DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF.
HARPERS)
REVIEW QUESTIONS QUICK GUIDE
QUESTION ANSWER
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Achieved by catalytic actions of ______ of GIT that will Hydrolases
catalyze their hydrolysis
Broken down into monosaccharides Carbohydrates
Broken down into amino acids Proteins
Broken down into fatty acids and 2-monoacyl glycerol fats
LINGUAL DIGESTION (LINGUAL ENZYMES)
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen into maltose Salivary Amylase
Little significance
Inactivated at pH 4.0 and ceases in contact with gastric acid
Secreted by the Ebner’s glands on the dorsum of the tongue Lingual Lipase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of short chain fatty acids, esterified
to sn 3 of the triglycerides
Found in breast milk Short chain FA esterified to sn 3
Absorbs the released of short chain fatty acids Absorbed via the stomach wall into the portal
vein
GASTRIC DIGESTION
True of gastric digestion Known as the gastric juice
pH 1.0
97 to 99% water
HCl Acid
Mucin
Inorganic salts
Pepsin
Renin
lipase
Secreted by the parietal cells with the help of carbonic HCl Acid
anhydrase
Denatures protein
H2 bonds are destroyed thus losing its tertiary structure
Kills microorganisms in the GIT
Mechanism of HCl to make it more accessible to the action of Unfolding of its polypeptides
pepsin
Follows after the ingestion of a meal, resulting in formation of Alkaline Tide/alkaline urine
HCO2 during HCl secretion
Secreted by chief cells as inactive zymogen, pepsinogen
Splits the protective polypeptide
Further activates other pepsinogen molecules (autocatalysis)
Endopeptidase
Catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds involving aromatic
and acidic amino acids
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Causes coagulation of milk, prevents the rapid passage of milk Rennin (chymosin)
from the stomach
Absent in adult’s stomach
Used in making cheese
Changes casein irreversibly to paracasein calcium
Hydrolyzes medium and long chain fatty acids esterified to sn lipase
1 and 3 of triglycerides
Dissolved in fat droplets and are passed on to the duodenum Medium and long chain fatty acids
INTESTINAL DIGESTION
Passed to the duodenum through the pyloric valve Chyme/gastric contents
Neutralizes the acid chyme Pancreatic juice and bile
Inhibits the action of pepsin
(INTESTINAL DIGESTION) BILE
Produced by liver and stored in gallbladder bile
Presence of food in duodenum stimulates gallbladder to
contract and release bile to duodenum
Functions of bile Absorb fats and vitamins
Emulsify fats
Neutralize chyme and prepares food digestion
in small intestine (pH 6.9-7.7)
Vehicle for bile acid and cholesterol excretion
Provide suitable pH for digestive action of the pancreatic Pancreatic Juice
proteolytic enzymes
pH 7.5 to 8.0
Hydrolyzes starch and glycogen Amylase
amylase Glucose
Maltose
Maltotriose
Amylose
Limit dextrin
Three glucose residues linked by alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkages Maltotriose
(INTESTINAL DIGESTION) PANCREATIC JUICE ENZYMES
4 or more glucose residues linked by alpha 1-4-glycosidic Amylose
linkages
Oligosaccharides with alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkages with Limit dextrin
branched alpha 1-6 glycosidic linkages
Secreted as zymogen trypsinogen activated by enterokinase trypsin
secreted by intestinal mucosa and trypsin by autocatalysis
Endopeptidase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds containing basic
amino acids
Secreted as zymogen chymotrypsinogen activated by trypsin Chymotrypsin
Endopeptidase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds containing aromatic
amino acids
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Secreted as zymogen proelastase activated by trypsin elastase
Endopeptidase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds containing glycine,
alanine and serine
Secreted as zymogen procarboxypeptidase A activated by Carboxypeptidase A
trypsin
Exopeptidase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of carboxyterminal peptide bond
containing aromatic and acidic amino acids
Activated by bile salts, phospholipids and colipase Lipase
Hydrolyzes primary ester linkages specifically sn 1 and 3 of
triglycerides
Products of hydrolysis of triglycerides 2 monoacyl glycerol
Fatty acids
Activated by bile salts Cholesterol ester hydrolase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of cholesterol esters into free
cholesterol and fatty acids
Secreted as proenyzme activated by trypsin and calcium Phospholipase A2
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of phospholipids into FA and
lysophospholipid
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of RNA to nucleotides Ribonuclease (Rnase)
Catalyze the hydrolysis of DNA to nucleotides Deoxyribonuclease
INTESTINAL DIGESTION (INTESTINAL JUICE) Succus Entericus
Catalyze the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose to fructose Sucrose
Hydrolysis of maltose to 2 glucose molecules Maltase
Hydrolysis of lactose to glucose to galactose Lactase
Hydrolysis of 1-6 glucosides to glucose isomaltose
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of amino terminal peptide bond of Aminopeptidase
polypeptides to lower peptides and amino acid
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of dipeptides to amino acids dipeptidase
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of nucleotide to nucleoside and Polynucleotidase
phosphate
Catalyzes the hydrolysis of nucleosides to purine or nucleosidase
pyrimidine bases and pentose sugar
CARBOHYDRATES ABSORPTION
Absorbed from the jejunum into the portal circulation in the Carbohydrates
form of hexoses and pentose sugar
Hexoses Glucose
Fructose
Mannose
galactose
Mechanism of Absorption Active transport
Simple diffusion
Observed in glucose and galactose absorption Active Transport
Carrier protein system in intestinal brush border
Specific carrier protein binds both glucose and sodium at
separate sites
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Absorption is against a concentration gradient
Energy requiring provided by ATP hydrolysis
Active transport inhibitors Oaubin
Cardiac glycoside
Phlorizin
Sodium pump inhibitor
Proceed by diffusion with the concentration gradient Simple
observed in fructose absorption
CARBOHYDRATE DISORDERS
Cause lactose intolerance Lactase Deficiency
Lactose is not hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose
Lactose is unabsorbed and holds water resulting in watery
diarrhea
Fermented, results to abdominal cramps and flatulence
Lactic acid is produced causing perianal irritation
TYPE OF LACTASE DEFICIENCY
Rare Inherited lactase deficiency
Develops soon after birth, after initiation of milk feeding
Feeding with lactose-free formula results in the
disappearance of symptoms
Follows celiac disease and gastroenteritis Secondary lactase deficiency
Example: Rota virus diarrhea
Observed among adults represents a gradual decline of Primary lactase deficiency
lactase activity
Sucrose and isomaltase deficiency Sucrose deficiency
Both exits since both are enzyme complex
Symptoms appear in early childhood and same in lactase
deficiency
Congenital condition in which glucose and galactose are Monosaccharide malabsroption
absorbed slowly because of the defect in its carrier
Fructose is unaffected because it is absorbed by simple
diffusion
PROTEIN ABSORPTION
Completely digested and absorbed in the jejunum Protein
Have multiple carriers in the brush borders
Naturally occurring amino acid actively transported across the L-isomer of AA
intestinal mucosa
Involved in the transfer of L-isomer AA Vitamin b6 (Pyridoxal phosphate)
Neutral amino acid carrier Phenylalanine
Specific carrier for imino acid, lipophilic amino acid and Methionine carrier
cationic amino acid
LIPID ABSROPTION
98% are absorbed Lipids
Absorbed and transported in portal circulation as unesterified FA with less than 10-12 carbon chains
(free FA)
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Reesterfied with glycerol to form triglycerides within the Long chain FA
intestinal mucosa
Amphiphatic
Must become micelles to be soluble
In contact with the aqueous environment Hydrophilic polar heads
Sequestered from water, occupies inward Hydrophobic long tail
Triglycerides formed together with phospholipids, cholesterol chylomicrons
and fat soluble vitamins to form
Milky fluid collected by the lymphatic system in the intestine chyle
and emptied to the venous blood via the thoracic duct
SITE OF ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
Absorbed in the jejunum Monosaccharides
Monoacylglycerol
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Cholesterol
Amino acids
Peptides
Vitamins
Electrolytes
Iron
Calcium
water
Absorbed in the ileum Bile acids
Vitamin b12
Electrolyte
water
Constitute the main bulk of the fecal matter Plant cell wall polysaccharide and lignin
BACTERIAL PUTREFACTION AND FERMENTATION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE
Location where most of the ingested food are absorbed Small intestine
Considerable amount of water is absorbed in this segment to Large intestine
make watery contents more solid
Gasses produced from fermentation and putrefaction from CO2
bacteria CH4
H2
H2S
FERMENTATION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE
Amino acids that undergo decarboxylation thru bacterial Ptoamines
action producing toxic amines
Undergo a series of reactions to form indole and skatole tryptophan
which are responsible for odor of feces
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS
Fats must be converted into ___ to be absorbed during Micelles
digestion
Transported through active transport or by carrier-mediated Water soluble vitamins and most mineral salts
diffusion for absorption in the SI
Required in the absorption of vitamin b12 Intrinsic factor
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Its absorption is dependent on vitamin D Calcium
Induced the synthesis of intracellular calcium binding protein Vitamin D
“calbindin”
Recruit calcium transporter to increase absorption
Binds to calcium in intestinal lumen and prevent its Phytic acid (inositol hexaphosphate)
absorption
Dephosphorylate phytase rendering them inactive found in Phytase enzyme
whole wheat bread
Formed from reduced calcium absorption brought about by Insoluble calcium soap
high concentrations of fatty acids
High intake of ____ causes deficiency since it is insoluble. Calcium oxalate
Required in the zinc absorption which is secreted by the Zinc binding ligand
exocrine pancreas
Chelates zinc phytate
Iron absorption is limited. True or false? True
Transported into the mucosal cell by protein linked divalent Inorganic ion
metal ion transporter and bind with ferritin
Iron leaves the mucosal cell via a transport protein _____ Feroportin
Bind with ___ for plasma transport transferrin
Excess accumulated iron is lost when the cells are shed Once transferrin is saturated
Down regulates the expression of Feroportin gene hepcidin
Secreted by liver when iron reserve is adequate
Results of reduced hepcidin synthesis leading to increase Hypoxia
synthesis of Feroportin and excessive iron absorption Anemia
Hemorrhage
Percent of dietary iron absorbed 10%
Percent of iron absorbed from many plant food 1-5%
ENERGY BALANCE: OVER AND UNDERNUTRITION
Food intake in excess Obesity
Food intake less than energy expenditure Emaciation
Marasmus
kwashiorkor
Associated with increased mortality Obesity
Under nutrition
Wight in kilogram over height Body mass index
Commonly used in expressing relative obesity desirable range
between 20 to 25
EXTREME FORMS OF UNDERNUTRITION
Occurs in both children and adults Marasmus
State of extreme emaciation, outcome of prolonged negative
nitrogen balance
Body fat reserved exhausted and muscle wasting
Reduced protein synthesis results to impaired immune
response
Impaired intestinal cell proliferation resulting in reduced
surface area for nutrient absorption
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Amino acids released from muscle wasting Used as metabolic fuel
Used as substrate for gluconeogenesis to
maintain glucose supply to brain and RBC
Affect only children Kwashiorkor
Muscle wasting
Loss of intestinal mucosa
Impaired immune response
Protein deficiency leading to stunting
Deficient in antioxidant nutrients
Defining feature Edema
Associated with decreased concentration of plasma proteins
Enlargement of the liver as a results of Fat accumulation
Nutrients deficient in kwashiorkor Zinc
Copper
Carotene
Vitamin c
Vitamin e
PATIENS WITH ADVANCED CANCER AND AIDS ARE MALNOURISHED
Condition of patients with advanced cancer, AIDS and a Cachexia
number of chronic illnesses who are frequently
undernourished
Looks like marasmus but there is more loss of body protein
than starvation
Cytokines are secreted in response to infection and cancer ATP-dependent ubiquitin proteasome pathway
thus increasing the catabolism of tissue protein by _____
which leads to increased energy expenditure
PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID REQUIREMENT
Determines the state of protein nutrition Dietary intake
Output of nitrogenous compounds
Estimate for protein intake Nitrogen intake
16% of most food protein Nitrogen
Output of nitrogen from the body urea
Difference between intake and output of nitrogenous Nitrogen balance
compounds
Intake of nitrogen equals output and there is no change in Nitrogen balance is in equilibrium
total body content of protein
Excretion of nitrogenous compounds is less than the dietary Positive nitrogen balance
intake and there is net retention of nitrogen in body as
portion
Instances of positive nitrogen balance Growing children
Pregnant woman
Person on convalescence
Net loss of protein nitrogen from the body Negative nitrogen balance
Instances of negative nitrogen balance Trauma
Infection
Starvation
kwashiorkor
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
DIGESTION (BIOCHEMISTRY) 2019 (REF. HARPERS)
Major reaction in major trauma such as burn, broken limb or Increase in net catabolism of tissue protein in
surgery response to cytokines and glucocorticoid
hormones and as a result of excessive
utilization of threonine and cysteine in the
synthesis of acute phase reactants
Gecale, M.D
Brokenshire College – School of Medicine
Batch 2023
