Photosynthesis: Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle
Photosynthesis is the process plants use to make their own food using sunlight. It occurs in two
main stages: the Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle. Both stages happen in the chloroplasts,
a special part of plant cells where photosynthesis takes place.
1. Light Reactions: Capturing Energy from Sunlight
The light reactions happen in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. This stage uses
sunlight to create energy-rich molecules that the plant will need for the next stage. Think of this
as the “charging up” phase.
Steps of the Light Reactions:
Sunlight is absorbed: Special molecules in the chloroplast called chlorophyll absorb
energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll gives plants their green color and is key to capturing
light.
Water is split: The light energy is used to split water molecules (H₂O) into oxygen
(O₂), protons (H⁺), and electrons (e⁻). The oxygen is released into the air as a
byproduct.
Energy carriers are produced: The light energy also helps create two important
molecules:
o ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which stores energy.
o NADPH, which carries high-energy electrons.
So, after the light reactions, the plant has made oxygen (O₂), ATP, and NADPH. The oxygen
leaves the plant, while ATP and NADPH move on to the next stage.
2. The Calvin Cycle: Making Sugar
The Calvin Cycle is where the plant takes the energy from ATP and NADPH and uses it to
make sugar. This happens in the stroma of the chloroplast, which is the fluid-filled space around
the thylakoids.
Unlike the light reactions, the Calvin Cycle doesn’t need light directly, so it can happen during
the day or night, as long as there’s enough ATP and NADPH from the light reactions.
Steps of the Calvin Cycle:
Carbon dioxide is absorbed: The plant takes in carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air.
CO₂ is essential for making sugar.
Carbon fixation: A special enzyme called RuBisCO captures CO₂ and attaches it to a
molecule called RuBP (a 5-carbon compound). This produces an unstable 6-carbon
molecule that quickly breaks down into two 3-carbon molecules called 3-PGA.
Energy is added: ATP and NADPH from the light reactions are used to convert 3-PGA
into a more energy-rich 3-carbon molecule called G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate).
Sugar is made: Some G3P molecules are used to make glucose (a sugar), which the
plant uses for energy or stores as starch.
Cycle continues: The remaining G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP, allowing
the cycle to keep going as long as there is more CO₂, ATP, and NADPH available.
Summary of Photosynthesis
Light Reactions:
o Location: Thylakoid membranes
o Inputs: Light and water (H₂O)
o Outputs: Oxygen (O₂), ATP, and NADPH
o Purpose: Convert sunlight into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).
Calvin Cycle:
o Location: Stroma
o Inputs: CO₂, ATP, and NADPH
o Outputs: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) (sugar)
o Purpose: Use energy to make sugar, which the plant uses for food.
Why It Matters:
Oxygen Production: During the light reactions, oxygen is released, which is important
for all living things to breathe.
Food for the Plant: In the Calvin Cycle, plants make sugar, which provides the energy
they need to grow and reproduce. This sugar can also be stored as starch or used to make
other important substances, like cellulose for building cell walls.
Energy for Life: Photosynthesis is the foundation of the food chain. Plants make their
own food, and animals (including humans) either eat plants or eat other animals that have
eaten plants.
In simple terms, photosynthesis is how plants turn sunlight into food, releasing oxygen as a
bonus!
Types of Photosynthesis in Plants: C3, C4, and CAM
Photosynthesis is how plants make their own food using sunlight, but not all plants do it the
same way. Depending on where they live, plants have evolved different strategies to handle
environmental challenges like heat, drought, and limited CO₂. There are three main types of
photosynthesis: C3, C4, and CAM. Let’s break each one down in simple terms.
1. C3 Photosynthesis: The Most Common Type
C3 photosynthesis is the standard method used by most plants, especially those in mild climates
where water is not a big issue. It’s called “C3” because the first molecule formed during the
Calvin Cycle has three carbon atoms.
How It Works:
Plants take in CO₂ through their leaves and use it in the Calvin Cycle to make sugar.
The enzyme(ферментировать) RuBisCO captures CO₂ and turns it into a 3-carbon
molecule (3-PGA).
This type of photosynthesis is efficient in cooler, wetter climates but can be less effective
when it’s hot and dry. That’s because, in high heat, plants close their stomata (tiny pores
on their leaves) to avoid losing water. When the stomata close, CO₂ can’t enter, and
photosynthesis slows down.
Examples of C3 Plants:
Rice, wheat, soybeans, and most trees.
The majority of plants you see around you use C3 photosynthesis.
2. C4 Photosynthesis: Adaptation to Heat
C4 photosynthesis is an adaptation for plants that live in hot, sunny environments. These plants
have a more efficient way of capturing CO₂, even when their stomata are partly closed to
prevent water loss. It’s called “C4” because the first molecule formed in the process has four
carbon atoms.
How It Works:
Instead of directly using CO₂ in the Calvin Cycle, C4 plants first capture CO₂ in a
special way.
CO₂ is fixed into a 4-carbon molecule (hence “C4”) in mesophyll cells.
This 4-carbon molecule is then shuttled to bundle sheath cells, where CO₂ is released
and used in the Calvin Cycle.
By concentrating CO₂ in bundle sheath cells, C4 plants avoid photorespiration (a
wasteful process that happens when RuBisCO grabs oxygen instead of CO₂).
This method allows C4 plants to photosynthesize efficiently, even in high temperatures and low
CO₂ conditions.
Examples of C4 Plants:
Corn, sugarcane, and sorghum.
Many grasses, especially those in hot climates, use C4 photosynthesis.
3. CAM Photosynthesis: Adaptation to Desert Conditions
CAM photosynthesis is an adaptation for plants living in very dry conditions, like deserts. CAM
stands for Crassulacean Acid Metabolism, named after the family of plants where it was first
discovered. CAM plants open their stomata at night to minimize water loss, which is very
different from C3 and C4 plants.
How It Works:
At night, CAM plants open their stomata and take in CO₂. The CO₂ is stored as an acid
in their cells.
During the day, the stomata stay closed to conserve water, but the stored CO₂ is released
inside the plant and used in the Calvin Cycle to make sugar.
This method allows CAM plants to survive in extremely dry environments by reducing water
loss while still performing photosynthesis.
Examples of CAM Plants:
Cacti, pineapples, and many succulents (like aloe vera).
Most desert plants use CAM photosynthesis.
Summary of C3, C4, and CAM Photosynthesis:
Type C3 C4 CAM
First 3-carbon molecule (3- 4-carbon molecule (stored at
4-carbon molecule
Product PGA) night)
Open at night, closed during the
Stomata Open during the day Partially closed in heat
day
Less efficient in dry More water-efficient in Highly water-efficient in dry
Water Use
conditions hot areas environments
Wheat, rice, soybeans,
Examples Corn, sugarcane, grasses Cacti, pineapples, succulents
most trees
Best for Cooler, wetter climates Hot, sunny climates Extremely dry climates
Conclusion:
C3 plants are the most common and work well in mild environments but struggle in hot,
dry conditions.
C4 plants have evolved to handle hotter climates by using CO₂ more efficiently,
avoiding the wasteful process of photorespiration.
CAM plants survive in extreme dryness by opening their stomata at night, conserving
water during the hot daytime.
Each type of photosynthesis helps plants thrive in their particular environments, whether it's a
cool field, a hot grassland, or a scorching desert.
