREPARATION

TABLE 2.1 LANGUAGE PURPOSES, PROCESSES, TEXT TYPES AND FORMATS

PURPOSE FOR LANGUAGE PROCESSES INVOLVED EXAMPLES OF TEXTS (CAN BE

ORAL, WRITTEN, VISUAL OR
MULTIMODAL)
To describe: identifying, ordering, » Information reports—various types
» classify and describe classifying, listing, describing, » Investigation reports
» compare and contrast defining, generalising » Scientific/technical reports
information
» record feelings and » Personal descriptions
observations » Imaginative descriptions
» Definitions
» Poetry*
To persuade: identifying and stating issue/ » Expositions (arguments)
» put forward a point of view point of view, expanding » Debates/discussions
» present a case ideas, considering » Advertisements and commercials
perspectives, justifying that promote
» promote something
and supporting opinions,
» justify an evaluation or » Social comments and cartoons
analysing and evaluating
response » Reviews
information, determining
importance » Responses

To instruct: determining importance of » Recipes

» command or direct actions so that a particular » Instructions
behaviour goal (product, process) is » Directions
» inform or advise achieved, sequencing actions
» Procedures
or behaviours, considering
» Experiments/design briefs
actions and consequences
» Manuals
» Rules
To explain: identifying and defining » Explanations telling how
» how or why things happen phenomena, sequencing » Explanations telling why
» a process actions or processes, » Explanations describing a process
identifying cause and effect,
» Accounts explaining the reasons
linking time and actions,
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

for an action/outcome
describing and explaining
parts that contribute to the
event/phenomena
To narrate: describing characters, » Narratives (factual and imaginary)
» sequence and describe settings and events, » Stories
events and participants in determining sequence of » Ballads
time and place events (not always linear)
» Epics
» develop characters, and actions, identifying
» Fables
happenings and the complications/situations or
problems that characters » Fairy tales
circumstances of the
encounter, creating an » Information narratives
happenings using
language choices that appropriate resolution » Legends
engage and evoke reader » Myths
response » Narrative poetry
» Song lyrics*

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PURPOSE FOR LANGUAGE PROCESSES INVOLVED EXAMPLES OF TEXTS (CAN BE

ORAL, WRITTEN, VISUAL OR
MULTIMODAL)
To recount: identifying subject/topic » Factual recounts
» tell what happened of retelling, determining » Imaginative recounts
» sequence participants and sequence and importance » Personal recounts
events in time and place of events, describing
» Historical recounts
participants and happenings,
» Literary recounts
elaborating on the who, what,
when, where, why, with whom » Biographical recounts
included in the recount » Autobiographical recounts
» Memoirs
» Reflections
» Anecdotes
» News recounts
To transact: making connections with, and » Surveys
» establish and maintain finding out about, key people, » Questionnaires
relationships places, actions, things or » Invitations
» negotiate events and relationships
» Greetings
between the participants
» inquire and clarify thinking
» maintain relationships
Formats: Texts can be published or presented in a variety of formats (live, paper-based, digital and
multimodal). These can include web pages—intranet and internet, slide shows, essays, emails, faxes,
blogs, text messages, SMSs, brochures, pamphlets, flyers, newsletters, letters, comics, posters,
charts, scripts, plays, interviews, newspapers, cards, magazines, books (picture books, reference
books, novels, graphic novels, ebooks), booklets, messages, notes, stickers, banners, signs, Tweets.

*These can be used for various purposes.

Based on information from Education Department of South Australia, 1979;
Watkins & Knapp, 1994,1998; Knapp & Watkins, 2005;
Walsh, 2011 and Derewianka & Jones, 2012.
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

There are many more purposes for writing than those listed in the table. For example,
teachers can set writing tasks that might require students to analyse, evaluate, compare,
interpret, contrast, discuss, respond to, paraphrase, summarise, define, examine, outline or
justify. Students need to know the meaning of each term and what this means for their
writing.
Because teachers often determine the writing purpose, it is important that students
have regular and extended times for personal writing in which they choose their own
topics, purposes and text types.
Even when the purpose and text type have been selected, the intended audience
needs to be considered because aspects of the text may need to be modified. Table 2.2
demonstrates how a text written to instruct—a recipe—can differ according to the
intended audience.

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TABLE 2.2 POSSIBLE EFFECT OF INTENDED AUDIENCE ON THE WRITER’S CHOICE OF TEXT
STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE FEATURES

PURPOSE: TO INSTRUCT, COMMAND OR DIRECT

TEXT TYPE: RECIPE
Audience Students Experienced chef
Context Preparing a simple dessert Preparing a dessert for a formal
dinner
Possible The text might include: The text might include:
features to » simple language » more complex terms—subject-
assist the reader » one action per each step of the specific vocabulary
process » a combination of actions within each
» a sequence of illustrations to step of the process
demonstrate each of the steps in the » visual text to enhance some of the
process instructions may or may not be
» labelled diagrams of the utensils, included
ingredients and process » an assumption of prior knowledge for
» an explanation of some procedures
subject-specific terms » smaller font
» numbered instructions
» large, clear font

CLASSIFYING TEXTS
Until recently, two main categories were used to classify students’ texts. These were
factual and fiction, with each category comprising various text types.The terms ‘factual’,
‘informative’, ‘information’, ‘non fiction’ and ‘expository’ are widely used to refer to
functional texts that represent factual information, ideas or issues for the purposes of,
for example, describing, recounting, narrating, explaining, instructing, persuading or
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

transacting. They are commonly used to organise, record, communicate or gain factual
information or enhance user knowledge.
The terms ‘imaginative’, ‘creative’ and ‘fiction’ are commonly used for texts that
present information in ways that incorporate products of the imagination, the use of
literary devices or creative licence for the primary purposes of amusing, engaging or
entertaining. They are used to explore and evoke the users’ knowledge and feelings and
to record, impart or gain information, whether it be imaginary or realistic in origin.
The Australian Curriculum: English (ACARA, 2015b), hereon referred to as AC:E,
classifies texts as Informative, Imaginative and Persuasive, with language purposes
embedded in these categories. Texts in the senior secondary school subjects are likely to
be classified as Imaginative, Interpretive, Analytical or Persuasive (ACARA, 2012).
These classifications acknowledge that writers often use their knowledge of text
purposes and structures to create imaginative, informative or persuasive texts that might
reflect the commonly accepted text stages of a specific text type but challenge the text
classifications. Text types and text categories are neither static nor separate.
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CHAPTER 2 TEXTS 27

For example:
» An information report, usually a factual/informative text type used to classify and
describe, can be written about an imaginary thing, event or place.
» A recipe for a witch’s brew (imaginative text) included in a fictional narrative is
the product of imaginary thinking and writing but demonstrates the culturally
accepted way of recording recipes (text structure) for the purpose of instructing.
» An exposition, the purpose of which is to persuade, might well be about an
imaginative issue or action.
» Poetry can be imaginative, informative and/or persuasive and so on.
It is important that we don’t limit students’ development as writers, their engagement
in writing and their writing choices by keeping rigidly to text classifications, text
structures, organisation and language features.

BLENDED OR MULTIGENRE TEXTS

Experienced readers and writers are aware that often a single, cohesive text might
include aspects of several text types depending on the purpose of each section of the text.
For example, a letter ( format) may be written for the purpose of persuading the audience
(e.g. the local council) to take suggested action (mend a pavement). Even though the
purpose is to persuade, the traditional text structure of an exposition isn’t necessarily the
structure required. The writer might start the letter with a recount of what happened
when they were walking, an explanation about how or why the pavement caused the
writer to trip and fall and an argument supporting the view that the council should
regularly check and maintain local pavements. The written text might also include a
visual text in the form of a map showing the location and a photograph of the offending
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

pavement might also be included. This letter is now a multimodal text (visual—still
image and written text) and is also a blended or multigenre text because it comprises blended genre
a blend of genres (aspects of recounts, explanations and arguments to retell, explain and text: A single
cohesive, complete
persuade). In addition to ‘blended genre’, ‘hybrid’ or ‘macro genre texts’ are terms used to
text that comprises
refer to single texts that comprise aspects of more than one genre or text type.
aspects of more
than one genre or
text type.
MULTIGENRE PRODUCTS
Teachers of upper primary or secondary students can set rich and multilayered writing
tasks that provide opportunities for students to explore a topic or issue of their choice, then
present the information in various written text types (genres) that together represent the
overall content, findings, perspectives, ideas, responses and/or reflections on that topic.
The text types within the overall multigenre product can include imaginative, persuasive
and informative texts that address a range of purposes and that work to enhance and
elaborate on the topic.
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28 PART 1 PREPARATION

Romano (2000, 2013), who developed educators’ awareness of the possibilities,

complexities and challenges of multigenre writing, uses the term ‘multigenre papers’
when referring to a collection of different text types (genres) that are linked by a subject,
multigenre topic or theme. I prefer to use the term ‘multigenre products’ because the final product
products: may well be multimodal, not paper-based. Sometimes educators refer to these products
A collection of
as ‘multigenre writing projects’ or ‘multigenre writing’.
stand-alone written
text types that The purpose of multigenre products is to represent content using a variety of text
work together types for specific purposes so that a range of ideas and perspectives on the topic can be
to represent effectively researched, organised and presented within a cohesive collection. Multigenre
information, ideas products facilitate student choice, learning preferences and differentiated teaching and
and perspectives
learning. They enable students to ‘explore a topic in a multitude of ways’ (Romano,
about the same
2000, p. 3) and represent their findings in ways that reflect their text preferences.
subject and that
are linked in a The main feature of multigenre products is how each individual text within the
variety of ways to overall collection is complete, and focuses and elaborates on a specific aspect of the topic
make one cohesive, as well as contributing to the whole product.
comprehensive
Another feature is the inclusion of language devices that unify or tie together the
extended text.
separate text types (genres) within the larger product so that the complete product is
easily understood by readers and that the theme, topic or subject is always clearly
identifiable. Unifying devices could be the use of narrator/narration between each text,
short prose or verse that links one text to the next, a cumulative summary of the main
points, repetition of points or phrases or an introduction to the perspective represented in
each text. The use of unifying devices is limited only by the student’s creativity.
Romano (2000, 2013) provides ideas for the organisation of the finished product, such
as a table of contents page listing the artefacts included in the product; an introduction
that sets the context of the topic and might comprise background information and an
explanation of the text types included; the collection of texts and a reference list that
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

includes resources used when researching the topic.

Multigenre products can be used for:
» exploration of personal topics. For example, a multigenre autobiography might
include an annotated timeline, a free verse poem, a memoir, a newspaper report
and an interview.
» research within specific subjects. For example, in History an investigation into
the defining characteristics of an ancient civilisation might result in a multigenre
product that includes an information report on the specific ancient civilisation,
a personal recount of the everyday life of a citizen, a list poem detailing the key
achievements of the society and perhaps an advertisement for a valued commodity
of the time.
» an across-curriculum/integrated inquiry. For example, the findings of an inquiry
into a big question might include a written discussion, song lyrics, an explanation,
an interview and a diary entry.

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Multigenre products are complex and require the student to think deeply and
diversely, to identify the aspects of the topic to be presented and for which purposes, and
to select and effectively use appropriate text types.

ESSAYS
Often secondary students are required to write an ‘essay’ within a particular subject.
Essays are often used to assess each student’s content knowledge and ability to present
their thoughts, ideas and information in an organised way. But what is an essay?
The Oxford Dictionary (2015) defines ‘essay’ as a short piece of writing on a
particular subject. I am of the opinion that in the school context the term is generic and
that an essay in one subject may well have a different purpose, structure and language
features than an essay in another subject. I also believe that each essay set within the
same subject may well have a different purpose, structure and language features from
the next one. An essay is not a specific text type (genre) that has a socially determined
purpose. Its structure, which usually comprises an introduction, a large middle or body
and a conclusion, is broad enough for writers to use for various purposes. The elements
within this structure vary according to the writing purpose, context, subject or topic.
In Science students may be required to write essays to explain and describe events
and phenomena, recount experiments, present and evaluate data or to present opinions
and claims. In History they may be required to write essays to recount a sequence
of events, present past events as narrative, discuss concepts and ideas or argue a point
of view. English may require them to write essays to respond, compare and contrast,
analyse, discuss, persuade and so on.
Students are frequently required to write an essay that includes more than one
writing purpose (blended genre text). It is interesting to note that within the AC:E, the
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

term ‘essay’ is rarely used, with ‘text’ being common.

Often, as subject teachers, we assume that students know what is required when
we ask them to write an essay. We assume that they know and can effectively use
the structure, language features and conventions of essays within a specific subject. We
assume that the students know the purpose of the written text (essay) even though it
may not be clearly articulated. Imagine how daunting it must be for students who have
to write essays within a range of subjects but have not been taught what constitutes an
effective essay for a specific purpose in each subject. I believe that when teachers set an
essay, they need to explicitly identify its purpose or purposes, as writing purpose and
audience influence the choice of text structure and other text features.
Regardless of the text they wish their students to write, teachers need to articulate
and demonstrate what constitutes an effective text within their subject. As all teachers
are teachers of literacy, each one needs to identify which elements of the set essay may

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be challenging for students and explicitly teach these. Students need to know that all
teachers value and expect effective writing and this means that:
» content, ideas and meaning are clearly expressed for the reader
» language structures and features are used effectively at whole text, paragraph,
clause and sentence level
» the conventions of written language are used correctly
» the presentation is appropriate for the purpose, audience and content.
Teachers need to identify specific literacy teaching focuses within their subject. Some
of these teaching focuses may be:
» The writing process—preparation and planning, drafting, reviewing, editing and
publishing.
» Text structure and organisation—consideration of context, purpose, audience and
content organisation and text structure at whole text, paragraph and sentence level.
» Subject and topic specific vocabulary—high frequency words, theme or topic words,
signal words, technical terms and phrases etc.
» Conventions—punctuation, spelling, grammar, vocabulary.
All teachers (all subject teachers and student support teachers across all levels of the
school) need to develop a shared and clear understanding of the term ‘essay’ and develop
agreed criteria for effective writing. Students can further be supported if all writing
tasks set by teachers clearly state the writing purpose/purposes and the expected text
(essay) structure and when teachers plan to teach any aspects that may be challenging
for students.

MULTIMODAL TEXTS
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Students live in a world in which multiple communication modes (written language,

oral language, visual, audio, gestural, spatial and tactile) are used to share ideas and
information. Most communication involves more than one communication mode. As
discussed in Chapter 1, these are multimodal texts.
The work of Anstey & Bull (2006, 2009), Healy (2008), Walsh (2011) and Cloonan
(2012) contributes to the rapidly growing teacher understanding of the structures, features
and use of multimodal texts and the literacies (multiliteracies) required by students to
effectively use, analyse and create multimodal texts.
Students need to be taught how to create and use a range of multimodal texts. We
need to teach them about the elements/conventions of each communication mode and
how these are used for specific purposes.They need to understand that each text type, the
mode/s in which it is presented and the elements/conventions used are carefully chosen
so that the intended purpose of the text is achieved and the main message is clearly
communicated. For example, in visual texts, the use of colour, space, placement, image

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type, representation, line and so on can affect the salience of the message in the text. In
written text, the choice of language devices, print and writing conventions, and sentence
structures, for example, can privilege, ignore or misrepresent information.
Multimodal texts can be used in many ways in many teaching and learning contexts.
For example:
» Students might use multimodal texts during the writing process. They can use
them for research about a topic. They might plan for writing using oral language
and visual text in the form of concept maps or images. As they draft their texts
they might use visual, written and/or oral text. They might consider which
visual text could be included to make the meaning clear, and how they will
publish their writing. Will it be paper-based, live, digital or multimodal? Their
published/completed writing might incorporate print conventions (font type, colour,
size, format etc.), images (e.g. still, moving, real or animated) and accompanying
oral or audio text (e.g. voice, music, sound effects).
» Students might be required to develop a design for a multimodal text that will
effectively and clearly meet the identified communication purposes. They will think
about the purpose and intended audience. They will identify the content/ meaning
they wish to include and which communication modes they will use. As they
create the text they will draw on their knowledge of the conventions and elements
of the different modes to create a well-structured, organised and engaging
multimodal text.

THINK AND LINK

1 List what you have written within the last week. For each piece of writing, identify
the purpose for which it was written, the situation in which it was written and the
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

intended audience.
2 Categorise your writing into informative, persuasive and imaginary. Identify any
blended genre you may have created.
3 What do your findings tell you about yourself as a writer? What might be the reasons
for this? How might this inform your teaching?

USING TEXTS TO LEARN ABOUT LANGUAGE

AND PROCESSES
All learning contexts require students to create, ‘do something with’ or use texts. While
they are using texts (paper-based, digital and multimodal) in a range of teaching and
learning contexts there are many opportunities for planned and incidental teaching
about contextual understanding, text types, formats, processes and strategies, and
conventions.
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32 PART 1 PREPARATION

The teaching about text types can occur in a range of classroom contexts. For
example:
» In History, during a study of Ancient China, students might read and/or create
print, visual and multimodal texts such as historical recounts, explanations,
annotated timelines, explanations and recounts.
» Within a topic on endangered animals students might read or create paper-based,
digital or multimodal texts that:
– describe endangered animals and their habitats
– explain why some animals are endangered
– put forward a particular point of view about aspects of the topic
– instruct the reader on how to help protect endangered animals and habits.
» Within a stand-alone English unit students might read or create texts directly
related to English as a subject that are not drawn from other subject areas or
across the curriculum. These could be literary texts (narratives, plays and poetry),
responses, critiques and reviews as well as language conventions and so on.
The use of texts arising from content subjects helps to develop an integrated,
holistic approach to language learning. It helps students understand the relationship
between context and text, and the importance of identifying the purpose and audience
before selecting the appropriate text type, as well as developing their understanding of
conventions and literacy practices.
See Chapter 1, pp. 8–12 for further information on the Four Resources Model.

TEXT STRUCTURES: TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURES

Each text type has a specific structure or text stages to meet its purpose. The structure
or stages are organised according to the broad relationships between the pieces of
information included.
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

The term ‘top-level structure’ is used to describe ‘the relationship among the ideas in
a written or spoken text’ (Emmitt et al., 2015, p.147). It refers to the overarching structure
of the text. Some examples of top-level structure are cause/effect, problem/solution,
list/ describe, compare/contrast, sequence and question/answer.
Each top-level structure has common signal words that help the text user to think
about, gain and organise information. Knowledge of top-level structure helps writers
to write cohesive and clear texts, and readers to more easily understand and recall the
meaning in text (Turner, 1992). Students need to be helped to identify and use top-level
structures and common signal words (Harvey, 1998, p. 211) to help them create and
comprehend specific texts.
For example:

QUESTION AND ANSWER

Words and word groups that signal a query or a subject for enquiry and responses to or
results of a query: how, when, what, where, why, who, how many, which, does, do, is, are,
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CHAPTER 2 TEXTS 33

should, could, may, can, wonder, the best estimate, it could be that, one may conclude
that, it is thought that, it might be, the answer, in response to. Examples of graphic
organisers and visual texts that help readers and writers:

FIGURE 2.1 QUESTION WEB

Write a related question here

Write main
question here

Write a related question here

FIGURE 2.2 QUESTION TABLE

Enter questions here. Enter information Write the answer here

Could begin with that will help build after considering the
question starters such the answer to the gathered information
as: who, what, when, question (facts,
where, why, how, do/does, related information)
is/are

Question Information My Answer

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CAUSE/EFFECT
Words and word groups that signal action and consequence relationships between two
or more subjects: since, because, this caused, this led to, on account of, due to, may be due
to, consequently, then, so, therefore, thus, resulted in, caused, effect. Examples of graphic
organisers and visual texts that help readers and writers:

FIGURE 2.3 EFFECTS WHEEL

Possible effect Possible effect

because of the action because of the action
in previous circle in previous circle

Possible effect Possible effect

because of the because of the
action in previous action in previous
circle circle
Possible Possible
effect effect
because of One possible effect because of
the action the action
in previous in previous
circle circle

Action
or
cause

Possible Possible
effect effect
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because of because of
One possible effect
the action the action
in previous in previous
circle circle
Possible effect Possible effect
because of the because of the
action in previous action in previous
circle circle

Possible effect Possible effect

because of the action because of the action
in previous circle in previous circle

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FIGURE 2.4 CAUSE AND EFFECT GRAPHIC ORGANISER

Situation or Action:

Possible effect Possible effect

Another possible Another possible

effect effect

FIGURE 2.5 MULTIPLE ACTIONS AND EFFECTS

Effect

Cause—action/
situation
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Effect

PROBLEM/SOLUTION
Words and word groups that signal a difficulty and ways of overcoming it: the problem
is, the solution could be, one reason for that, a solution, a problem, this led to, one reason
could be, solve, query, question, inquire, answer, therefore. Examples of graphic organisers
and visual texts that help readers and writers: Problem and solution chart (Figure 2.6),
plus some of the cause and effect graphic organisers can also be adapted for use with this
top-level structure or information organisation pattern.

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FIGURE 2.6 PROBLEM AND SOLUTION CHART

Possible consequences The best solution

Possible solutions
(positive or negative)
The problem

COMPARISON/CONTRAST
Words and word groups that signal similar or contrast relationships between two or
more subjects: in like manner, likewise, similarly, similar to, different from, the difference
between, as opposed to, after all, however, and yet, but nevertheless, compared with,
instead, resemble, we noticed some parallels, in contrast, on the other hand, although,
use of comparative and superlative adjectives (e.g. fast, faster, fastest), use of opposites
(e.g. old, young). Examples of graphic organisers and visual texts that help readers
and writers:
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 2.7 VENN DIAGRAM

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FIGURE 2.8 T CHART

Comparing and contrasting _ and _____

Similarities Differences

FIGURE 2.9 LADDER DIAGRAM

Enter names of entities to be compared

Insert name of Insert name of

first entity second entity

Enter Enter
qualities qualities
being being
compared compared
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SEQUENCE
Words and word groups that signal, for example, a chronological sequence of some
information or an ordered grouping of related information: that until, before, after, next,
finally, last, then, first, on (date), at (time), meanwhile, during, concurrently. Examples of
graphic organisers and visual texts that help readers and writers:

FIGURE 2.10 FLOW DIAGRAM

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FIGURE 2.11 CYCLE DIAGRAM

FIGURE 2.12 SIMPLE TIMELINES

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FIGURE 2.13 MULTIPLE INFORMATION TIMELINES

Enter time intervals

along here

Enter something that Enter something that

only occurred during only occurred during
this period this period

LIST/DESCRIPTION
Words and word groups that signal description of features of things (events, places,
living and non-living things), physical features, movements, feelings, sounds, tastes,
characteristics. For example, first, for instance. Examples of graphic organisers and visual
texts that help readers and writers are given below.
While top-level structure is described here as part of a whole text focus, it can
also be used to organise information at paragraph level. In fact, one text may include
paragraphs or sections, each of which may use a different top-level structure depending
on the purpose of that passage.
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 2.14 Y CHART

Enter words
that describe a
characteristic
(e.g. what it
looks like)

Enter words that Enter words that

describe another describe another
characteristic characteristic
(e.g. what it feels (e.g. what it
like) sounds like)

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FIGURE 2.15 CLUSTER DIAGRAM

Enter a category here and Enter a category here and

related description below related description below

Insert subject of
description

Enter a category here and Enter a category here and

related description below related description below

FIGURE 2.16 SPIDER DIAGRAM

Enter descriptive words

or phrases along each
spoke or at the end of
each spoke
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Enter subject of
description here

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Table 2.3 outlines possible whole text level focuses for some text types, as well as
useful graphic organisers for planning and ideas for how visual texts can be included.

TABLE 2.3 EXAMPLE OF WHOLE TEXT LEVEL FOCUSES FOR SOME TEXT TYPES

TEXT AND TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE AND TEXT STAGES OR STRUCTURE—POSSIBLE

PURPOSE FOCUSES
Narrative Top-level structure—sequence
To narrate Orientation, complication or problem, resolution, reorientation
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: flow diagram or any
sequence graphic organiser; cluster diagram or any description graphic
organiser
Example visual texts for published text: illustrations or photographs to elaborate
on, emphasise key parts of, or reflect the written text
Recipe Top-level structure—sequence
To instruct Ingredients, utensils, method
Headings and subheadings
Graphics
Captions
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: flow diagram or any
sequence graphic organiser
Example visual texts for published text: diagrams in sequence to match the steps
in the recipe, labelled pictures of utensils, illustration of finished product
Recount Top-level structure—sequence
To recount Orientation telling who, what, when, why and series of events
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: flow diagram or any
sequence graphic organiser
Example visual texts for published text: photographs or illustrations of key parts
of the recount, timelines to clarify the sequence
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Information report Top-level structure—list and describe

To describe General classification and statement, description
Heading and subheadings
Bibliography
Graphics
Captions
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: Venn diagram or any
comparison/contrast graphic organiser; cluster diagram or any list/description
graphic organiser
Example visual texts for published text: labelled diagrams, photographs, maps,
tables
Explanation Top-level structure—cause and effect
To explain General statement or question about phenomenon or process to be explained,
sequential description of process

(continued)

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TABLE 2.3 EXAMPLE OF WHOLE TEXT LEVEL FOCUSES FOR SOME TEXT TYPES (CONTINUED)

TEXT AND TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE AND TEXT STAGES OR STRUCTURE—POSSIBLE

PURPOSE FOCUSES
Heading and subheadings
Graphics
Captions
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: effects wheel or any cause
and effect graphic organiser; cycle diagram or any sequence graphic organiser
Example visual texts for published text: flow chart, circle diagram, labelled
diagrams—cross sections etc., photographs
Exposition Top-level structure—cause and effect, problem and solution
To persuade Thesis or statement of opinion, series of arguments and supporting reasons
and evidence, summary of argument, call for action or recommendation
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: T chart or any
problem/ solution graphic organiser.
Example visual texts for published text: tables, graphs, photographs, pull out text
boxes
Survey or Top-level structure—question and answer
questionnaire Heading, introduction that identifies the context and purpose, series of
To transact questions or prompts, courtesy and action prompt
Example graphic organisers for planning for writing: question table or any
question/answer graphic organiser
Example visual texts for published text: tables, graphs, captions

PARAGRAPHS
Students need to know that paragraphs are used to group related information and that
they provide a structure for organising content and help the reader to easily identify the
main messages in a text. Paragraphing breaks up text, thus making long texts visually
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

appealing and less daunting to the reader. To indicate where one paragraph ends and
the next begins, writers can:
» leave a one-line gap between paragraphs (block set out)
» indent the first line of each paragraph (indented set out).
Knowledge of top-level structure and signal words helps students identify the
purpose and main ideas in a paragraph. Understanding of the function and structure of
paragraphs helps students during reading and writing.
The purpose and content of each paragraph in most informative texts are generally
easy to identify because each usually begins with a topic sentence that makes clear
what the paragraph will be about. The body of the paragraph includes sentences that
expand on this by adding extra detail, giving examples, defining terms, explaining
things, providing perspectives and so on. The concluding sentence usually summarises
the content, makes links with or reiterates the topic sentence and, if the paragraph is not
the concluding paragraph of text, it can cue the reader into the next part of the text.

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While paragraphs in imaginative narratives/prose are also used to group information

or ideas, sometimes this purpose is less obvious—especially when reading. When writing
narrative texts, it can be challenging for students to work out when and how to begin
a paragraph and what to include. They need to know that paragraphs in fictional
narratives can be organised around, or start with, dialogue or when there is a change of
speaker, people/character, place/setting, time or action.

USING TEXTS TO TEACH GRAMMAR IN CONTEXT

The work of Collerson (1997), Derewianka (1998, 2011), Derewianka & Jones (2012),
Halliday & Matthiessen (2004) and Weaver (1996) provides valuable information about
grammar as it is defined today. Derewianka defines grammar as ‘a way of describing
how language works to make meaning in a particular culture’ (1998, p. 1). It is the
description of the function and form of the elements of the language system and how
these work at whole text, clause, sentence and word level to achieve different purposes.
There is an increasing focus on grammar teaching that engages students in
meaningful interactions with, creation of and discussions about the function of the
grammatical structures and features within the texts. In the past, grammar was taught
within isolated grammar lessons in which the students learnt about grammar through
activities that rarely provided links with authentic written or oral texts, purposes and
contexts for language. Now, in many classrooms, grammar is taught within meaningful
reading, writing, speaking and listening contexts.The teaching and learning experiences
are planned to help students to understand how language works and to use grammatical
structures and features (at whole text, sentence, clause and word level) to create and
comprehend meaning in oral, written and multimodal texts for specific cultural purposes.
The AC:E includes content descriptions for each year level for grammar teaching
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and learning at sentence, clause and word level.While learning requirements are detailed
in the document, teachers need to keep in mind that the best teaching is at the point of
need of each student. Some students’ grammar knowledge and skills will be above, below
or at the level of requirement described in the AC:E. It is important that we consider
the needs of our students, plan for teaching to meet those needs and extend learning
beyond what they already know and can do so that they progress towards, achieve or
work beyond AE:C requirements.
» Below are some ways that the teaching and learning of grammar can be
contextualised within speaking, listening, reading and writing contexts: During
everyday interactions with the students, model good oral language structures and,
when appropriate, provide feedback and support to help students use language
effectively in a variety of contexts. Provide authentic and varied purposes for
students to use oral language.
» During reading, help students to enhance their comprehension and understanding
of the purpose and work of grammatical structures by asking questions or making
comments that focus on meaning and content as well as text structure and
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44 PART 1 PREPARATION

language features. For example: What is the text about? How do you know? What
did the writer do/use to make the message clear? What has the author done/used
to help you know that there will be several points made about this issue? What is
the purpose of this part of the text? What is its work? That is, what is its function?
What do you notice about the way this is set out/structured?
» During writing sessions, use explicit demonstrations to teach students about
how grammatical structures and elements are used in texts for specific purposes.
Demonstrate and discuss the work of grammatical features, the choice of words to
best suit the context—how word choice affects the tone of the text and the aspects to
be considered at whole text, paragraph, sentence, clause, word group and word level.
» Expose students to a range of text types and explicitly teach them while they are
deconstructing, reconstructing and constructing texts. Teaching within shared,
Grammar is best
modelled and guided contexts enables students to learn about grammar while
taught within interacting meaningfully with texts. By focusing on the form and function of
meaningful oral grammatical elements at whole text, clause, sentence, word group and word
language, reading level, students learn how specific grammatical elements work to make texts
and writing contexts. meaningful and cohesive.
Through the study of grammar within the context of texts, students can learn about,
for example:
» how grammatical structures are used to make meaning for a range of purposes
» the types, structure and work of sentences (commands, questions, exclamations and
statements) and how these are used to make meaning
» the structure and work of clauses that are the building blocks of sentences, and from
and around which simple, compound and complex sentences are created
» text organisation (the overall structure of the text)
» text cohesion (the use of words and word groups to connect aspects of the text)
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» how words and word groups are used to enhance nouns and verbs and make
meaning clear
» the language used to talk about language (metalanguage).
Information about the grammatical focuses for each text type is provided in the
relevant chapters in this book.
The following section provides basic information about a few key grammatical
elements and some suggestions for teaching and learning focuses and experiences.
For comprehensive information about the English grammatical system read Derewianka
(2011) and Humphrey, Droga & Feez (2012). For extensive ideas for the teaching of
specific aspects of grammar using texts consult Rossbridge & Rushton (2011) and
Derewianka & Jones (2012).

WAYS OF FOCUSING ON GRAMMAR

The following are ways of focusing on grammar:
» Teach within the context of a meaningful text making sure to emphasise the
purpose, or work, of the particular grammatical aspect within the text.
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CHAPTER 2 TEXTS 45

» Focus on the work of particular grammatical features common to a specific text type.
» Limit the focus. For example, one mini instructional session may focus on how
different parts of a text are connected (pronoun reference and signal words).
Another session might focus on the noun–verb agreement.
» Use an inquiry approach in which you identify and build on the students’ prior
knowledge and help them explore and identify the purpose or work of a particular
grammatical aspect.
» Help them make the links between reading and writing and identify how they can
use specific grammatical aspects to improve their own writing.
» Focus on the construction of well-structured texts and the role of aspects of
grammar to create meaning rather than on just teaching grammar rules.
» Write for and with students and talk about the grammatical decisions that need to
be made while the text is constructed.
» Use writing conferences to monitor and extend each student’s specific grammatical
knowledge. The best teaching occurs at the point of need.
» Provide plenty of speaking and listening activities that help students to create
well-structured, clearly understood oral texts for a range of purposes.
» Make class charts that record students’ developing knowledge
(see Figures 2.17–2.20). Note any misinformation and intervene as appropriate,
in whole class, small group or individual student teaching contexts.

GRAMMAR AT CLAUSE AND SENTENCE LEVEL

Students need knowledge of how language works, is structured and functions at clause
and sentence level if they are to confidently and competently identify sentences and the
intended meaning and create, combine, extend, reduce and rearrange sentences so that
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

their writing is effective in purpose and engaging for the reader.

FIGURE 2.17 WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT RECOUNTS

What we know about recounts:

They tell what happened (Olivia)

)
The ideas are in an order (Harrison

They use past tense (Mei-Larn)

They have words that tell the order

of what happened (Georgia)

The verbs and verb groups are in

past tense (Alexander)
t
The beginning gives information abou
who or what is involved (Ying)

Lots of the verbs end in ‘ed’ (Jack)

r
They have words that tell you the orde
of what happened (Amara)
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46 PART 1 PREPARATION

FIGURE 2.18 WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT VERBS

What we know about verbs:

There are different kinds (Jake)

Some are words for thinking or

feeling (Yanni)

A verb group has more than one

word (Darren)

Some are actions (Kiera)

You have to think about the best verbs

to use (Jack)

Some are helper verbs (Olivia)

They can be in past tense (Mong)

FIGURE 2.19 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES

Adverbs that tell when: Groups of words that tell how:
soon as quickly as possible
Adverbial
tomorrow with a sad face
phrases of
now with happiness
manner
today
Adverbs that tell where:
then
there
yesterday, etc.
inside
Groups of words that tell when: outside
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in the night upstairs, etc.

after school Adverbial Groups of words that tell where:
before breakfast phrases of
in the playground
at nine o’clock time
upstairs in my room
by lunchtime
in the tall gum tree
every Tuesday

Adverbs that tell how:

sadly
happily Adverbial
phrases of
fast
place
quickly
hard, etc.

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FIGURE 2.20 ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES: PART OF NOUN GROUP

We read about Miss Trunchbull and found the words and word groups that provided
information about nouns.

a most formidable female flat-heeled brogues

a famous athlete green stockings

big shoulders
These are noun
thick arms
groups
sinewy wrists head mistress of the school
an obstinate chin brogues with leather straps
small, arrogant eyes

THINK AND LINK

1 Look at the example charts (Figures 2.21–2.24) and identify which aspects may
reflect student misunderstandings, misinformation or opportunities for teacher
intervention for support or extension.
2 Within the expressing and developing ideas sub-strand of the AC:E locate the
sentences and clause level and word level grammar content descriptions. Read
all across every year level (F–10). Share and discuss what you notice, what is
familiar/ unfamiliar to you and what you have questions about.

Sentences are key units of meaning that begin with a capital letter and end with
punctuation according to the function of the sentence. Students need to know the main
purposes for sentences and the sentence types, for example:
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

» To ask or inquire—question or interrogative sentence; ends with a question mark.

» To state or declare—declarative sentence or statement; ends with a full stop.
» To exclaim or emphasise—exclamation or exclamatory sentence; ends with an
exclamation mark.
» To command or instruct—command or imperative sentence; usually ends with a
full stop or might end with an exclamation mark depending on the context.
Sentences comprise one or more clauses that are the building blocks of making
meaning. Some of the key information about clauses is included below.
A clause is built around a verb or verb group—a happening or a state. It is a group
of words that conveys what has happened/is happening/will happen (through the use of
a verb or a verb group that reflects a particular tense) and who or what it is about (the
subject, which will be a noun or noun group). A clause that can ‘stand alone’ and make
sense by itself is an ‘independent clause’ or ‘main clause’. A clause that doesn’t make sense

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by itself and depends on or functions within the structure of another clause or larger
group of words is a ‘subordinate clause’ (ACARA, 2015a).
A simple sentence is an independent clause because it comprises only one happening
(verb or verb group) and a subject comprising a noun or noun group. For example:
Snakes hiss. She yelled. It will explode. The children are running.
A clause can also be built around a verb that refers to a state (usually forms of being
or having). For example:
Elephants are mammals. In this simple sentence (an independent clause), the subject
is ‘elephants’. The verb are conveys the state or being of the elephants and links them to
more information about them. It is a relating verb linking one bit of information with
another.
Elephants have trunks. In this simple sentence (an independent clause), the verb have
conveys the state of possession of the elephants and links them to more information
about them.
Teach students about the forms of the verbs ‘to have’ and ‘to be’ (tense and noun/verb
agreement) and their work as relating verbs (state) and as auxiliary verbs (e.g. have been,
are seeing, were running and so on).

FIGURE 2.21 A SIMPLE SENTENCE: AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE WITH A HAPPENING AND

A SUBJECT

The subject—telling who it is about

The children played .

The happening—telling what happened

Clauses can be extended with words or groups of words that indicate the circumstances
of the happening. These words (adverbs) or groups of words (adverbials) can indicate,
for example:
» The location—where the happening took place. Where?
» The time—when the happening occurred. When?
» The manner—how the happening took place. How?
» The reason—why the happening occurred. Why?
» The other participants—with what or with whom the happening took place. With
what? With whom?
» The duration—how long the happening took place. How long?
» The frequency—how often the happening took place. How often?
» The degree or intensity—how intense the happening was. How great?

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FIGURE 2.22 A SIMPLE SENTENCE: AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE WITH A HAPPENING, A SUBJECT

AND A CIRCUMSTANCE

Who or what it What happened The circumstance

is about The happening of the happening

The subject The children played happily.

Noun group—
comprising an
article (telling Adverb—word
which) and a Verb—an action that indicates
noun verb the manner

FIGURE 2.23 A SIMPLE SENTENCE: AN EXTENDED INDEPENDENT CLAUSE WITH A HAPPENING,

A SUBJECT AND SEVERAL CIRCUMSTANCES

The circumstance—a The circumstance—an The circumstance—a

group of words—an adverb telling how group of words—an
adverbial telling when— adverbial telling where—
a prepositional phrase a prepositional pharse

After school the children played happily in the park with their friends.

The circumstance—a
group of words—an
adverbial telling with
The subject—telling What happened— whom—a prepositional
who—an article and noun verb in past tense phrase
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It is important that students learn how clauses can be combined to create compound
sentences or expanded to create complex sentences.
» A simple sentence comprises one independent clause that makes sense by itself
and each simple sentence (independent clause) can vary in length. The key point
is that it includes only one happening in the form of a verb or verb group. For
example: Students read a variety of texts. Kangaroos are marsupials. They have
pouches. Many years ago, in most classrooms across the country, unfortunate
students learnt grammar from boring text books.
» A compound sentence comprises two or more independent clauses, each of which
makes meaning by itself. It is usually joined by a coordinating conjunction to make
one sentence. For example: A balanced writing program includes a range of purposes
for writing (independent clause) and the teacher provides authentic writing projects

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and audiences (independent clause). Kangaroos are marsupials (independent clause)

but echidnas are monotremes (independent clause).
» A complex sentence comprises at least one clause that makes meaning by itself
(independent or main clause) and at least one clause that does not make meaning
by itself. This clause is referred to as a ‘subordinate or dependent clause’ because it
relies on the main or independent clause to give it meaning and often includes a
subordinating conjunction. For example: A writing program will include a range of
purposes for writing (independent/main clause) that (coordinating conjunction)
will provide authentic writing projects and audiences (subordinate or dependent
clause). Kangaroos are pests (independent/main clause) when (subordinating
conjunction) they eat crops (dependent clause). The teachers, who demonstrate
writing, (subordinate clause/embedded clause/adjectival clause) are helping their
students. (independent/main clause).
Student comprehension of sentences can be assisted by helping them to identify the
work of the sentence, the subject of the sentence (including the words or word groups that
work to describe the noun telling who or what), the happening, which may comprise
one or more words (verb or verb groups), and all the other information that relates to
the verb or verb group (adverb or adverbial).
Clauses and sentences can include groups of words that have specific functions. The
main word groups are noun groups (that describe and add extra information about a
noun), verb groups (that tell what the who or what are doing) and adverbial groups (that
add information about the verb; for example, the time, location, the manner, the reason
Help students
or with whom). Knowledge of purposes, features and uses of word groups helps
enhance their
students to create and comprehend more lexically dense sentences. When writing, they
writing by asking
them to extend,
can draw on this knowledge to add or manipulate groups to extend or rearrange
contract, combine sentences. When reading, they can draw on this knowledge to identify all the information
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

and change related to who or what the sentence is about and what happened and the circumstances,
sentences. for example.

FIGURE 2.24 A SIMPLE SENTENCE FOCUSING ON WORD GROUPS FOR SUBJECT, HAPPENING
AND CIRCUMSTANCES

Subject—group of Circumstance—group Circumstance—group

words telling who of words telling how of words telling with
Noun group Adverbial whom
Adverbial

Some young children were playing very noisily in the local park with their school friends.

Happening—group of Circumstance—group
two words telling of words telling where
what’s happening Adverbial
Verb group Prepositional phrase

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FIGURE 2.25 A SIMPLE SENTENCE FOCUSING ON NOUN GROUPS

Noun group consisting of:

Noun group consisting of: the noun telling what (friends)
the noun telling who (children) a ‘pointing’ word telling which (their)
a ‘pointing’ word telling how many (some) a word telling/describing what the
a word telling/describing what the noun is like (young) noun is like (school)

Some young children were playing very noisily in the local park with their school friends

Noun group consisting of:

the noun telling what (park)
a ‘pointing’ word telling which—definite article (the)
a word telling/describing what the noun is like—an
adjective (local)

GRAMMAR AT WORD LEVEL

Individual words can be classified according to their language function.The classifications
or parts of speech are: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, articles, prepositions, pronouns
and conjunctions.Within these classes there are subclasses that distinguish different types
of the part of speech. The type is determined by the specific function of the word. For
example, nouns are a part of speech but these can be grouped into other subcategories
depending on their specific noun function; for example, common, abstract, proper,
collective, countable and so on. Each individual word can be examined in relation to
its function within the context of a sentence or word group. Students need to know that
generally a word is labelled according to the work it does within a sentence and that a
word can perform different functions and thus be a different part of speech depending on
its function in a sentence. For example, the word ‘water’ can function as a noun—I had
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

a glass of water. It can be a verb—I water the garden. Furthermore, it can function as
an adjective—I filled the water jug and put it on the bench.
It is useful to investigate the ways in which individual words can be rearranged
within the sentence and still maintain the intended meaning. Talk about the location of
adverbs and adjectives in relation to verbs and nouns within sentences.

TEACHING AND LEARNING EXPERIENCES THAT FOCUS ON CLAUSE, SENTENCE

AND WORD LEVEL GRAMMAR
Use models of effective sentences from published texts, students’ work or mentor texts and
use modelled, shared, guided and individual teaching procedures to focus on, demonstrate
and discuss specific grammatical features that the writers used and for which effects and
purposes. For example, focus on:
» sentences—meaning, subject, happenings and circumstances, function/purpose/types
(statements, commands, questions, exclamations), punctuation, structure (simple,
compound and complex), beginnings, word choice etc.

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» clauses—work and type (main and subordinate clauses), subject and happening at
basic level and then elaborated upon by including circumstances, embedded clauses,
combining clauses
» noun groups—the words and word groups before and/or after the noun that add
information about the noun. These words can answer some of the following
questions about the noun: Which? Whose? How many? What like? (answered
with opinion and factual adjectives) What type? (answered with a classification)
How does [noun] compare? (Derewianka, 1988, 2011)
» verb groups—the group of words used to describe the happening
» adverbials—the groups of words that contribute additional information about
the happening. These groups of words might begin with a preposition or include
a modifier
» adjectivals—the group of words that describe a noun and can be adjectival phrases
or adjectival clauses
» parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, articles, conjunctions,
pronouns and their work in sentences.
Some concrete ways you can engage students in these grammatical features are:
» Provide a simple sentence (an independent clause) that includes a one-word subject
and a happening (verb or verb group). Ask the students to take turns to add one
extra piece of information to make the sentence interesting. For example, Dogs
barked. The dogs barked. The two dogs barked. The two fierce dogs barked. The two
fierce dogs barked menacingly. The two fierce dogs barked menacingly at the prowler
who was entering the yard.
» Select an image that includes plenty of aspects to talk and write about. Students
write a sentence about it individually or in small groups. They share these and
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

discuss the characteristics and elements of effective sentences.

» During reading, students’ comprehension of written text can be enhanced by asking
questions at a sentence level such as:
– Who or what is this sentence about? How do you know? Show the word or
group of words that tell who or what the sentence is about. Who or what else is
in the sentence? Focus on the subject of the sentence.
– What happened/will happen/is happening in the sentence? (Frame the
questions to reflect the tense of the sentence.) How do you know? Show the
word or group of words that helped you know this. Who or what did/will do/is
doing [the happening]? (Insert the verb or verb group when asking this question
and frame the question to reflect the tense of the sentence.) Focus on the happening
or happenings in the sentence.
– Which word or group of words tell the circumstances (the when, where,
how, why, with whom etc.) of the happening? When/where/how/why did
it happen/ with whom? (Frame each question to reflect the circumstance or

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circumstances in the sentence. Note that several questions may need to be

framed according to the number of circumstances.) Focus on the circumstances in
the sentence.
– How many happenings are there in this sentence? How do you know? Which
part/s of the sentence makes sense/meaning by itself? (Frame the question
according to the number of independent clauses in the sentence.) Can you
show the group of words that has a happening but doesn’t make sense by itself?
What did the writer use to join these? (Indicate the clauses.) Who or what is
the subject of the sentence? Who or what else is part of the happening? What
is the work of this sentence? How do you know? What did the writer use/do to
make this sentence interesting? Who or what is this sentence about? Show me
the word/group of words that tell who or what it is about. What is happening
in this sentence? Which word or groups of words tell what is happening? Which
word or group of words tell the circumstances (the when, where, how, why,
with whom etc.) of the happening? Which word or group of words provide
information about [a specific noun]? What is the work of this word/group of
words in this sentence? What is the main idea/message? Focus on the purposes,
types and structure of clauses and sentences.
» The students’ quality of writing and understanding of the work of writers can be
enhanced by asking questions and making comments that help them to create
rich, coherent sentences. For example: What will be/is your sentence about? Who
or what is/will be the subject of your sentence? What is/will be the happening?
What will you add/have you added to tell …? (nominate a circumstance). Have
you thought of adding/using/doing/changing …? (insert a specific convention or
feature that will promote student thinking about writing choices). What do you
think you could do to improve this? What can you do to add more information
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

about …? (insert the subject of the sentence or the happening). How can you make
this sentence shorter? How can you combine these sentences? Can you rearrange
this sentence so that it has a different beginning? What can you do to make the
sentence clearer?
» Construct cloze activities in which students are required to suggest/add particular
words for the grammar focus. For example, construct a cloze in which adverbs/
verbs, pronouns, adjectives are deleted. Alternatively the cloze might require them
to add adverbials/prepositional phrases to add further information about the
happening/verb or verb group.
» Examine an extract from a text and discuss how the nouns are referred to within
it (pronouns, synonyms). The students can circle a specific noun and use lines to
connect it and the referring words.
» Play games that involve the students in engaging, interactive purposeful activity
that draws their attention to, teaches, revises or extends their understanding of a
specific aspect of grammar. See Cochrane et al. (2013) and Exley & Kervin (2013)
for examples of grammar games.
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54 PART 1 PREPARATION

THINK AND LINK

1 Think about how you were taught grammar. What did the teacher do and use? What
did you do and use? From what you saw and did, what were the teacher’s purposes
for teaching grammar? Think about the teachers and classes that you have recently
seen in action. How is grammar taught? What do the teachers and students do, use
and say?
2 Select an example text and identify specific grammar teaching focuses at whole text,
paragraph, sentence, clause, word group and word level.

TEACHING ABOUT PUNCTUATION USING TEXTS

punctuation: The The use of correct punctuation is important to ensure that the intended meaning of a
use of standard text is conveyed to the reader; it helps the reader to comprehend text and the writer to
symbols, spaces, impart meaning. Teachers need to help students understand the function of punctuation
capitalisation and
in texts.They need to introduce and teach aspects of punctuation when developmentally
indentation to
help the reader appropriate through helping students to notice a specific aspect of punctuation,
understand understand the work of the aspect of punctuation, search for examples in texts and use
written text. the aspect in their writing. The AC:E provides content descriptions for punctuation for
each year level from Foundation to Year 10.
While published texts will provide examples of sentence punctuation, some texts
provide opportunities for students to develop an understanding of the purpose and use of
specific aspects of punctuation. For example:
» Narratives may well include dialogue and provide opportunities to learn about the
use of speech marks. There will be opportunities to explore the use of punctuation
of exclamations, questions and statements.
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

» Informative texts might provide opportunities to focus the students’ attention on

the set out and punctuation of a bibliography, and the use of inverted commas,
quotation marks and brackets.

WAYS OF FOCUSING ON PUNCTUATION

» Build on the students’ prior knowledge when introducing a new aspect of
punctuation.
» Provide examples of the focus aspect of punctuation and provide students with time
to develop their own generalisations about the use of the punctuation.
» Teach at the point of need during the editing process.
» During reading, demonstrate how the reader’s regard for punctuation assists fluency,
expression and comprehension.
» During writing, demonstrate how punctuation can change the meaning of a
text—how correct punctuation ensures that the writer’s intended meaning is clear.

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» Use texts that have multiple uses of the focus aspect of punctuation. Distribute these
to small groups who read, discuss and come up with reasons the punctuation was
used. Share their findings and negotiate a generalisation.
» Select texts that can provide a stimulus or focus for teaching about punctuation.
For example, the following books by Truss & Timmons provide a humorous way in
to talking about punctuation: Eats, Shoots and Leaves:Why, Commas Really Do Make a
Difference! or The Girl’s Like Spaghetti:Why You Can’t Manage without Apostrophes.

TEACHING FOR CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING

USING TEXTS
The study of imaginative, informative and persuasive texts provides opportunities to teach
students about how writers use language to suit their purposes, to convey a particular
view of the world, to manipulate the reader and to evoke particular responses. It also
provides opportunities to focus on how the subject matter, the situation, the relationship
between the users and the purpose for reading or writing can affect the reading or
writing of text. See pp. 23–6 for further details.

WAYS OF FOCUSING ON CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING

» During reading, draw the students’ attention to the ways people, characters, events
and places are represented and how there might be alternative ways of representing
these. See Chapter 1, pp. 5–8 for further details.
» During writing, demonstrate, for example, how writing choices can affect the mood
or register of the text; how the relationship between the intended audience and the
writer influences the text; and/or how the writer can present a view of the world
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

that may not be accepted by all readers.

» Focus on purpose, audience and context, and what readers and writers bring to or
from reading and writing experiences.

TEACHING TO ENHANCE VOCABULARY AND SPELLING

USING TEXTS
The reading and writing of texts provide opportunities to enhance students’ vocabulary
and awareness of words. Imaginative, informative and persuasive texts can be used to
develop their understanding of how words are used to create mood and description and
to extend their vocabulary (through synonyms, antonyms, structure, modality, content
words etc.).
Reading and writing experiences can also be used to focus students’ attention on
specific spelling knowledge; for example, phonic knowledge—the relationship between

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Effective spelling sounds heard in words and the letter/s used to represent the sounds, morphemic
programs will teach knowledge—the units of meaning within words and how words are constructed, etymological
students how to: knowledge—the origin of words and visual knowledge—the visual appearance of words; for
attempt to spell example, letter patterns and word shapes.
an unknown word,
check and correct WAYS OF FOCUSING ON VOCABULARY AND SPELLING
their spelling and
» Provide experiences that seek and build on the students’ general knowledge and
learn to spell.
vocabulary.
» Make explicit how spellers attempt, check and learn new words.
» Help students to develop and draw upon phonic, morphemic and etymological and
spelling rules knowledge, and their visual memory when attempting to spell, check
and learn words.
» Develop a word study culture within the classroom in which students understand
the meaning of words, analyse patterns within and between words and make
spelling generalisations.
» During reading, teach students how to work out the meaning of unknown words
and discuss synonyms and antonyms. Focus on analysing words—meaning of words
and parts of words, letter patterns and sounds in words, how words are built (base
words, use of affixes, compound words, contractions etc.).
» During writing, encourage students to attempt words that they may not be able
to spell, to use precise words, to use the thesaurus to select synonyms, and to use
subject- or topic-specific vocabulary and technical terms.
» Encourage the students to record their growing vocabulary and/or spelling
knowledge by compiling personal word banks, mini-dictionaries or reflections on
their progress as learners.
» Read texts that provide spelling or vocabulary focuses—for example, How Much
Copyright © 2015. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Can a Bare Bear Bear? and What Are Homonyms and Homophones? by Brian Cleary
provide a humorous way in to teaching about word use and spelling.

TEACHING ABOUT PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

USING TEXTS
Reading and writing provide opportunities for students to learn about and use the
processes and strategies that are required by competent readers and writers. Teachers
need to explicitly teach the processes and strategies related to writing, and help
students independently apply them as they read and write. (For further information see
Chapter 5).

WAYS OF FOCUSING ON PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

» During writing, demonstrate the use of strategies to plan, draft, revise, edit and
publish texts. Make explicit the writing demands of specific text types.
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Write - Ways - (PG - 49 82)

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Write - Ways - (PG - 49 82)

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2

PURPOSES, TEXT TYPES AND FORMATS

(Zammit & Downes, 2002).

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

TABLE 2.1 LANGUAGE PURPOSES, PROCESSES, TEXT TYPES AND FORMATS

PURPOSE FOR LANGUAGE PROCESSES INVOLVED EXAMPLES OF TEXTS (CAN BE

To instruct: determining importance of » Recipes

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

PURPOSE FOR LANGUAGE PROCESSES INVOLVED EXAMPLES OF TEXTS (CAN BE

*These can be used for various purposes.

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

PURPOSE: TO INSTRUCT, COMMAND OR DIRECT

BLENDED OR MULTIGENRE TEXTS

Romano (2000, 2013), who developed educators’ awareness of the possibilities,

includes resources used when researching the topic.

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

term ‘essay’ is rarely used, with ‘text’ being common.

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

Students live in a world in which multiple communication modes (written language,

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

THINK AND LINK

USING TEXTS TO LEARN ABOUT LANGUAGE

TEXT STRUCTURES: TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURES

QUESTION AND ANSWER

FIGURE 2.1 QUESTION WEB

Write a related question here

Write a related question here

Write a related question here

FIGURE 2.2 QUESTION TABLE

Enter questions here. Enter information Write the answer here

Question Information My Answer

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.3 EFFECTS WHEEL

Possible effect Possible effect

Possible effect Possible effect

Possible effect Possible effect

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.4 CAUSE AND EFFECT GRAPHIC ORGANISER

Possible effect Possible effect

Another possible Another possible

FIGURE 2.5 MULTIPLE ACTIONS AND EFFECTS

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.6 PROBLEM AND SOLUTION CHART

Possible consequences The best solution

FIGURE 2.7 VENN DIAGRAM

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.8 T CHART

Comparing and contrasting _____________________ and _________________________

FIGURE 2.9 LADDER DIAGRAM

Enter names of entities to be compared

Insert name of Insert name of

FIGURE 2.10 FLOW DIAGRAM

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.11 CYCLE DIAGRAM

FIGURE 2.12 SIMPLE TIMELINES

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.13 MULTIPLE INFORMATION TIMELINES

Enter time intervals

Enter something that Enter something that

FIGURE 2.14 Y CHART

Enter words that Enter words that

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

FIGURE 2.15 CLUSTER DIAGRAM

Enter a category here and Enter a category here and

Enter a category here and Enter a category here and

FIGURE 2.16 SPIDER DIAGRAM

Enter descriptive words

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

TEXT AND TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE AND TEXT STAGES OR STRUCTURE—POSSIBLE

Information report Top-level structure—list and describe

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

TEXT AND TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE AND TEXT STAGES OR STRUCTURE—POSSIBLE

Wing, J. L. (2015). Write ways. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank')

While paragraphs in imaginative narratives/prose are also used to group information

USING TEXTS TO TEACH GRAMMAR IN CONTEXT

WAYS OF FOCUSING ON GRAMMAR

Comparing and contrasting _ and _____